Intersect · Ora cle

-- -
-- p ame city
custom er _Id - ----
John New York

S,1rah London
'2
f~"bert Paris
:i

two result sets. The

■ The INTERSECT operator returns the common rows between
be the same in both
column names and data types of the corresponding columns must
SELECT statements.
J SELECT custom er_id, name , city
FROM Custo mers INTERSECT SELECT
customer_id, name, city FROM Orders;

Intersect · My SQ L
custom er _Id name
l city

John
J New York

london
2 '>.trah
1
h', ,t)e'"t ~ ,HIS
-l

n two result sets. The column names and

• The INTER SECT operato r returns the comm on rows betwee
both SELEC T statements.
data types of the corresp onding column s must be the same in
SELEC T custom er_ id, name, city FROM Customers
WHER E (custom er_ id, name, city) IN
(
SELEC T custom er_ id, name, city FROM Orders
):

EXCEPT (or MINUS):

s the rows from the
• Tbe EXCE PT opera tor (or MINU S in some databases) return
first result set that are not present in the secon d result set.
ns must be the
The colum n names and data types of the corre spond ing colum
same in both SELE CT statements.
SELE CT custo mer_id, name, city FROM Customers
EXCE PT
SELE CT custo mcr_ id, name , city FROM Orders;
-

name city
custome r _id
- - - . - -

t' ' r....,' '

..

'·' h.Jf'I ·~ H ~I I "

;;
Introduction to Transaction
lec tio n of ope rat ion s tha t fon n a single logica l unit of work
Transaction is a col g, or
of on e or mo re dat aba se op era tions, such as inserting, updatin
that consists
deleting data.
t and
des ign ed to ens ure tha t the database remains in a consisten
• Transactions are ltiple
te, eve n in the pre sen ce of fai lures or concurrent access by mu
reliable sta
users.
ned to
nsa cti on s are log ica l uni ts of work which must ALL be perfon
• Database tra
maintain dat a integrity.
ACID :
based on the principles known as
Th e con cep t of a transaction is
, and Durability.
Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation

--- - ---
Introduction to Transaction
• Examples
ount to another.
u Mo ney transfer from one acc o = 123 ;
DA TE Ac cou nt SE T bal anc e = balance - I00 WHERE AccN
UP ;
Ac cou nt SE T ba lan ce= bal ance + 100 WHERE AccNo = 124
UPDATE
□ Pu rch ase of an Item stock
ory ma nag em ent , it inv olv es creation of orders , decrease the
In invent
quantity, add ing payment, etc.

ion
B as ic Operations in a Transa. ct
Rea ds, Writes dat a item s .
X into program variable .
Rea d(X ) : Rea ds a data bas e item into the data base item X.
e of pro gra m vari able
: Wr ite( X) : Writes the valu
rt
• Spe cial actions: Com mit , Abo
· I . ·t
0
Com mit : 1og'.ca um . nnanently saved and become part of
• On suc cess ful completionnge of all the iru:~ ction as a pe
all the cha s mad e within the transact ion are
• It ens ures that .
the data base. res.
ble and can survive system failu
• Com mit ted data is made dura
all the instructions . .
0 . r.,ace s problems in complet ing
or Rol lba ck: sac tion whi ch transaction .
Ab ort . f · g tran d all the changes made within the
• Ten nin ano n o an ong oinlso known as roll bac k, un oes
. transaction began.
h d b e to its state before the
• Abo rtin g a tran sact ion, a dur ing the transac tion exe cution.
discards the cha nge s and reve rts t e ata as r. ·1ure s
• It
. d ·
10 s ons e to erro.rs or ,a, h committed to the database.
one re P .
• Abo rt is typ1caUy that no partial or mco ns1s tent c ang es are
• Rollback ens ures
 4:30 ,111 5G 18 ·

Basic Requirements of Transaction

• A transaction must see a consistent database.
■ During transaction execution the database may be temporarily
inconsistent.
■ When the transaction completes successfully (is committed), the
database must be consistent.
■ After a transaction commits, the changes it has made to the database
persist, even if there are system failures.
• Multiple transactions can execute in parallel.

