I-Th Derivative and Half-Derivative of X
I-Th Derivative and Half-Derivative of X
I-Th Derivative and Half-Derivative of X
Abstract: here is a proof of the value of the i-th derivative of x, as well as that of the half-derivative
of x.
( z ) e t t z 1dt (1.1)
0
Of course (1) 1 . Then,
(n 1) n(n) ; (1.2)
in fact, after an integration by parts:
tz
t 1 t z 1
( z ) e e t dt 0 ( z 1) and by iterating the (n 1) n(n) , we get:
z 0
z 0 z
(n 1) n! . (1.3)
2-GAUSS INTEGRAL
The (1.3) with n=0 yields Γ(1)=0!=1, while with n=1, gives Γ(2)=1!=1.
Moreover, the (1.1) with z=1/2 becomes:
1 1
1
t 2
1
t 2
( ) e t dt e t dt ; now, by saying that t=w2, we have: ( dt/dw=2w)
2 0 0
1
1 2 2
( ) e t dt e w w 1 2 wdw 2 e w dw
t 2
(3.1)
2 0 0 0
1
w2
And according to the (2.2) with α=1, we have: ( ) 2 0 e dw .
2
At last, according to the (1.2): Γ(3/2)=Γ(1/2 + 1)=1/2 Γ(1/2)=(1/2)!=
2
4-HALF-DERIVATIVE OF x
1 1
d2 2x 2
1
x . Proof:
2
dx
d k d2 k dn k k!
x kx k 1 , 2
x k ( k 1) x k 2
, n
x k (k 1)(k n 1) x k n x k n ; now,
dx dx dx (k n)!
according to the Euler Gamma Function, we have:
dn k k! (k 1) k n
n
x xk n x (4.1)
dx (k n)! (k n 1)
1
1 1
(1 1) 1 2 (2) 2 d2
and with k=1 and n=1/2, we have: 1
x x x and according to the (3.2) we get:
1 3
dx 2 (1 1) ( )
2 2
1
1 1
d2 1 2
2 2
1 x x x , so:
2
dx
2
1
2 1
d 2
1 x x2 . (4.2)
2
dx
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
d d d d
Check: as it must be: ( 1 1 )x 1 1 x x 1 , then:
2 2
2 2
dx
dx dx dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
( 1) 1 1 ( ) 1 1
d2 d2 d2 d2 2 d2 22 2 x0 1
2
2 d2 2
2
( 1 1 ) x 1 ( 1 x) 1 ( x ) 1
(x ) x2 2
1 1 (1)
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 ( 1)
2 2
qed.
5- i-th DERIVATIVE OF x
di 1! (2) 1i 1
According to the (4.1) with k=1 and n=i, we have: i
x xk n x x1 i
dx (1 i )! ( 2 i ) (2 i)
1 1 1 1 (1 i ) 1 (1 i )
Now, considering that: ,
(2 i ) [1 (1 i )] (1 i )(1 i ) (1 i ) (1 i ) (1 i ) 2(1 i )
di (1 i ) 1 i
we have: i x x , (5.1)
dx 2(1 i )
but according to the Reflection Formula (see the (6.1)), we get: ( n) (1 n) , from which:
sin n
(i )(1 i ) , (5.2)
sin i i sinh
i!
but as (see the (1.2) and the (7.1)): (i 1) i(i ) i! , from which: (i ) , then the (5.2)
i
becomes:
i!
(i )(1 i ) (1 i ) , from which: (1 i ) , and so the (5.1) becomes:
i i sinh i!sinh
di i!(1 i ) sinh 1i
i
x x (5.3)
dx 2
and as according to the (7.1), i! (0.4980 i 0.1549) (and moreover sinh 11.53 ), then, from the
(5.3):
di 11.53(0.4980 i 0.1549)(1 i ) 1i
i
x x (1.1983 i 0.6297)e(1i ) ln x (1.1983 i 0.6297)eln x e i ln x
dx 2
x(1.1983 i 0.6297)[cos(ln x) i sin(ln x)] x[1.1983 cos(ln x) i1.1983 sin(ln x)
i 0.6297 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)] x{[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)]
i[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]} , that is:
di
x x{[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)] i[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]} (5.4)
dx i
di
or again: x a( x) ib( x) , where:
dx i
a ( x) x[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)]
b( x) x[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]
di i
At last, we evaluate x . From the (4.1) with n=k=i, we have:
dx i
di i i! di i
x xi i i! , or: x i! .
dx i
(i i )! dx i
6-REFLECTION FORMULA
2 2 sin n
Here it is: . (6.1)
(n)(1 n)
sin x
In fact, we know that is zero in , ,2 ,2 ,...., n , n , so:
x
sin x x x x x x2 x2
x
(1 )(1 )(1 )(1 ).......... (1 2 )(1 2 )..... [1 ( ) 2 ] , and so:
x 2 2 4 k 1 k
x x
[1 ( ) 2 ]1 (6.2)
sin x k 1 k
Moreover, we can see a factorial like this:
k! k n (k 1)(k 2)...(k n)
n! lim lim ; in fact, the denominator of the first limit is
k ( n 1)...( n k ) k kn
(n k )!
