Simple Atomic Theory

Structure of matter

The concept of electricity is best explained by the atomic theory. This theory, which was
formulated after electricity had been discovered and used, begins by explaining the structure of
matter.

In simple terms, electricity is a flow of electric charge. The electron, which is a negative charge,
is the main carrier of electricity. Matter is any substance that has mass and occupies space, for
example water, copper and glass. The smallest quantity of matter is called a molecule. If a
molecule of water is divided, it splits into smaller particles called atoms. Each molecule of water is
made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The atoms of hydrogen and oxygen are
called elements because they are made from one kind of atom only.

Hydrogen Hydrogen

WATER MOLECULE

The Atom
Although the atom is the smallest part that remains as an element, it contains several smaller
parts - electrons, protons and neutrons. T he electrons orbit at high speed

2 electrons

THE HELIUM ATOM

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The electrons, having a negative charge, are attracted to the positively charged protons. But
because they are orbiting at high speed the force of attraction is balanced by the centrifugal force
of the whirling electrons. The figure above that the negative sign identifies the electron and the
positive sign identifies the proton. The neutron has no charge and is represented by a circle only.

There are equal numbers of electrons and protons so that their electrical charges negative and
positive balance, that is, the atom in this stage is electrically neutral because the negative and
positive charges cancel.

IONISATION
With some materials, it is possible to remove some of the electrons from the atom, and the
charges no longer cancel. When some electrons are missing from the atom, there are more
positive charges than negative charges so that the atom has a slight positive charge. An atom
with a positive charge is called a positive ion, that is, the atom is ionized. A positive ion can be
used as a charge carrier to carry electricity.

Similarly, if an electron is added to a neutral atom, it becomes a negative ion. A negative ion may
also be used as a charge carrier to carry electricity.

Electron current: If two oppositely charged bodies come into contact, the surplus free electrons
on the negatively charged body return to the positive ions that are deficient in electrons in the
positively charged body. This restores the electrical balance. The two charged bodies become
discharged.

The balance can be restored by means other than bringing the two charged bodies together. For
example, the electrons can flow through a metallic conductor, such as copper, silver, or iron, to
bring about the electrical balance. This movement of electrons is called an electric current.

Atomic number
An atom's atomic number is given by the number of either its orbiting electrons or the protons in
the nucleus. These are, of course, equal in number. The atomic number of hydrogen is therefore
1 as only one electron orbits its nucleus. A copper atom is more complex than the helium atom,

COPPER ATOM
The copper atom has 29 electrons and 34 neutrons. The number of neutrons need not be the
same as the number of electrons because neutrons have no charge. Copper has an atomic
number of 29.

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Electron Shells
The electrons are contained in a number of layers or shells. Each shell has a specific maximum
number of electrons. For example, the inner shell has two electrons, whereas other shells may be
complete when they have eight electrons.

The degree of completeness of the outer shell determines the electrical and chemical activity of
the atom.

The atom of copper in complete in symbolic form. The outer electron shell, called the valence
shell, has only one electron. Only the one outer electron balanced by one proton is shown to
indicate a neutral atom

(a) (b)

The Copper Atom

Electrical conductors

The degree of completeness of the outer shell determines the electrical qualities of a substance.
The outer electrons of an element that has few outer electrons, such as copper, which has one
outer electron, are very loosely held to the atom. When energy, such as heat, is applied, these
loosely held electrons break free and are free to wander at random.

Such a material is called an electrical conductor. Copper is one example of a good electrical
conductor.

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 Free Electrons in Metal

Other materials that make good conductors include gold, silver, carbon and steel.

Electron current in a conductor

Electron flow in a Conductor

If a source of electricity, for example a dry cell, is connected across a conductor, the free
electrons are no longer free to wander at random.

In the cell, the positive terminal connects to a region that is deficient in electrons. The negative
terminal connects to a region of excess electrons.

An electric current flows as free electrons move along the conducting wire from negative to
positive. This movement continues as long as the path or circuit is unbroken, and an imbalance
exists in the cell between the sources of electrical charges.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

All materials can be classified according to their behavior in an electric circuit. Materials, which
conduct electricity quite easily are called conductors. Materials, which offer a high opposition to
the flow of electricity are called non-conductors or insulators. There is a third group of
materials called semiconductors, which conduct under some conditions and not under others.

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Whether a material is a good or bad conductor cannot be decided in some arbitrary fashion,
because there is no sharp dividing line. All materials have some opposition to the movement of
electrons and the degree of opposition governs the use of the material. For example, an electric
light receives electricity by means of a good conductor (copper) and, to ensure the electrons flow
only where desired, the copper wires are encased in a plastic sheathing (a poor conductor or a
good insulator). The circumstances governing a material's use also have an effect on the
selection.