IAcID Properties
■ ACID is an Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
• These properties are crucial for ensuring the reliability and integrity of
transactions in a database system must maintain.

■ Atomicity:
::J Atomicity guarantees that a transaction is treated as a single, indivisible unit

of work.
'.J Either all the operations within a transaction are successfully completed and
committed, or none of them are.
□ If any part of the transaction fails, all the changes made by that transaction
are rolled back, ensuring that the database remains in a consistent state.

ACID Properties
■ Consistency:
□ Consistency ensures that a transaction brings the database from one valid state to
another.
□ The database must satisfy certain integrity constraints before and after the transaction.
□ In other words, a transaction should preserve the overall correctness and validity of
the data.
■ Isolation:
u Isolation ensures that concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other.
□ Each transaction should be executed as if it were the only transaction running on the
system.
□ Isolation prevents issues such as dirty reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads.
u lt provides a level of separation between transactions to maintain data integrity and
prevent data inconsistencies.
 4:30 ,111 5G 18 '

ACID Properties
■ Durability:
:::i Durability guarantees that once a transaction is committed, its changes
are permanent and will survive any subsequent system failures, such as
power outages or crashes.
'.J The committed data is stored in non-volatile storage (usually disk) and
can be recovered even in the event of a system failure.

Example Transaction
■ Transfer Rs.SO from account A to account B. The transaction will look like the
follow;

Atomicity
Read(A)
shouldn't take money from A
A=A-50 without giving it to B
Write(A) Consistency
Read(B) money isn't lost or gained
B = 8+50 Isolati-on
Write(B) other queries shouldn't see A or
B change until completion
Durability
the money does not go back to
A

Transactions in Oracle
• Transactions can consist of one or more SQL commands.
• In Oracle, a transaction starts when you connect to sq/plus, and ends when you type
COMM IT ;
::i If you're accessing the database from 2 different applications, this explains what you've altered in
one application may not show up in the second.

• An implicit COMMIT occurs before and after any Data Definition commands
(CREATE, ALTER etc)

■ You can also use SET AUTOCOMM IT ON (or OFF) to force a commit after each
command.
 Read(A) At om ic ity
A= A- 50 sh ou ldn 't ta ke mo ne y
fro m A
with ou t giv ing it to B
Write(A)
Co ns ist en cy
Read(B)
mo ne y isn 't los t or ga
B = 8+ 50 ined
Is ol at io n
Write(B)
ot he r qu er ies sh ou ldn
't see A or
B change un til co mp let
ion
Du ra bi lit y
th e mo ne y does no t go
ba ck to
A

Transactions in Oracle
• Transactions ca n cons
ist of on e or more SQ L co m m an
ds.
(' ln Or ac le, a transactio
n starts when yo u co nn ec
CO M M IT ; t to sq/plus , an d en ds wh
en yo u ty pe
.J If yo u'r e accessing the da
tabase from 2 different ap
on e applicat ion may no t sho plications, this explains wh
w up in the sec on d. at you' ve altered in
An implicit CO M MIT oc
cu rs before and after any
(C RE AT E, AL TE R etc) Da ta Definition co mm an
ds
• Yo u ca n also us e Sl 'T J\L
1 O( OM M IT O l\ (o r O
command. IT) to force a co mm it af
ter ea ch

IHow transactions are used?

Tr ansa ct io ns ar e us ed fo
r th re e pu rp os es in DB M
..J to de te rm in e
S:
wh en integrity constrai
of tra ns ac tio ns ) nt checks sh ou ld oc cu r (o
nl y at th e en d

:J to co nt ro l concurrent ac
cess. Gi ve s a singl e us er
us er of th e da ta base th e ill us io n of be in g th e
sole

.J to m an ag e recovery fro
m sy ste m cr as he s