(n 1)...(n k ) , while from both numerators we can collect: k!(k 1)...(k n) (k n)! ,
n!
(k 1)(k 2)...(k n)
so just n! is left. Furthermore, we see that the second limit is 1: lim 1 , as it
k kn
kn k!k n
gets of the form lim n . Therefore: n! lim . As ( x 1) x! , we have:
k k k (n 1)...(n k )
k!k x
( x 1) x! lim and after dividing both numerator and denominator by k!:
k ( x 1)...( x k )
kx
( x 1) lim . (6.3)
k (1 x )(1 x 2) ...(1 x k )
1 1 1
Now, let’s introduce the constant k 1 ... ln k , and let’s say: lim k ; on the
2 3 k k
x x
x ex e 2 e k
basis of that, the (6.3) becomes: ( x 1) e lim .... . (6.4)
k (1 x ) (1 x 2) (1 x k )
x x
In fact, all the e x , e 2 ,…, e k cancel with terms in e x and the term k x e(ln k ) x still comes from
e x . Moreover, as ( x 1) x( x) , then the (6.4) becomes:
1 (1 x) (1 x 2) (1 x k ) x x
xex lim x x
.... x
xe x
[1 ( )]e k (6.5)
( x ) k e e 2 e k k 1 k
1
Now, as ( y 1) y( y ) , then ( y ) ( y 1) and after replacing y by –x:
y
1
( x) (1 x) and so: (1 x) x( x) . Let’s figure out ( x)(1 x) :
x
x x x x 1 x
( x)(1 x) [ x 1e x (1 ) 1e k ] [ex (1 ) 1e k ] [ A] [ B] [1 ( ) 2 ]1 , (6.6)
k 1 k k 1 k x k 1 k
where A is an inverted (6.5) and B is the (6.4) with x changed into –x. So, (6.6) is:
1 x x
x
( x)(1 x) [1 ( ) 2 ]1 , and for the (6.2) (( [1 ( ) 2 ]1 )) we have:
x k 1 k sin x k 1 k
2 2 sin n
which is the (6.1) indeed.
(n)(1 n)
7- i! i FACTORIAL
Let’s evaluate the modulus of “i factorial”, first. ( i 1 ). About the definition of factorial,
according to the Euler Gamma Function, we have:
i! (i 1) e t t i 11dt e t t i dt e t e i ln t dt e t [cos(ln t ) i sin(ln t )]dt
0 0 0 0
t t
e cos(ln t )dt i e sin(ln t )dt i! (0.4980 i 0.1549) , (7.1)
0 0
so the factorial of i is a complex number a+ib and later we will check the official a and b values,
before reported, through rough approximated methods.
According to the (1.2), we have: (i 1) i(i ) , from which: (i 1) (i ) i! . Moeover, the
2
product of a complex number z with its complex conjugate z* gives the square modulus: zz* z .
As the complex conjugate is obtained through the replacement of i by -i, we also have, according to
the definition of Γ: [( z )]* ( z*) . From the Reflection Formula (6.1), that is:
(1 z )( z ) , we have, with z=1+i:
sin z
[1 (1 i )] (1 i ) (i ) (1 i ) (i*) (1 i ) * (i ) (1 i ) * (i ) i(i )
sin(1 i )
2 2
i (i ) i i! , from which:
2i 2 2
i! i (1 i ) i (1 i )
i i
i! (7.2)
i sin(1 i ) i[e e ] [e e e e ] [e e ] sinh( )
ei e i e z e z
after having used the following equalities: sin , sinh( z ) and
2i 2
ei e i 1 .
3.14
So, according to the (7.2): i!
i! 0.52 . (7.3)
sinh( ) (e e ) (23.1 0.043)
2 2
On a vectorial basis, due to the (7.1), we have: i! e t cos(ln t )dt i e t sin(ln t )dt , so, in order
0 0
to evaluate those two definite integrals, which, as we know, represent the surfaces under the
integrand functions, we get the vectorial expression i! a ib . As those integrals are somewhat
difficult, we will carry out a very rough geometric and numerical evaluation! The former integrand
function, that is e t cos(ln t ) , is shown in Fig. 7.1, while in Fig. 7.2 we roughly evaluate the
surface under it, through triangles.
