Philosophical Basis for Competency-Based Education

Author(s): Joe Lars Klingstedt

Source: Educational Technology , November, 1972, Vol. 12, No. 11 (November, 1972), pp.
10-14
Published by: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.

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(providing information and training and certifying the
quality of student performance) typically within the Philosophical Basis for
province of schools. Additionally, they pursue condi-
tions and problems which must be faced if any Competency-Based Education
technology-based evaluation of our school system is to
become a reality. Alschuler and Ivey cover the human
side of CBE, which deals with those issues relating to
ethical, moral, motivational and human relations skills. Joe Lars Klingstedt
Another issue of CBE is how to relate it to other
recognized trends, such as the utilization of open
classrooms. Rice explains how the open classroomCompetency-based
can education (CBE) is founded on
educational
utilize flexible strategies to develop both cognitive and justifications derived from the philosophy
of education
affective goals, specified as competencies, whether such known as Experimentalism. While this is
true, it
goals are set by teachers or learners. Lessinger exploresdoes not mean that one must be an Experi-
the implications of CBE for urban children. Hementalist to utilize ideas derived from the competency-
indicates
based movement.
that the main implication of CBE for urban children is Three major issues related to com-
petency-based
its revision of traditional thinking about aptitude. He education are discussed herein: 1) what it
points out that CBE does not ignore the fact is, 2)that
where it came from, and 3) where it is going.
students differ in their aptitude for learning. Rather, it
presents aptitude as a function of the amount CBE:ofWhat
timeIt Is
and resources needed to attain an operational descrip- Competency-based education is based on the
tion of competence instead of mastery attained specification
in a or definition of what constitutes com-
given program in a given time. An educational petency
systemin a given field. Usually a great deal of research
emphasizing competency would insure that each is considered,
indi- when available, before competency levels
vidual obtained what was necessary to function effec- are identified. The way in which the agreed-upon level
tively in society. This, Lessinger points out, of competency
would be is communicated is through the use of
good news for our urban children. specific, behavioral objectives for which criterion levels
A special concluding annotated bibliography of performance
re- have been established. Once the re-
viewing the research of CBE as it relates to teacher quired behaviors have been specified, they are placed in
education has been compiled by Burdin and Mathieson. a hierarchy leading from simple to complex, and then an
It appropriately summarizes the one area of learning, instructional sequence is planned that will help the
learner achieve the desired behaviors. When the learner
teacher preparation, which to date has received the
greatest attention in attempting to relate specified is ready, a test or check of some sort is administered to
performances to viable learning programs. If CBE is to if the required level of competency has been
determine
achieved.
be extended to other educational areas and levels, the
first need will be for CBE-trained teachers. In CBE, time may vary, but achievement is held
The special issue editors and authors wish to constant, i.e., if the required criterion level of perform-
acknowledge and give recognition to Lawrence Lipsitz, ance is one hundred percent accuracy, the learner does
Editor and Publisher of Educational Technology, for the not "pass" with ninety percent accuracy. The criterion
opportunity to explore and treat CBE as a growinglevel is the same for all groups. This is based on the
conceptual movement within our society. Hopefully, belief that competence should not be measured through
this special issue will raise as many new issues and the use of norm-referenced tests but rather through
problems as it has attempted to explain or solve. □ criterion-referenced approaches. As the nature or com-
plexity of a field changes, the criterion levels have to be
adjusted to meet the new situations. However, once
they are established, they apply to everyone in the same
Forthcoming Special Issues way until they are changed.
In CBE, a major concern is to provide many
In the spring of 1973 Ed Tech is to publish two special sections alternate ways for the learner to accomplish the stated
devoted to tests and measurements in education. objectives. Psychology has yielded information which
indicates that different individuals possess different
One issue will examine Computer Assisted Test Construction, learning
a styles. Since the emphasis in CBE is on
burgeoning area of educational technology which has received achievement of specified objectives and not the ranking
little public notice to date. of learners, an effort is made to increase the probability
of learner success by providing different instructional
The other issue explores domain-referenced testing, criterion-routes from which the learner may select the one most
referenced testing and standardized testing. The special issuecompatible
will with his or her unique learning style. In
selecting a route to follow toward the accomplishment
be of value to all educators- not only to tests and measurements
experts. of an objective, the learner may be able to choose from
a lecture, a list of selected readings, a videotape
presentation, a slide-tape package, a programmed in-
Later in 1973 Ed Tech is to publish a special issue on Reading
struction
Instruction, discussing a number of technological approaches to manual, or numerous other options. Should
the teaching of reading to children and adults. the alternative selected by the learner prove unsuccess-