Category Material Approx. resistivity in Ohms

Insulator high opposition to Glass 10 000 000 000

Electron flow Bakelite 10 000 000 000
Rubber 10 000 000 000 000
Sulphur 10 000 000 000 000

Semiconductor silicon 0.8

Germanium 0.89
Conductor Silver 1.63 x 10-8
Copper 1.72 x 10-8
Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8
Tungsten 5.50 x 10-8

Some salts are insulators when solid but are good conductors when molten. Neon is an insulator
when not put under an electrical stress, but becomes a conductor when the applied voltage is high
enough to ionize the gas.

Insulators
Insulators are sometimes called non-conductors. They are porous and capable of absorbing
moisture must be regarded with caution because as they become damp their insulating qualities
decrease markedly. These materials (e.g. wood) are often impregnated with varnish to prevent
the absorption of moisture.

The most outstanding characteristic of an insulator is that it contains very few, or no free
electrons under normal conditions. Without free electrons there can be no current flow and the
electrons in the atom remain strongly bound to the nucleus. As a general guide only, the greater
the number of electrons in the valency ring the better the material is as an insulator.

Conductors
The obvious characteristic of most good conductors of electricity is that they are metals. The
common feature for any good conductor involves the outermost electrons in the valency ring or
shell. In the case of copper the single electron in the valency ring is not held tightly to the
nucleus because it is furthest away and shielded by the other orbits. It is easily removed by
another atom and can be passed on from atom to atom. Because of this it is called a "free"
electron. Any good conductor has large numbers of free electrons. Not all metals conduct equally
well. The best is silver, followed by copper, gold and then aluminium. The most practical
conductor for general use is copper-a balance of its good performance as a conductor and its
relatively low cost.

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Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is defined as
The branch of science and technology, which deals with the interchange between
chemical and electrical energy.

Electrochemistry involves two main processes:

1 where electrical energy creates a chemical effect (for example, in electroplating
and corrosion)
2 where chemical effects create electrical energy (for example, in torch cells and
car batteries).

Although electromagnetic generators supply the greatest part of electrical energy to consumers,
developments in battery technology and electronic equipment have resulted in a range of efficient
and compact modern electrochemical cells. There are now several types of rechargeable and non-
rechargeable cell being produced commercially.

Simple Voltaic Cells

The development of the simple voltaic cell was an important step that led to the development of
modern cells.

A voltaic cell consists of two different metal plates immersed in an acid or alkaline solution. The
action of the acid causes electrons to be removed from one plate and accumulated on the other.
In this way a potential difference is produced between the two plates, and a current can be made
to flow through an external circuit.

The first cell to be made, known as the simple cell, used copper and zinc electrodes in an
electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.

Cathode –ve Anode +ve

Simple Electric Cell

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 RESISTANCE

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

The temperature of a material will effect the resistivity and hence the resistance of that material.
The resistance of most metal conductors will increase with the increase of temperature. However,
the resistance of carbon, electrolytes, and insulating materials decrease with the increase in
temperature.
The resistance of a given material is affected by the temperature as follows:

Effect of Temperature on Resistance:

R1 = R0 x (1 +  x t1)

where
R1 = resistance at a temperature of t1 []
R0 = resistance at a temperature of 0 0C []
t1 = temperature [0C]
 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 0C [/ 0C]

Note: the temperature coefficient of resistance (), will change with temperature. For example,
considering copper, the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 0C and 20 0C are:
 at 0 0C = 0.00427 / 0C
 at 20 0C = 0.00392 / 0C

Therefore, calculations should only be carried out with the temperature coefficient of resistance of
the relevant temperature. If a temperature coefficient of resistance at a temperature other that 0
0
C is used, then equation (2.2) will need to be modified.
Note: in materials that the resistance decreases with the increase in temperature, the
temperature coefficient of resistance will be negative.
Test
An aluminium conductor has a length of 5.6 m and a diameter of 3 mm. If the resistivity of
aluminium at 20 0C is 2.83 x 10-8 .m, calculate the total resistance of the conductor at this
temperature. (QUERY)

ELECTROLYTIC DISSOCIATION
Consider a substance being dissolved in water to form a solution. During this dissolving process,
various parts of the substance separate from each other and distribute themselves evenly
throughout the solution. This is called electrolytic dissociation.
Let us consider what happens when common salt is dissolved in water.

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Common salt is sodium chloride (NaCl). It is made up of atoms of sodium (Na) and atoms of
chlorine (Cl), which are chemically combined together. (Note: the symbols in the brackets
represents the standard symbols for the elements).
An atom is made of:
 protons that are of positive charge; and
 electrons that are of negative charge.