Fig. 7.1
t
Fig. 7.2
The same goes for the latter integrand function e t sin(ln t ) , shown in Fig. 7.3, while in Fig. 7.4 we
roughly evaluate, as well as before, the surface under it, still through triangles.
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.4
We roughly get: i! (0.475 i 0.145) , with i! 0.50 .
More officially, others calculated a more accurate number, so getting i! (0.4980 i 0.1549) , with
i! 0.52 ; in both cases, the modulus is in agreement with that previously given by the (7.3),
through a different way.
DERIVATA i-ESIMA E SEMIDERIVATA DI x
Leonardo Rubino
Giugno 2023
Abstract: ecco una dimostrazione del valore della derivata i-esima di x, nonché della semiderivata
di x.
( z ) e t t z 1dt (1.1)
0
Naturalmente, (1) 1 . Poi,
(n 1) n(n) ; (1.2)
infatti, dopo una integrazione per parti:
tz
t 1 t z 1
( z ) e e t dt 0 ( z 1) ed iterando la (n 1) n(n) , otteniamo:
z 0
z 0 z
(n 1) n! . (1.3)
2-INTEGRALE DI GAUSS
La (1.3) con n=0 fornisce Γ(1)=0!=1, mentre con n=1, fornisce Γ(2)=1!=1.
Inoltre, la (1.1) con z=1/2 diventa:
1 1
1
t 2
1
t 2
( ) e t dt e t dt ; adesso, ponendo t=w2, si ha: ( dt/dw=2w)
2 0 0
1
1 2 2
( ) e t dt e w w 1 2 wdw 2 e w dw
t 2
(3.1)
2 0 0 0
1 2
Infine, per la (1.2): Γ(3/2)=Γ(1/2 + 1)=1/2 Γ(1/2)=(1/2)!=
2
Per riassumere: Γ(1)=1, Γ(2)=1, (1 2) , Γ(3/2) = . (3.2)
2
4-SEMIDERIVATA DI x
1 1
d2 2x 2
1 x . Dimostrazione:
2
dx
d k d2 k dn k k!
x kx k 1 , 2
x k (k 1) x k 2
, n
x k (k 1)(k n 1) x k n x k n ; ora, per la
dx dx dx (k n)!
Funzione Gamma di Eulero, si ha che:
dn k k! (k 1) k n
n
x xk n x (4.1)
dx (k n)! (k n 1)
1
2 1 1
d (1 1) 1 2 (2) 2
e per k=1 ed n=1/2, si ha: 1
x x x e per le (3.2) si ha:
1 3
dx 2 (1 1) ( )
2 2
1
2 1 1
d 1 2
1
x x2 x 2 , dunque:
2
dx
2
1
2 1
d 2 2
1 x x . (4.2)
2
dx
1 1 1 1
d2 d2 d2 2
d
Controprova: visto che deve essere: ( 1 1 )x 1 1 x x 1 , allora:
2 2
2 2
dx
dx dx dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
2 2 2 2 ( 1) 2 1 1 1( ) 2 1
d d d d d 2 2 d 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 x0 1 2
( 1 1 ) x 1 ( 1 x) 1 ( x ) 1
( x ) x
2 2 2 2 2
2 ( 1 1 1) (1)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
2 2
cvd.
5-DERIVATA i-ESIMA DI x
di 1! (2) 1i 1
Per la (4.1) con k=1 ed n=i, si ha: i
x xk n x x1 i . Ora,
dx (1 i )! ( 2 i ) (2 i)
1 1 1 1 (1 i ) 1 (1 i )
considerando che: , si ha
(2 i ) [1 (1 i )] (1 i )(1 i ) (1 i ) (1 i ) (1 i ) 2(1 i )
di (1 i ) 1 i
che: i
x x , (5.1)
dx 2(1 i )
ma per la Formula di Riflessione (vedere la (6.1)), si ha che: (n) (1 n) , da cui:
sin n
(i )(1 i ) , (5.2)
sin i i sinh
i!
ma visto che (vedi le (1.2) e (7.1)): (i 1) i(i ) i! , da cui: (i ) , allora la (5.2) diviene:
i
i!