10 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/November, 1972

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ful, other experiences or options are usually availablelife, including the educational system. Experimentalists
for the purpose of allowing a recycling process. such as George Counts and Harold Rugg proposed that
what was needed was a reconstruction of society along
CBE: Where It Came From cultural lines. They said that there was a white collar
The birth of competency-based education did not top-heaviness in the country and, as a result, the public
come as a surprise- indications of its impending arrival
schools had drifted into the hands of the upper middle
were present for some time. One of the early hints class. This was bad, they said, because traditional
which can be singled out was the development of middle-class values were bad. What they called for was a
programmed instruction, designed to train people bold in a new social experiment. Counts outlined the
step-by-step manner so that they would reach a precon- school's role in the task in his speech "Dare the Schools
ceived end. The labor pains really became acute at the Build a New Social Order?" He felt the answer was
time that performance-based education programs began "yes," and that the necessary financial support should
be provided by the federal government. Dewey's scien-
to spring up across the country in response to the public
cry for accountability. The demand for the specification
tific method was proposed as a tool to be used in solving
of criterion levels of performance on the part of many social problems.
funding agencies provided the final push that resulted in The Experimentalists, among whom John Dewey
the delivery of competency-based education. stands out as the central figure, believed in the pursuit
Ideas do not just materialize "out of the blue." of the good life, which was defined as a democracy of
They have a source- they are rooted in a patternsocial of cooperation. Because man is a social animal, one's
thinking. The thought pattern that gave us CBE economic was and well-being status is always measured in
Experimentalism. There are three fundamental ideas relation to others. The Experimentalists believe that
associated with Experimentalism: 1) the world isevery in man has the right to enough material things, as
constant change, 2) educational practice should well be as non-material entities, to insure his health and
based on evidence provided by psychological data, and happiness.
3) man's psychological and sociological behavior is Relationships between CBE and Experimentalism.
based on an economic and well-being motive.1 What eventually evolved into competency-based educa-
World in change. Experimentalists accept the ideation started out, as has been indicated, under the name
that the world is in constant change. They use Darwin's
of "performance-based" education. These developments
Origin of Species as a source for this position. Darwin
in education were and are based on the Experimental-
said that constant change is present in the environment
ists' emphasis of studying man by scientifically studying
and in order to survive an organism must adapt to the his behavior. Performance-based education programs
environment. Experimentalists look to the theory placedof an emphasis on changing the learner's behavior or
evolution as a source for their thinking related to performance.
the From an emphasis on performances identi-
environment, behavior and learning. fied by "immediate suggestion," the movement became
Educational practice based on psychological data. more focused and attempted to zero in on perform-
Another idea which the Experimentalists accept is ances,
the arrived at through reason, which were designed to
notion that educational practice should be in agreement
guarantee a given competency level. In the Experimen-
with evidence provided by psychological data. The talist tradition, the method used to define competency
Experimental Psychologists came to the front with was thethe same as Dewey's scientific method, e.g., in the
acceptance of Experimentalism. Among others, Pavlov, area of teacher education the "felt difficulty" was that
Hull, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner are names fre- teachers were not being adequately prepared; the
quently mentioned in Experimental Psychology. Taking "immediate suggestion" varied according to the situa-
the theory of evolution as their starting point, they,tion. Following the emotional reaction, reason was
along with other Experimental Psychologists, provided brought to bear and a hypothesis or "contemplative
psychological data which indicated that education istheory"
a was formulated. Following this, procedures
step-by-step process moving from the simple to were theestablished for testing the hypothesis; and, finally,
complex. They said that to study man meant to study constant reexamination of the program was built in.
his behavior, and that man's behavior was a productExperimentalists
of would support this approach because
conditioning. Therefore, behavior modification throughof their faith in the scientific method and its role in
the use of operant conditioning became an accepted research. The faith in research exhibited by people
tool of educational psychologists. The stimulus- within the CBE movement indicates their confidence in
response-reward idea of operant conditioning is based the compatibility of psychological data and educational
on the assumption that everything is learned and practice (a fundamental idea of Experimentalism).
nothing is innate. Another Experimentalist justification for the CBE
Economic and well-being motive. The Experimen- approach is related to the economic and well-being
talists believe that man is a sociological as well as a
motive. When competence levels are spelled out in terms
biological animal, and as such is controlled, to someof criterion levels of performance, individuals pursuing
extent, by economic and well-being motives. These the objectives know what the tasks are and they feel a
motives are the force behind one's sociological and sense of real accomplishment upon reaching the points
psychological behavior. This economic and well-being at which they attain an endorsement of their ability to
motive concept became an especially strong force perform in a competent manner.
following the Depression of the thirties. With the The use of behavioral objectives within the CBE
Depression came a great threat to the American way of programs relates to the Experimentalists' belief that