(a) (b)

Normally in an atom there are an equal amount of protons and electrons. Since the positive
protons are balanced by the negative electrons, the atom will have no charge.
However, due to the movement of electrons this ratio can change.
 If an electron leaves the atom it will have an excess number of protons, and thus
have a positive charge. This is called a positive ion [Figure (a)].
 If the atom gets an additional electron, it will have an excess of electrons, and thus
have a negative charge. This is called a negative ion [Figure (b)]

When salt is dissolved in water, the sodium and chlorine atoms separate and distribute within the
solution. As the sodium and chlorine separate, the sodium atoms will shed an electron and get a
positive charge, (ie. it become a positive ion). The released electron joins the chlorine atom to
give a negative charge, (ie. becoming a negative ion).

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 Salt
NaCl
NaCl
Chlorine
NaCl

ion NaCl
NaCl

Cl-
Na+
Cl-
Na+
Cl- Na+
Water
Sodium Cl- Na+
Cl-
Na+
ion Na+ Cl-

Cl- Na+ Na+

Na+ Cl- Cl-

Into this solution is placed two conductors (electrodes) of different metals and connected together
by a wire. This will cause the ions in the solution to react chemically with the electrodes. This
results in the positive ions moving towards one electrode, while the negative ions will move to the
other electrode. This separation of the ions causes a potential difference and resulting in a flow of
electrons, (and thus electricity), through the electrodes and the wire connecting them.
This is the simplest form of a battery and is the working principle of a cell in any battery.
The current will flow while there is enough substance in the solution to maintain the voltage. As
the solution gets weaker or the electrodes deteriorate, the battery goes „flat‟, ie. the voltage will
drop.
Water, as pure water, is NOT a conductor of electricity. But, when it has substances, such as salt
dissolved in it, it becomes a very good conductor because of this electrolytic dissociation.

CONSTRUCTION OF ALKALINE BATTERIES

Alkaline batteries get their name from the fact that the electrolyte is an alkaline, usually
potassium hydroxide, (or caustic soda as it is commonly called).
The plates in the alkaline batteries are made of nickel hydroxide and cadmium. These two metals
give a cell voltage of 1.2 Volts.
Because Nickel Alkaline batteries are not used in automobiles there is no requirement to build
them in sets of 12 Volts. Therefore, they are usually constructed such that each unit is only one
cell.
The plate material in the alkaline cell is also of a powdered nature, so it is housed in a strong
pressed steel frame,
The separators are usually round pins between the plates instead of flat separators of lead acid
batteries. Because the containers are often made of steel, there will be insulation between the
plate assembly and the casing.
Similar to the lead acid cell, there will be a number of plates to increase the surface area for
greater current flow.
The alkaline cell, because of its steel construction, is usually much more robust than it‟s lead acid
counterpart.
Also, for the same output, the alkaline cell is much heavier that the lead acid type.

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 Sectional view of an alkaline cell

Further differences will become evident as we explore batteries in the sections to follow.

Lead Acid Batteries

During the discharge of a lead acid battery, the chemical action uses some of the sulphate from
the sulphuric acid and produces water.
These actions weaken the strength of the sulphuric acid, (which is the electrolyte in a lead acid
battery). A strong sulphuric acid mix, has a specific gravity of 1.225. This means that the acid
mix is 1.225 times the weight of an equivalent volume of water.
As stated earlier, as the battery is discharged, some of the acid is converted into water. This
means that the specific gravity of the electrolyte drops as the cells discharge.
Therefore, a measure of the specific gravity of the electrolyte in a lead acid cell is a good
indication of it‟s charge condition.
A hydrometer is a device used to measure the specific gravity of electrolytes. This consists of a
transparent tube with a calibrated float in it.

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 Hydrometer
The hydrometer is inserted into the cell and electrolyte is drawn into the hydrometer barrel. This
will cause the float to rise within the hydrometer with the incoming electrolyte.
The specific density can be read from the graduation at the electrolyte level on the float.

The following readings and actions list is a guide to what should be done depending on the
hydrometer readings of a lead acid battery.

Reading Action

1.225 or higher Fully charged, no action

1.225 - 1.170 Requires charging to bring the reading up to 1.225
Below 1.170 A full charge is required
50 point variation between cells Discard the battery!

Although the above readings are given as 1.225 etc, the usual reading is stated as simply 1225 or
1180. The decimal point is usually ignored when stating the reading.
The last point makes reference to the variation of readings from cell to cell. Once the readings
from all cells have been taken, compare them with each other. If the difference between the
highest and lowest reading is greater than 50, discard the battery.
If the variation was about 30 points, it would be best to give the battery a charge and see if the
odd cell improved compared with the rest.
If it did improve then the battery may be saved. However, if it remained low, then the cell is
obviously faulty and the battery should be discarded and replaced.