(i )(1 i ) (1 i ) , da cui: (1 i ) , e allora la (5.1) diventa:
i i sinh i!sinh
di i!(1 i ) sinh 1i
i
x x (5.3)
dx 2
ed essendo che, per la (7.1), i! (0.4980 i 0.1549) (ed inoltre sinh 11.53 ), allora, per la (5.3):
di 11.53(0.4980 i 0.1549)(1 i ) 1i
i
x x (1.1983 i 0.6297)e(1i ) ln x (1.1983 i 0.6297)eln x e i ln x
dx 2
x(1.1983 i 0.6297)[cos(ln x) i sin(ln x)] x[1.1983 cos(ln x) i1.1983 sin(ln x)
i 0.6297 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)] x{[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)]
i[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]} , ossia:
di
x x{[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)] i[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]} (5.4)
dx i
di
ossia ancora: x a ( x) ib( x) , con:
dx i
a ( x) x[1.1983 cos(ln x) 0.6297 sin(ln x)]
b( x) x[0.6297 cos(ln x) 1.1983 sin(ln x)]
di i
Per ultimo, valutiamo x . Dalla (4.1) con n=k=i, si ha:
dx i
di i i! di i
x xi i i! , ossia: x i! .
dx i
(i i )! dx i
6-FORMULA DI RIFLESSIONE
2 2 sin n
Eccola: . (6.1)
(n)(1 n)
sin x
Infatti, sappiamo che vale zero in , ,2 ,2 ,...., n , n , sicchè:
x
sin x x x x x x2 x2
x
(1 )(1 )(1 )(1 ).......... (1 2 )(1 2 )..... [1 ( ) 2 ] , e dunque:
x 2 2 4 k 1 k
x x
[1 ( ) 2 ]1 (6.2)
sin x k 1 k
Inoltre, un fattoriale possiamo anche vederlo così:
k! k n (k 1)(k 2)...(k n)
n! lim lim ; infatti, il denominatore del primo limite è:
k ( n 1)...( n k ) k kn
(n k )!
(n 1)...(n k ) , mentre da entrambi i numeratori possiamo raccogliere:
n!
k!(k 1)...(k n) (k n)! , così resta solo n! . Poi, vediamo che il secondo limite vale 1:
(k 1)(k 2)...(k n) kn k!k n
lim 1 , poichè si riduce alla forma lim . Perciò: n! lim .
k kn k k n k (n 1)...(n k )
k! k x
Siccome ( x 1) x! , si ha: ( x 1) x! lim e dopo aver diviso sia numeratore
k ( x 1)...( x k )
1 1 1
Ora, introduciamo la costante k 1 ... ln k , e poniamo: lim k ; sulla base di
2 3 k k
x x
x ex e 2 e k
ciò, la (6.3) diventa: ( x 1) e lim .... . (6.4)
k (1 x ) (1 x 2) (1 x k )
x x
Infatti, tutti gli e x , e 2 ,…, e k si elidono con i termini in e x ed il termine k x e(ln k ) x pure
proviene da e x . Inoltre, siccome ( x 1) x( x) , la (6.4) diventa:
1 (1 x) (1 x 2) (1 x k ) x x
xex lim x x
.... x
xe x
[1 ( )]e k (6.5)
( x ) k e e 2
e k k 1 k
1
Ora, poichè ( y 1) y( y ) , segue che ( y ) ( y 1) e dopo aver sostituito y con –x:
y
1
( x) (1 x) e dunque: (1 x) x( x) . Valutiamo ( x)(1 x) :
x
x x x x 1 x
( x)(1 x) [ x 1e x (1 ) 1e k ] [ex (1 ) 1e k ] [ A] [ B] [1 ( ) 2 ]1 , (6.6)
k 1 k k 1 k x k 1 k
dove A è la (6.5) invertita e B è la (6.4) con x scambiato con –x. Perciò, la (6.6) è:
1 x x
x
( x)(1 x) [1 ( ) 2 ]1 , e per la (6.2) (( [1 ( ) 2 ]1 )) abbiamo:
x k 1 k sin x k 1 k
2 2 sin n
che è proprio la (6.1).
(n)(1 n)
7- i! i FATTORIALE
ei e i e z e z
dopo aver ricordato che: sin , sinh( z ) e ei e i 1 .
2i 2
3.14
Dunque, per la (7.2): i! i! 0.52 . (7.3)
sinh( ) (e e )
(23.1 0.043)
2 2
A livello vettoriale, per la (7.1), si ha: i! e t cos(ln t )dt i e t sin(ln t )dt , dunque, valutando
0 0
questi due integrali definiti che, come noto, denotano ognuno l’area sottesa dalla curva integranda,
si ottiene l’espressione vettoriale i! a ib . Essendo questi degli integrali piuttosto complicati,
effettuiamo una valutazione numerica e geometrica molto molto approssimativa! La prima funzione
integranda, ossia e t cos(ln t ) , è rappresentata in Fig. 7.1, mentre in Fig. 7.2 si valuta
grossolanamente l’area da essa sottesa, tramite dei triangoli.
Fig. 7.1
t
Fig. 7.2
Lo stesso facciamo per la seconda funzione integranda e t sin(ln t ) , rappresentata in Fig. 7.3,
mentre in Fig. 7.4 si valuta grossolanamente, come in precedenza, l’area da essa sottesa, sempre
tramite dei triangoli.
Fig. 7.3
t
Fig. 7.4