COMPOSITES

Many of our modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties that cannot be
met by the conventional metal alloys,ceramics,and polymeric materials. This is especially true for materials that
are needed for aerospace, underwater, and transportation applications.

A composite, in the present context, is a multiphase material that is artificially made, as opposed to one that
occurs or forms naturally. In addition, the constituent phases must be chemically dissimilar and separated by a
distinct interface.

Composites are simply a combination of two or more constituent materials with different physical or chemical
properties. When combined, they produce a material with characteristics different from their original
properties. The two main components within a composite are the matrix and fiber. The matrix is the base
material while the fiber is what reinforces the material. On top of the fiber reinforcements and matrix,
composites can also include core materials, fillers, additives and surface finishes providing unique performance
attributes.

In designing composite materials various metals, ceramics, and polymers are combined to produce a new
generation of extraordinary materials. Most composites have been created to improve combinations of
mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and high-temperature strength.

The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the constituent phases, their relative amounts,
and the geometry of the dispersed phase.
 One simple scheme for the classification of composite materials is shown in above Figure, which consists of
three main divisions:
Particle-reinforced, fiber-reinforced, and structural composites; also, two subdivisions exist for each. The
dispersed phase for particle-reinforced composites is equiaxed (i.e., particle dimensions are approximately the
same in all directions); for fiber-reinforced composites, the dispersed phase has the geometry of a fiber (i.e., a
large length-to-diameter ratio). Structural composites are combinations of composites and homogeneous
materials.

WHAT ARE COMPOSITES MADE OF?

Composites, also known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, are made from a polymer matrix that is
reinforced with an engineered, man-made or natural fiber (like glass, carbon or aramid) or other reinforcing material.
The matrix protects the fibers from environmental and external damage and transfers the load between the fibers.
The fibers, in turn, provide strength and stiffness to reinforce the matrix—and help it resist cracks and fractures.

FIBER MATRIX FIBER COMPOSITE MATRIX

Provides strength and stiffness Protects and transfers load between fibers Creates a material with attributes attributes
(glass, carbon, aramid, basalt, natural fibers) (polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester, others) superior to either component alone

Natural and synthetic composites

Composites can be natural or synthetic. Wood, a natural composite, is a combination of cellulose or wood fibers and a
substance called lignin. The fibers give wood its strength; lignin is the matrix or natural glue that binds and stabilizes them.
Other composites are synthetic (man-made).

Plywood is a man-made composite that combines natural and synthetic materials. Thin layers of wood veneer are bonded
together with adhesive to form flat sheets of laminated wood that are stronger than natural wood.
The benefits of composites include:

 Lightweight
 High strength
 Corrosion resistant
 High strength-to-weight ratio
 Directional strength - tailor mechanical properties
 High impact strength
 High electric strength (insulator)
 Radar transparent
 Non-magnetic
 Low maintenance
 Rapid installation
 Long-term durability
 Parts consolidation
 Dimensional stability
 Small to large part geometry – styling/design – sculptural form
 Customized surface finish

COMPOSITION OF COMPOSITES

1. FIBER (REINFORCEMENTS)
Fiber reinforcement- such as glass, carbon, aramid or other reinforcing material such that there is a
sufficient aspect ratio (length to thickness) to provide a discernable reinforcing in one or more
directions.

TYPES OF FIBERS

GLASS FIBERS CARBON FIBERS ARAMID FIBERS

(POLYARAMIDS)
Highly versatile Lightweight, strong Extremely strong, lightweight
Impact resistance High temperatures Low density
Stronger than steel in certain High strength Damage / impact resistance
forms Extremely lightweight Compression
Transparent to radio signals Heat, electricity insulation

Reinforcement determines the four major types of composite materials and they are as follows

a) Particles (also known as discontinuous reinforcement)

b) Short fiber or whiskers
c) Continuous fibers
d) Plates
Various types of reinforcement in composites: a) particles, b) short fibers, c) continuous fibers, d) plates
Reinforcement determines the four major types of composite materials (Figure 5) and they are as follows: a)
particles (also known as discontinuous reinforcement), b) short fiber or whiskers, c) continuous fibers, d) plates.

2. Resin
Polymer matrix resin, either thermoplastic or thermoset, such as polyester, isopolyester, vinyl ester,
epoxy, phenolic.

There are two major groups of resins that make up what we call polymer materials—thermosets and
thermoplastics. Thermoset resins are used to make most composites. Unlike thermoplastics, they are
converted from a liquid to a solid through a process called polymerization, or cross-linking. When used
to produce finished goods, thermosetting resins are “cured” by the use of a catalyst, heat or a
combination of the two. Once cured, solid thermoset resins cannot be converted back to their original
liquid form. Thermosets cross link during the curing process to form an irreversible bond.