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Alkaline Batteries

The electrolyte in an alkaline battery does not take any part in

the chemical action of the cell. It merely acts as a carrier or
conductor for the charged ions and particles.

For this reason the specific gravity readings of an alkaline cell

DOES NOT give an indication of the state of charge of the cell.

The only true indication is the terminal voltage.

 A healthy cell would have a voltage of 1.2 Volts

 A cell that need attention will give a reading of about 1.1
Volts

.
Test
Answer the following.
What is the voltage per cell of a lead-acid battery?
2 How many cells are connected in series to make up a twelve volt automotive battery?
3 What is electrolytic dissociation?
What are the materials in each of the plates in a lead-acid cell?
5 What is used to top up batteries?
6 What do you use to check the specific gravity of a cell?
7 What is the specific gravity reading of a fully charged battery?
8 What is the specific gravity reading of a flat battery?
9 List the safety precautions that should be observed when dealing with batteries.
10 List the statutory requirements for a low voltage DC battery system on vessels.
11 Sketch and label the low voltage electrical system on board a vessel.
12 List the basic maintenance to be carried out on the above system.

Current Capacity and Voltage Level.

The capacity of a cell, (ie. its ability to deliver electrical energy) is usually expressed in ampere-
hours.
1 ampere-hour = one amp flowing for a period of one hour.
The value of the ampere-hours is determined by multiplying the current flow in amperes by the
time period in hours, ie.
Ampere-hours (Ah) = amperes (A) x hours (h)
= A x h

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Example
If a current of 10 amps is taken from a battery at a steady rate for 5 hours, calculate the ampere-
hours used.
Using equation ampere-hours (Ah) = amperes x hours
= 10 amps x 5 hours = 50 ampere-hours.
The number of ampere-hours a battery can deliver does not mean much as a raw number. A
battery‟s capacity can be considered from two viewpoints, ie.
 its ability to deliver a continuous current over a specified period of time; or
 its ability to deliver very high currents for short periods of time.

If a battery is to be used primarily for engine starting then it will be required to provide a very
high discharge current for a few seconds only. The term given to this is a battery‟s Cold
Cranking Amps - CCA. It is an indication of a battery‟s ability to provide current for engine
cranking from a cold start. However, if the engine fails to start, there may be a requirement for
extra capacity for further start attempts.
Lead Acid 1.70 Volts per cell
Nickel Alkaline 1.10 Volts per cell

Test
a) A battery delivers 5 Amps for 20 hours. What is its capacity at the 20 hour rate?
b) A battery has a capacity of 150 Ampere-hours. What current could the battery continuously
deliver for 20 hours?
c) An emergency lighting system has an installed total power of 240 Watts and is supplied by a
24 Volt battery bank. Calculate the battery capacity if the emergency lights are required to be
on for 20 hours?
(Hint: calculate the current (Amperes) first and then the battery capacity)

Series and Parallel Connections

In some battery applications the available current or voltage (or both) will be insufficient for the
duty required. When this occurs it will be necessary to utilise batteries connected in either series,
parallel, or a combination of two.
First of all lets assume that the required voltage is greater than the terminal voltage of the
battery. For example:
 The terminal voltage of a lead-acid battery is usually either 6 Volts or 12 Volts.
 The starting motors of most large diesel engines require 24 Volts or 48 volts.

Therefore, it is needed to connect the batteries together to obtain the required voltage. These
connections follow the rules for series and parallel circuits.

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Series Connections
Figure 3.1 shows two 12 V batteries in series. The rules governing series connections can be
summarised as:

1. The voltage drops around a circuit adds up to the supply voltage. This, when
adapted to a set of batteries gives: the output voltage of a set of batteries in
series, is equal the sum of the voltages of the individual batteries in the
set. Thus, to achieve 24 Volts we can connect 2 x 12 V batteries in series.
2. To connect them in series we need to remember that the same current passes
through each battery. Therefore, the current passing through the system is the
same as that passing through each battery.

When considering series and parallel connections, the power used in a circuit is given by equation
Power = V x I
From this it is seen that for a given power demand, if the voltage is high, then the current
required from the batteries will be low. This is why the voltage of starting systems on large
engines are usually 24V or 48 V, whereas the voltage of starting systems on cars are only 12V.
Therefore, if the power requirement of the starter is high, it is advantages to use a higher voltage
battery supply. This will reduce the required current. This in turn means that the capacity of the
individual batteries, (making up the supply), can be lower.

NOTE
For batteries in series:
 the voltages are added together;
 the current will remain the same; and
 the capacity will remain the same.

Test
a) Calculate the output voltage from a battery bank having 4 x 12 V batteries in series.
b) Calculate the number of 6 V batteries that need to be connected in series to provide an output
of 36 V.