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/November, 1 972 11

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learning is defined as a change in behavior. Because the other experiences.
Experimentalists believe that everything that is gained is The use of technology in CBE is based on the
learned, it is logical to specify which behaviors you wish Experimentalist notion that man is a tool user: tech-
to promote or change: CBE does exactly this. One of nology is fundamental to teaching. Experimentalists
John Dewey's major points was that it is important to would say, "Don't just learn from texts and teachers,
have a clearly defined purpose. He believed that learn from experiences." In addition, they would say
purposes lead the way in the educational process. that experiences should cause the learner to interact
When one looks at CBE 's hierarchies of behaviors, with what is learned. Learning alternatives in CBE are
the relationship to the Experimentalist belief that designed to do just this.
learning is a step-by-step process moving from simple to
complex becomes obvious. Competency-based educa- CBE: Where It Is Going
tion, and its approach to learning, like programmed At. the beginning of this article it was pointed out
instruction, is justified, partially, on this basis. that while CBE is derived from educational justifications
The planning of the instructional sequence in CBE found in Experimentalism, it is not necessary for one to
also reflects an Experimentalist View. Efforts are made be an Experimentalist to utilize certain aspects of CBE.
to modify the behavior of the learner by providing John Dewey said that "... any theory and set of
learning experiences which are carefully selected and practices is dogmatic which is not based upon critical
connected in a sequential fashion so as to guide the examination of its own underlying principles."2 Fur-
learner through each step in the proper order. As thermore, anyone who is "looking ahead to a new
responses are rewarded, the learner is conditioned to movement in education . . . should think in terms of
respond in a given manner. Education itself rather than in terms of some 'ism'
In CBE, pretests are usually administered to the about education, even such an 'ism' as 'progressivism' "
learner to determine the existence of the desired [Experimentalism].3 In light of this statement, made by
behavior or to measure "readiness." Readiness,the as man
used considered by many to be the "father of
in this connotation, is related to psychological, socio-
Experimentalism," it would seem permissible and logical
logical and biological factors, and it is a direct to assume
out- that CBE can, and should, be viewed and
growth of the thinking of Experimentalists utilized
such as in different ways by educators adhering to
Robert Havighurst. The readiness concept is also thought
present patterns other than Experimentalism. While it is
in the idea that learners may take posttests whenever true that the major support for CBE will probably
they want to. As opposed to the "teachable moment," continue to come, for some time, from the Experimen-
this might be called the "testable moment." talist camp, it is equally true that as the concept is
One of John Dewey's major goals for education explored and examined by growing numbers of people
was to promote growth. In CBE this idea is apparent who will inbe affected by it, changes in emphasis and
the lack of emphasis on grades. The Experimentalists, direction, as well as justifications, will no doubt surface.
especially Counts and Rugg, would like this lack Forof example, there is a feeling on the part of some
emphasis on grades, because grades and the competition that the Experimentalists' focus on behavior modifica-
for them represent "bad" middle-class values. Instead tion is too of narrow and as a consequence they are missing
an emphasis on ranking and grading, in CBE achieve- a major value of CBE- its ability to emphasize the
ment is held constant and competency level perform- fundamental ideas of a given field. Those holding this
ance is emphasized. Although achievement is belief
heldmight fall into a thought pattern identified by
constant, the time taken to reach the criterion level Strain
may as Process Structure philosophy. To illustrate
vary. Tests are not administered to all learners how at certain
a aspects of CBE might be justified and
specific time for the purpose of ranking and utilized grading from a point of view other than Experimental-
them: they are administered when the learner ism, a brief explanation of Process Structure philosophy
is ready,
for the purpose of determining one's competence. is given The below, followed by some comments relative to
criterion level does not vary; it is the same for everyone.how the Process Structuralists might use CBE. The
fundamental ideas associated with Process Structure
While criterion levels are absolute, they are not
always a priori. They are generally based on experience, philosophy are: 1) process and 2) structure.4
and their absoluteness is always related to a specific Process. Whereas Experimentalism is tied to the
time and situation. Experimentalists recognize theory that the of evolution, Process Structuralism is more
world is changing constantly, and they say the schools
closely associated with the new physics (Quantum
should be the ally of change. In CBE, criterion Mechanics)
levels and the theory of relativity. The concept of
change as the situation demands. As research evidence process is is logically derived from Quantum Mechanics,
gathered, new hypotheses are formulated and tested which andemphasizes the idea that the world is made up of
constantly reexamined. energy- reality is energy. One of the main thinkers in
In CBE, the idea of providing alternative learning Process Structuralism, Alfred North Whitehead, held
routes for the student to follow in attempting to that empty space does not exist and that matter is not
accomplish the stated objectives is related to psychologi- static, i.e., everything is energy. Together, these two
cal data which indicate that different people have points indicate that existence itself is a process.
different learning styles. The Experimentalists say, "Do The idea of process is also related to Einstein's
not get in a rut: develop new alternatives." Com- theory of relativity. The theory of relativity holds that
petency-based education does this through the use of the dimensions of size, time, space and motion are all
resource centers, technological aids and a variety ofrelative.