EPOXY VINYL ESTER PHENOLIC POLYURETHANE

POLYESTER
Highly versatile – Strong properties, Combination of High temperature, Tough, flexible,
75% of all resins more complex polyester and insulation good adhesion
used processing epoxy properties properties Abrasion
Balance of Low shrinkage Mechanical Creep resistance resistance
properties Corrosion & strength, Thermal insulation Impact resistance
Faster cure / temperature corrosion Corrosion Chemical resistant
better handling resistance resistance resistance Good substrate
Superior Better handling / Sound dampening adhesion
mechanical, faster cure Excellent Rapid curing
electrical Easier processing / fire/smoke
properties handling / resistance
Excellent fabrication than
substrate epoxy
adhesion
Additive
Fillers, additives, core materials are added to composites to control the molding process or enhance
the physical properties of the final product (color, strength, durability, fire resistance, and many more
characteristics).
KEVLAR : Reinforcement materials
The discovery of Kevlar Aramid fibre begins in1965. The word ‘Aramid’ is a generic term
for a manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is a long chain synthetic
polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide linkages are attached directly to the two
aromatic rings. Kevlar fibre is based on poly (P-phenylene terephthalamide).
What is Kevlar?
 Kevlar is an organic fiber in the aromatic polyamide family.
 Kevlar has unique combination of high strength, high modulus, toughness and thermal
stability.
 It was developed for demanding industrial and advanced-technology applications.
 Currently, many types of Kevlar are produced to meet a broad range of end uses

PROCESS OF KEVLAR MANUFACTURING

The two raw materials, p-phenylene diamine and terephthaloyl chloride will undergo low
temperature polycondensation in alkyl amide solvent like dimethyl acetamide. The polymer
from this reaction system is isolated by precipitation with water, neutralized and subsequently
washed and dried.

Chemical composition of Kevlar

DIFFERENT TYPES OF KEVLAR

 Kevlar - Tire cord yarn
 Kevlar 29 - Multipurpose yarn
 Kevlar 49 - High modulus yarn
 Kevlar 68 - Moderate modulus yarn
 Kevlar 100 - Coloured yarn
 Kevlar 119 - High elongation yarn
 Kevlar 129 - High tenacity yarn
 Kevlar 149 - Ultra high modulus yarn

Kevlar fibre and filament come in a variety of types, each with its own unique set of
properties and performance characteristics for different protection needs.

APPLICATIONS OF KEVLAR FIBER

1. Brake pads: Brake pads made of Kevlar pulp are better equipped to withstand the wear
and tear that friction creates with their enhanced thermal stability and inherent abrasion
resistance; reinforced brake pads made of Kevlar are designed for long life and safe,
quite braking.
2. Gaskets: Due to its chemical and thermal stability, reinforced made of Kevlar helps
make gaskets strong and durable.
3. Clutches: Kevlar is also effective in clutches, which are subject to severe frictional
stress. Tests have shown that clutch linings with Kevlar do not require service or
replacement as often as standard clutch linings.
4. Vehicle armour:
5. Marine Composites:
6. Aerospace, Marine, & Rail:
7. Automotive Components Reinforcements
8. Automotive Hoses & Belts Reinforcements:
9. Fiber Optics: Military Helmets:
10. Ropes & Cables:
11. Sporting Goods Apparel & Accessories:
ADVANTAGES
1. Higher tensile modulus than steel wire
2. High breaking tenacity
3. Very high kinetic energy absorption
4. 4-5 time strength than steel
5. It has a much higher tensile modulus than steel wire
6. It has a much higher tensile modulus than steel wire
DISADVANTAGES
1. Low elongation to brake
2. Low electric conductivity
3. Low thermal shrinkage
METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials containing at least two constituent parts – a
metal part and a material or a different metal part.

The metal matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear. Most metals and
alloys make good matrices.

Matrix - This is usually composed of a lighter metal such as magnesium, copper, titanium, or aluminum.
In high-temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.

Reinforcement- Continuous carbon, boron, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are some of the materials
that can be embedded in a metallic matrix material. Reinforcement can be in the form of particles, short
fibres, whiskers, sheets or continuous fibres.

The following are some key properties of MMCs:

 Fire resistant
 Operate in wider range of temperatures
 Do not absorb moisture
 Better electrical and thermal conductivity
 Resistant to radiation damage
 Do not display outgassing
 Low CTE and light weight
 Good damping and high compression strength
 High specific stiffness and strength.