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Parallel Connections
The rules governing parallel connections can be summarised as:
1. Each battery provide some current to the required total. Thus: the output current
from a set of batteries in parallel, is equal to the sum of the current from each of
the batteries in the set. Thus, IT = I1 + I2.
2. Since the voltage across the set is equal to the voltage across each battery, the
output voltage is the same as that for each battery.

Since the batteries in parallel will each provide some current to the required total, the current
drawn from each individual battery will be reduced. Therefore, parallel configurations are used
when high currents are required from a system for a given voltage.
Since, the current drawn form batteries in parallel is greater than that of an individual battery, the
capacity (Ampere-hours) too will increase. Thus, parallel battery configurations are also used to
increase the capacity.
NOTE
For batteries in parallel:
 the currents will add together;
 the battery capacities will add together; and
 the voltages remain the same.

Test
a) Calculate the output voltage from a battery bank having 4 x 12 V batteries in parallel.
b) Calculate the number of 6 V, 45 Ampere-hour batteries that need to be connected in parallel
to provide 15 Amperes for 20 hours.

(Note: if the number of batteries is a fraction, used the next highest whole number).

Series/Parallel Connections
Sometimes, if the demand for current and voltage is greater than that supplied by individual
batteries, it is necessary to use a series/parallel connection. This type of connection is common
on very large engines, which require starting currents up to many thousands of amps at 24V.
igure below shows six 12 V, 45 Ampere-hour batteries in a series/parallel connection. It consists
of:

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 1. Two 12 V batteries in series to give an output voltage of 24 V. This is called a
“battery bank”. The capacity of the bank will not change and remain at 45 Ampere
hours.
2. Three “banks”, in parallel, each in the configuration described in (1). The total
output voltage is 24 V, as there is no effect on the voltage from a parallel
connection, and each bank produces 24 V. However, the capacity of the set will
increase. Each bank has a capacity of 45 Ah. Since there are three banks, the
total capacity is = 3 x 45 = 135 Ah

Test
a) Describe the ampere-hour capacity of a battery;
b) describe and demonstrate the connecting of batteries in series, parallel and
series/parallel combination circuits in accordance with safety and operational
requirements; and
c) calculate power and capacity requirements of battery banks.
d) What is the difference between a cell and a battery?
e) Define the capacity of a battery
f) Over what time period is the capacity of a battery normally stated?
g) What is the CCA of a battery?
h) Define „Final Voltage‟
i) What is an acceptable final voltage for lead acid batteries?
j) If the voltage required is greater than the terminal voltage of the available battery
do you connect the batteries in series or parallel?
k) If the current required is greater than the current able to be supplied from a single
battery, do you connect the batteries in series or parallel?
l) Define „Ampere-hour efficiency‟.
m) A 48 V electrical system is supplied from a battery bank made up of 12 V batteries
with a capacity of 70 Ampere-hour at the 20 hour rating. The system is rated at
720 W and is required to be operational for 20 hours. Obtain the battery
configuration.
n) If a battery has a capacity of 120 ampere-hours to fully discharge and the Ampere-
hour efficiency of 92%, calculate the time taken to fully recharge the battery from a
fully discharge status.

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 Behaviour of Electric Current
Three important effects may be observed when an electric current flows. They are:

1. The Magnetic Effect

All conductors carrying electric current are surrounded by a magnetic field. This phenomenon,
which is the basis of the electromagnet and the electric motor, is described later.

If a vertical current-carrying conductor passes through a piece of stiff paper, iron filings are
sprinkled on the paper, the magnetic field pattern can be traced out.

2. The Heating Effect

All conductors offer some resistance to the passage of electric current and, when current flows,
undergo a rise in temperature. A good conductor, such as copper, offers little resistance to the
current flow and does not undergo a noticeable temperature rise until the magnitude of the
current exceeds its current-carrying capacity. Some materials offer a strong resistance to the
flow of electric current and become very hot with the passage of a comparatively small current.
This property is used in electric heaters and filament lamps.

3. The Chemical Effect

When an electric current passes through liquids and chemical solutions, the passage of the current
causes certain chemical changes to occur. These effects have a practical application in the lead-
acid cells of the battery and will be described later.

OHM'S LAW
The relationship between electrical pressure and current, is embodied in a fundamental law of
electricity, known as Ohm's law, named after the man who discovered it.

Ohm's law states that provided the temperature remains constant the current in a
conductor is directly proportional to the electrical pressure applied across its ends.

Thus. the current increases in proportion with an increase in pressure. and decreases in
proportion with a decrease in pressure.

Ohm's law can be extended to a circuit containing a number of pieces of electrical apparatus.
Here, also the current in the circuit is directly proportional to the electrical pressure applied across
its ends.