1 2 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/November, 1 972

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 Structure. With all of the new ideas and data ion for measuring effective teaching is some type of
available, a problem of organization arose which pupilledlearning.
to However, learning is a very complex
the need for, and emphasis upon, structure. We process,
humanin which many variables interact, and in the
beings demand a structure, a theory by which absence
we can of sufficient data indicating relationships be-
live. The idea of man's living by theories is antween
aspectteacher
of behaviors and pupil learning, judgments
the fundamental idea of structure, which in turnconcerning
relates teacher competencies are often made on a
to cognitive psychology. Jerome Bruner, cognitive priori grounds.
psychologist, said that teaching the fundamental struc-The Process Structuralists would say that the
ture of a subject is justified on the basis that: 1 ) for
"answer" it which the Experimentalists are searching is
makes a subject more comprehensible, 2) it promotes
not to be found. The world is changing and so are the
memory, for unless detail is placed in a structured
answers. Furthermore, the answer to teaching com-
pattern it is soon forgotten, 3) it fosters "transfer of
petency varies with and is related to the individual
training," and 4) it narrows the gap between "ad-
teacher as well as the situation in which he or she is to
vanced" and "elementary" knowledge.5 function. Teachers in training do not need a set of pat
Competency-based education from a Process Struc-They do need a repertoire of behaviors, but not
answers.
turalist's point of view. As it is defined and utilized by a common set for everyone. In addition,
necessarily
the Experimentalists, CBE would have only possessing limited any set of behaviors does not mean the
appeal for the Process Structuralists. However, with teachers will automatically be competent.
prospective
certain modifications and redefinitions the idea might
Teaching competency is a function of style which is
be very attractive to them. Since the positionentirely taken unique with each individual.
herein is that CBE's focus is expanding to includeEffectance ideas motivation, not drive reduction, is a
from a variety of camps, in addition to Experimental- more reasonable approach to behaviors emphasized and
ism, the following is presented as an illustration of how
equated with teaching competency. Within this frame of
another group, the Process Structuralists, might reference,
look at the Process Structuralists would say that
CBE. teaching intern teachers a variety of skills is good,
The concept of competence is one which would providing they are viewed by the learners as valuable in
appeal to the Process Structuralists; however, they providing opportunities to interact in many different
would look at competence differently than do the ways with learners in such a way that the teachers and
Experimentalists. Cognitive psychology, not experi-learners gain a feeling of efficacy. The way in which
mental psychology, provides the answer to motivation these competencies are identified for teacher education
and competence according to the Process Structuralists. is in terms of the structure of teaching where effective