Manufacturing Process
 A. Solid State Methods

Solid state methods, as the terminology implies, typically involves two or more solid materials, and
these materials are often sandwiched together or infused via thermal or mechanical means. Powdered
materials can also act as the matrix material, and these powders are often used to coat the outer layers
of a base or reinforcing material.
i. Powder Blending / Powder metallurgy and Consolidation
Powder blending and consolidation is when a manufacturer takes a powdered metal and some
discontinuous reinforcing material, mix them together, and then bond them through a process of
compaction, degassing, and thermo-mechanical treatments (often through isostatic pressing or
extrusion).
ii. Foil Diffusion Bonding
Foil diffusion bonding is when the manufacturer takes copious layers of some metal foil and then
sandwiches long fibers from another material between each layer.

B. Semi-Solid State Methods

Semi-Solid Powder Processing
Semi-Solid Powder Processing is a process where a powder mixture is heated up to a semi-solid state
and pressure is applied to form the composites.
C. Liquid State Methods
i. Electroplating and Electroforming
Electroplating and electroforming is a method when a solution containing metal ions loaded with
reinforcing particles are co-deposited forming the composite material.
ii. Stir Casting
Stir casting is a method where a discontinuous reinforcement is stirred into molten metal and it creates
a composite when it solidifies.
iii. Pressure Infiltration
Pressure infiltration is where a molten metal is infiltrated or impregnated into the reinforcement
through a technique involving pressure (typically in the form of gas).
iv. Squeeze Casting
Squeeze casting is a process where molten metal is injected into a form with reinforcing fibers pre-
placed inside of it.
v. Spray Deposition
Spray deposition is a process where some molten metal is sprayed onto a continuous fiber substrate.
vi. Reactive Processing
Reactive processing is processing involving a chemical reaction where one of the reactants forms the
matrix and the other forms the reinforcement.

D. Vapor Deposition Methods

Physical Vapor Deposition
Physical vapor deposition is a process where the reinforcing fiber material is passed through a thick
cloud of vaporized metal (coating it).
Applications

The following are some of the most common application areas of composite metal matrix materials:

 Pushrods for racing engines

 Carbide drills
 Tank armors
 Automotive industry - disc brakes, driveshaft, engines
 Aircraft components - structural component of the jet's landing gear
 Bicycle frames
 Space systems
 High density multi-chip modules in electronics
 Parts in particle accelerators
 Attach plates for high-speed robots

Examples of Metal Matrix Composites

Most of the composites available in the market are usually classified under the following:

Aluminium MMC - These composites make use of aluminium as the base metal matrix. Examples include
aluminium-graphite composite, and aluminium-beryllium composites .

Magnesium MMC - Magnesium is another excellent matrix material for composites. Some products in
this category include magnesium-silicon carbide (Mg-SiC), magnesium-aluminium oxide (Mg-Al2O3) and
magnesium-titanium carbide (Mg-TiC).

Titanium MMC - Pure titanium is already a strong material in itself, but its composite form may enhance
its superior strength.

Other MMCs - Other less common but highly useful matrix base materials used for composites include
copper, cobalt, nickel, or a combination of metals. Meanwhile, some of the most common reinforcing
materials used are carbon fibre, silicon carbide, alumina, and boron.

Aluminium – carbon (Al-C)

It is fiber reinforced composite. The material is used in the antenna supports, mirrors and other optical
devices and radio engineering. This enhances the accuracy of the reading mode devices without using
power compensation effect of the thermal stresses. It is possible to use this composite on space
platforms where there are cyclic changes in working conditions: being in the shadow of the Earth or in
the full sun light.
What are ceramic matrix composites?
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a special type of composite material in which both the
reinforcement (refractory fibers) and matrix material are ceramics. In some cases, the same kind of
ceramic is used for both parts of the structure, and additional secondary fibers may also be included.
Because of this, CMCs are considered a subgroup of both composite materials and ceramics. Ceramic
matrix composites (CMC) are generally made from ceramic fibres or whiskers embedded in a ceramic
matrix. These ceramics cover a varied range of inorganic materials that are usually non-metallic and
commonly used at high temperatures. Ceramics can be classified into two classes:

 Traditional or conventional ceramics – which usually are in monolithic form. They include tiles,
bricks, pottery, and a wide range of art materials.

 Advanced or high-performance ceramics – which often undergo chemical processing to be

derived. These include nitrides, oxides, and carbides of aluminium, silicon, zirconium, and
titanium.