In all calculations appearing in this book the temperature will be assumed to remain constant.

Symbols
Electrical engineers and others engaged in circuit calculations use letters as symbols to represent
the words pressure. current. and resistance and thus save time in writing. The initial letters P,
C. and R appear to be an obvious choice, but, as P and C are used to denote other quantities,
different letters have been internationally agreed on.

They are:

V for pressure - the unit is the volt. V;

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I for current - the unit is the ampere, A;

R for resistance - the unit is the ohm, .

Implications of Ohm's Law

Since Ohm's law states that the current in a conductor is proportional to the electrical pressure
across its ends. we can say, using symbols,

I (current) is proportional to V (volts) or, as is commonly written, V is proportional to I.

Thus, if a conductor is subjected to different electrical pressure; in turn and the current passing
through it each time is measured, we shall find on dividing the pressure by the current that the
quotient is always the same. It is to this quantity that we give the name resistance. In other
words, pressure divided by current equals resistance.

By using the appropriate symbols we can turn this statement into a simple equation suitable for
calculations, as follows:

R= V
I
When V is measured in volts, and I in amperes, R is the resistance in ohms.

All electrical conductors and circuits have resistance, which dissipates energy, either usefully, as,
for example, in the filament of a lamp, or wastefully, as in wiring.

The formula

R= V
I
is most important. When the values of any two of the quantities are known, the formula enables
the third to be readily determined. For example, if the pressure and resistance are known, the
current can be calculated on rewriting the equation in the form

V
I=
R
Should the pressure be desired, the equation is then written

V= I x R or
V=IR

The units volt, ampere, and ohm have been chosen in such a way that a pressure of 1 volt acting
on a circuit with a resistance of 1 ohm causes a current of 1 ampere to flow.

The three formulae derived from Ohm's law, namely,

V V
R= , I= , and V = IR
I R

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This have a very important application in all types of electrical work and must be learned
thoroughly as they are the key to the solution of most electrical problems.

The first step in solving any electrical problem is to draw a circuit diagram and insert the known
information. Figure 1 shows a circuit in which all three quantities are known. In this illustration
the voltage of the battery is stated as 6 volts, but in practice the three symbolical cells are all that
is necessary to indicate a 6-volt battery. It should be noted also that the battery and the lamp are
shown "earthed".

Fig 1 Circuit using Symbols

The reason being that they are connected through the framework of the vessel and the resistance
between their earth connections is negligible. The known information may be that a pressure of 6
volts is applied to a resistance of 3 ohms, without the source of pressure, whether a battery,
generator, or alternator, or the nature of the resistance being stated. To show this information in
abstract form, the circuit diagram is drawn as in fig. 2; this is called a technical diagram.

fig 2 Technical Drawing

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The application of Ohm's law to the solving of circuit problems is illustrated in the following
worked examples.

Example 1
A 6-volt battery is connected to a resistance of 2 ohms. What current will flow through the circuit?

The circuit is drawn and the given information inserted as shown

in fig. 3.

V 6
I current = = = 3 amperes
R 2

Current in the circuit is 3 amperes.

Circuit diagram for example 1

Example 2
A 12-volt battery causes a current of 2 amperes to flow through a lamp. What is the resistance of
the lamp?

V 12
R  resis tan ce     6 ohms
I 2

Resistance of lamp is 6 ohms.

Circuit for example 2

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Example 3
What pressure is required to cause a current of 4 amperes to flow
through a resistance of 3 ohms (fig. 7).

V (pressure) = I x R
=4x3
= 12 volts

Pressure is 12 volts.

Circuit for Example 3

Should the formula required to solve a particular problem prove difficult to remember, a method
of determining it is to draw a triangle which is divided into compartments, as shown below

OHMS LAW TRIANGLE

The words volts and pressure must always be placed in the top compartment, with amperes or
current or resistance being placed in either of the lower compartments.

Ohms Law Triangle

To find any one of the three quantities, the unknown quantity is covered and the two remaining in
view will indicate the necessary formula for finding it.

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 THE MAGNETIC FIELD

COMMON MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Natural Magnets

The first experience with magnetism was the discovery of pieces of stone having the ability to
attract steel or similar materials.
These magnetic stones were called magnets. They were also known as Lodestones (leading
stones) to the Chinese. They found that long thin magnets when freely suspended, always
pointed in a North-South direction. This gave rise to the magnetic compass and magnets still
form the basis of modern magnetic compasses.

Lodestone Compass
One of the features of these magnetic stones was the concentration of the magnetism in certain
areas on the surface. These were called the „poles‟ of the magnet.
The poles were eventually named the North and South poles. This was due to the earth acting as
a large magnet and one end of the natural magnet always pointed to the earth‟s geographical
North pole. It is also known that if two magnets were brought together, they will attract or
repulse each other depending on their orientation.
 If two like poles, (eg. North and North), are brought together, they will repulse each other.
 If two different poles, (North and South), are brought together, they will attract each other.