Instead of ideas of motivation related to Darwin and the interaction with the environment, not behavior modi-
primary needs approach, the Process Structuralists fication, is the goal. Because a person's environment
would say that effective interaction with the environ- includes himself and his perceptions, as well as other
ment, as perceived by the individual, is the key to people and objects, there can be no one formula for
motivation. This effective interaction is related to the effective interaction. Just as one can learn the behaviors
concept of competence.6 This competence or effectance associated with good golfing and still not be able to put
motivation is related to manipulating the environment- them together into an effective (winning) style, so too
unbalance, not balance, is the key. White says that we can teachers develop skills and not become effective in
should not identify either pleasure or reinforcement terms of a teaching style.
with drive reduction, nor should we think of motivation The Process Structuralists would say that CBE is a
as something that requires a source of energy external totheory worthy of inspection, but it cannot prescribe an
the nervous system. He says that this makes the way absolute answer. We can only get at partial truth and
clear for considering in their own right those aspects only
of relative to a particular situation and point in time.
animal and human behavior in which stimulation and We always face uncertainty, but we struggle against it.
contact with the environment are sought and welcomed: Whitehead said, "Never swallow anything whole. We live
raised tension and mild excitement are cherished for perforce by half-truths and get along fairly well as long
their own sake. He states that effectance motivation
as we do not mistake them for whole-truths."8 Hence,
should be the key to education. It must be conceived to Structuralists would not go for a uniform set
the Process
of "competencies"
involve satisfaction, a feeling of power in transaction in for all teachers, as is proposed by
which behavior has an exploratory character and manypro-
Experimentalists.
duces changes in the stimulus field. Possessing this As has been indicated, the Process Structuralists
character, the behavior leads the organism to findwouldout
be in favor of CBE to the extent that it reveals
how the environment can be changed and whatthe conse-
basic structure of the subject being taught. Strain
quences will result from these changes.7 says that "Structure involves the construction of cate-
For example, the student preparing for thegories
teach-from the world of events . . . Man requires a
ing profession ņeeds a variety of opportunities to of theoretical structure in order to make use of
system
the stimuli he receives from the environment . . . Theo-
interact in a variety of ways with learners. Beyond
ries of this type are merely cognitive structures, not
manual skills, many would say that the Experimentalists
actual systems of nature. Thus they cannot exist
are on the Wrong track in assuming that competencies
indefinitely. New theories must replace old ones not
can be identified in terms of specific behaviors. Consider
because the old theories are proved wrong, but because
teaching and the competencies associated with effective
teaching. Few would argue that the appropriate they no longer explain adequately a growing body of
criter-