CMC reinforcing materials

Typical reinforcing fiber materials include the following:

 Carbon, C
 Silicon Carbide, SiC
 Alumina, Al2O3
 Mullite or Alumina Silica, Al2O3-SiO2

The refractory fibre can be in the form of whiskers, particles, long or short fibres, and nanofibres. These
fibres have a polycrystalline structure similar to that of conventional ceramics. The fibers can take many
different forms, including the more traditional continuous fiber as well as short fibers, particles,
whiskers, and nanofibers. These fibers all have a polycrystalline structure like traditional ceramics
possess.
Continuous or long fibres provide better toughness as they can support a load even after the ceramic
matrix undergoes cracking, thus slowing down the crack’s propagation. Short fibres and whiskers, on the
other hand, give improved resistance to crack growth. This makes composites less sensitive to flaws, yet
once a crack begins to propagate, failure could be disastrous [2].

CMC matrix materials

The matrix materials used are the same as the reinforcements stated above, with the addition of non-
oxide, ultra-high-temperature (UHT) ceramics used for special applications. The advanced ceramics are
commonly used in the production of ceramic matrix composites to overcome the main disadvantage of
traditional ceramics; namely, their brittleness. The most commonly used CMCs are non-oxide CMCs,
such as carbon/silicon carbide (C/SiC), carbon/carbon (C/C), and silicon carbide/silicon carbide (SiC/SiC).
Generally, their names follow the fibre material type/matrix material type structure .
Synthesis of CMC

Ceramic matrix composites are made using ceramic fibers of 3 to 20 micrometres in thickness. The main
processes for synthesizing CMCs include chemical vapor or liquid phase infiltration, polymer infiltration
and pyrolysis (PIP), and hot press sintering techniques. However, the most common method is PIP. In
PIP, the ceramic matrix is formed from a fluid that is infiltrated into the fiber reinforcement.

Ceramic matrix composites reinforced with continuous fibers are commonly fabricated by infiltration
methods, in which a ceramic matrix is formed by a fluid infiltrating the fibrous structure. The conversion
of fluid into ceramics varies according to the type of fluid used and the processes involved. Some
infiltration techniques are as follows:

 Liquid silicon infiltration (LSI)

 Polymer infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP)
 Ceramic slurry infiltration (CSI)
 Chemical vapour infiltration (CVI)
 Reactive melt infiltration (RMI)

Properties of ceramic matrix composites

Common properties of ceramic matrix composites are:

 High thermal shock and creep resistance

 High temperature resistance
 Excellent resistance to corrosion and wear
 Inertness to aggressive chemicals
 High tensile and compressive strength, thus no sudden failure as compared to conventional
ceramics
 Increased fracture toughness due to reinforcement
 Lightweight due to reduced density
 High strength retention at elevated temperatures

Applications of ceramic matrix composites - Common applications of ceramic matrix composites are
 Heat exchangers and burner components

 Gas turbine components – these include turbine blades, combustion chambers, stator vanes
and turbine engines, where coated silicon carbide fibres are embedded in a ceramic matrix to
impart temperature resistance, toughness, and low density.

 Aerospace industry – including body flaps, shrouds and space shuttle shielding, where coated
ceramic tiles provide protection from extreme heat.

 Engine exhaust systems – including ceramic exhaust nozzles for commercial aircraft to increase
component life and reduce weight and engine noise.
 Hypersonic vehicles – these utilise structural materials such as ultra-high-temperature ceramics,
which make good candidates for high heat flux areas.

 Nuclear power industry – including internal reactor structures made from MAX phase
composites that can withstand high temperatures and have high mechanical damage tolerance
and good chemical compatibility with coolants such as sodium and molten lead.

CARBON/SILICON CARBIDE

Carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide is a very strong composite made of a silicon carbide matrix
with carbon fiber reinforcement. The material is very suitable for oil quenching processes in metal
hardening due to its low porosity. Furthermore, by its low weight it fits perfectly to your automation
idea for your hardening process.

Typical properties of the material -

Light (perfect for automation in heat treatment)

Low open porosity (perfect for oil quenching)
High strength
Fracture resistant
Thermal shock resistant

Applications
 Combustion and turbine section components of aero-propulsion and land-based gas turbine
engines
 Heat exchangers, reformers, reactors, and filters for the chemical industry
 Preheaters, recuperators, and radiant tubes for the heat transfer industry
 Thermal protection systems, thruster nozzles, reusable rocket nozzles, and turbopump
components for space vehicles
 Furnace components
 Nuclear fission and fusion reactors as fuel cladding and radiation blankets