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Earth’s Magnetic Poles
It is very difficult to obtain a piece of natural magnetic ore. Therefore, modern magnets are
artificially produced alloys.

Magnetic Fields and Shielding

Magnetic Lines Of Force

All magnetic materials in a magnetic field will themselves become magnetised. Depending on the
type of material, they will either be temporarily or permanently magnetised.

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Effects Of Placing Magnetic Materials In A Magnetic Field
A magnetic field will concentrate itself in magnetic material in preference to air.
A magnetic field will pass through all materials. This means that there is no magnetic insulator.
The field may be distorted or concentrated, but it will always be there.
Magnetic shielding is achieved by surrounding the device, which requires shielding, with a
magnetically soft material. This will concentrate the field in the magnetically soft material and
very little will be left to affect the device.
This is important to protect instruments, tapes, computer disc, etc. from being effected by strong
magnetic fields.

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 Magnetic Shielding

Magnetic Induction
Magnets have an area around them that will attract or repel other magnets or magnetic materials.
This area is called its magnetic field.
If a piece of magnetic material is introduced into a magnetic field, it will itself become
magnetised. This magnetisation is usually only on a temporary basis.
This is called magnetic induction.

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Magnetic Induction
 A magnetically soft material can be magnetised by induction by a relatively low
magnetising force. However, when the magnetising force is removed the material will
quickly lose its magnetic qualities, ie. tend to demagnetise itself.
 A material which is magnetically hard requires a very strong magnetic force to become
magnetised. However, when the force is removed they tend to retain their magnetism.
 Permanent magnets are usually made from magnetically hard materials.
 High heat and vibration can destroy the magnetism in a magnet. However, normal levels of
heat and vibration have little effect.

Important points to remember

1. There is no magnetic insulator.
2. Materials that are easily magnetised are called magnetically soft
3. Like poles repel each other, while unlike poles attract each other
4. Magnetic induction occurs in a non-magnetised material, when it is attracted to the
magnetising material.
5. Magnetism can be destroyed by excessive heat and vibration.
6. Iron and its alloys are termed ferromagnetic materials.
7. The degree of magnetism of magnetically soft materials is easily changed. Such materials are
used for electromagnets.

Magnetic Fields Due to Electric Currents in Straight Conductors

When an electric current flows along a straight wire, a magnetic field develops around the wire.
This effect can in some cases be a benefit, while in other situations they can be a disadvantage.
 The strength of the magnetic field depends on the value of the current in the conductor.
 Doubling the current doubles the strength of the field.
 The field strength is not the same throughout the magnetic field.
 The further away from the conductor, the weaker the field.

Consider a straight wire (conductor) passing vertically through a horizontal piece of cardboard
covered in iron filings. If a current is passed through the wire, the iron filings will form a map of
the magnetic field around the wire.

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 Magnetic Field Around A Straight Wire
If the direction of the current is now reversed, the pattern of the iron filings remains unchanged.
This indicates that there is no change in the strength or position of the magnetic field.
However, if a compass is placed adjacent to the wire (in the field), the change in the direction of
the current will make the compass needle point in the opposite direction. This indicates that the
direction of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the current flow.
The direction of the magnetic field can be obtained by the following rule.
 Make sure the power is disconnected before you touch the conductor.
 The bulb is to prevent “dead shorting” the battery.

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 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION
It is possible to use a magnetic field to produce a current in a conductor.
If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field and either:
 the magnetic field strength is changed; or
 the conductor is moved through the field,

then a current will flow through the conductor.

If we move the conductor up and down rapidly through the magnetic field the needle on the multi-
meter will move and show that a voltage is generated

This will result in the generation (induction) of a voltage in the conductor.

This voltage will cause the flow of an electric current.
The voltage induced in a conductor depends on:
 the length of the conductor; and
 the rate of change of the magnetic field.

What this means is that the faster the conductor moves through the magnetic field, or the greater
the rate of change of field strength, the larger the induced voltage.
This Law is very important in the understanding of generation of voltage in alternators.

Magnetic Field within a Loop and a Solenoid

If a straight wire is bent to form a loop and a current is passed through it, the strength of the
magnetic field inside the loop is doubled.
By winding the conductor into a coil of many turns, the field strength is increased in proportion to
the number of turns in the coil.
Figure 3.9 shows how the current in adjacent turns of a coil flows in the same direction. The
magnetic fields around each loop will combine to form a single magnetic field embracing all the
turns of the coil.