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/November, 1 972 13

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data."9 In talking about structure, Bruner says that "to Notes
learn structure, in short, is to learn how things are
related."10 Bruner believes that transfer is facilitated 1. John Paul Strain. Modern Philosophies of Education. New
through the teaching and learning of structure rather York: Random House, 1971, pp. 65-68. The explanation of
than the mastery of facts.1 1 The implication of this for Experimentalism presented herein is derived from this
teacher education would seem to be to emphasize the source as well as personal conversations and learning
interactions with the author (John Paul Strain).
development of an effective style through an under- 2. John Dewey. Experience and Education. New York: The
standing and application of the fundamental ideas of Macmillan Company, 1938, p. 22.
teaching according to each individual's unique abilities. 3. ibid., p. 6.
Don't attempt to provide answers to all of the questions4. Strain, op. cit., pp. 174-178. The explanation of Process
before they are asked; rather, emphasize strategies, Structure philosophy presented herein is derived from this
skills and techniques which the teacher can put source as well as personal conversations and learning
together into his or her own unique style. The strategies, interactions with the author (John Paul Strain).
skills and techniques are not the end: competence or 5. Jerome Bruner. The Process of Education. New York:
Random House, 1960, pp. 23-26.
effective interaction with the environment is the goal,
6. Robert White. Motivation Reconsidered- The Concept of
and each person may pursue a different path toward Competence. Psychological Review, 16 (1959), 267-333.
satisfaction of this objective. The set, fixed, unflexible 7. Ibid.
road may be easier and it may promote a certain feeling 8. Lucien Price. Dialogues of Alfred North Whitehead. New
of security, but learners will eventually find it non- York: New American Library of World Literature, 1964, p.
stimulating. Whitehead said that "... the broad prim- 243.
rose path leads to a nasty place. This evil path is 9. Strain, op. cit., pp. 175-176.
represented by a book or a set of lectures which will 10. Bruner, op. cit., p. 7.
11. ibid.
practically enable the student to learn by heart all the
12. Alfred North Whitehead. The Aims of Education. New
questions likely to be asked at the next external
examination."1 2 York: The Free Press, 1929, pp. 4-5.
1 3. ibid., p. 36.
The Process Structuralists would agree that the
14. ibid., p. 14.
teacher should have clearly defined objectives (a critical
element in CBE). Whitehead said, "A certain ruthless
definiteness is essential in education. I am sure that one
secret of a successful teacher is that he has formulated

tanto cukla
quite clearly in his mind what the pupil has got to know
in precise fashion. He will then cease from half-hearted
attempts to worry his pupils with memorizing a lot of
irrelevant stuff of inferior importance."1 3 True as this
may be, it should be emphasized that the Process
Structuralists would not like a uniform set of specific,
behavioral objectives to be used by everyone. This is
supported by Whitehead when he states that "no
absolutely rigid curriculum, not modified by its [the
school's] own staff, should be permissible. Exactly the
same principles apply, with the proper modifications, to
universities and to technical colleges."14

Conclusion
In view of the evidence available, it should be
obvious that CBE is a trend that is definitely catching
on in educational circles. Laymen as well as teachers are
"tuning in" to this kind of thinking. Several states are
changing teacher certification requirements in the direc-
tion of clearly specified competencies which must be
mastered before the certificate will be issued. As has
been pointed out, although CBE has its roots in
Experimentalism, educators embracing other positions
can, and perhaps should, exert an influence on CBE's
ultimate direction. By selecting and emphasizing those
aspects of CBE which are most closely related to their
own thought patterns, educators can influence the
ultimate result of an emphasis on CBE. In this way
CBE's long-range effects may be far more significant "I'm so busy operating the teachin
than if utilized and examined only within the Experi- tional TV and audio-visual aids,
mentalist frame of reference. □ teach."

14 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/November, 1972

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