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Flux Due To Coil
The field flowing through the centre of the coil establishes:
 a North pole at the point where it leaves the inside of the coil; and
 a South pole where it enters the coil.

The field around the outside of the coil will resemble the field around a bar magnet.
Such a field producing coil is commonly referred to as an electromagnet. This is because the field
is produced by the current flowing through the coil.
A simple rule to determine the polarity of an electromagnet, when the direction of current and coil
winding are known is shown in the figure below .

Right Hand Thumb Rule - Solenoid

If we gasp the solenoid in the right hand, as shown in the figure above, so that the fingers point
in the direction of the current flowing through the coil.
Extend the thumb at right angles to these fingers. It will point in the direction of the North pole of
the electromagnet.
A coil, or electromagnet, whose length is many times its diameter, is called a solenoid.

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If the air inside the coil is replaced by a magnetic material, like soft iron, the magnetic field is
greatly intensified. This is the basis of all of the magnetic circuits in relays, contacts, solenoids,
and commercial electromagnets.

Field due to a Coil

Consider the field around a single wire. Now consider the effect of a second wire (ie. the next
turn of the coil), laid alongside the first. The magnetic field between the wires, (as the currents
are flowing in the same direction) is neutralised and twice the number of magnetic lines of force
will surround the two wires. This means that the field strength is doubled.
A third wire increases the field strength even further. Therefore, the field (magnetic flux)
produced by a coil is proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
Similarly, if the current in the coil is increased, the magnetic field or flux created by the coil will
increase. Thus,

The magnetic field (flux) created by a coil is proportionate to:

 the number of turns; and
 the current flowing through it.
The combined effort of the turns and the current (ie. the product of the two) is called
the Magnetomotive Force.

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TEST
1. Describe common magnetic material and their magnetic fields.
2 Explain about magnetic fields due to electric currents in straight conductors and coils.
2. Describe the shielding of magnetically sensitive material.
3. Identify Faraday‟s Law of magnetic induction
4. Name three important magnetic materials
5. What are ferromagnetic materials?
6. What is „magnetic induction‟?
7 Sketch and explain the magnetic field around: a bar magnet; a straight electrical
conductor; and electro magnet.
Explain the terms magnetic soft and hard material.
Explain how magnetically sensitive equipment can be shielded.
Describe the right hand thumb rule for determining the direction of the field around a
straight conductor carrying a current.
What happens to the field if the air inside a coil is replaced by a magnetic material.
Explain the operation of an electrically operated solenoid valve.
What are the conditions that have to be met to generate a voltage.

Magnetic Fields (Flux)

The fields set up in the magnetic cores of machines are almost always the result of a current
passing through a coil containing a number of turns. The strength of the fields is determined by
the combination of the current and the number of turns in the coil.

Magnetic Field (Flux) Surrounding a Straight Conductor

Right Hand Thumb Rule

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1 When a current flows in a straight conductor, a magnetic field (flux) is developed around the
conductor.
1 The strength of the magnetic field (flux) is proportionate to the current flowing through the
conductor.
2 The direction of the magnetic field (flux) is found by the right hand thumb rule, (Figure 4.1
and explained below)

Right Hand Thumb Rule - Straight Conductor

Grasp the conductor in the right hand, as shown above, with the thumb pointing in the direction of
the current flow. The other fingers will point in the direction in which the magnetic field is acting.
Magnetic fields surrounding a conductor is important when considering the forces acting on
conductors and busbars. This is especially important in electrical equipment during very high
current flow associated with faults.
Consider two conductors in parallel to each other and both carrying currents. Each conductor will
develop a magnetic field around it. Since the conductors are close to each other, the magnetic
fields will either attract or repel each other, thus causing a force on the conductors.
It can be seen from the figure that if the currents are flowing in the same direction in the
conductors, there will be an attracting force between them. Conversely, if the currents are
flowing in opposite directions there will be a repelling force.

Magnetic Field Attraction/Repulsion

Under fault conditions, the current flow will be many times greater than normal. Since the
magnetic field is proportionate to the current, the resulting field and hence the forces acting on
conductors will be large. This is why busbars and conductors in switchboards and others similar
equipment must be properly supported.
Conductors not supported properly can pull “together” and cause short circuits, that could cause
major damage.
Sometimes, if the current is alternating, the forces act first one way and then the other. This
alternating force can severely strain the supports. Therefore, inspection of electrical equipment
should always include close inspection of the conductor supports.

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Magnetic Units
2.1 Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

mmf = current flowing through the coil x number of turns in the coil
mmf = I x N
where
mmf = magnetomotive force
I = current (amps) flowing through the coil
N = number of turns in coil

Units: Ampere turns (At)

(The name of “Magnetomotive Force” is the force given to the magnetic circuit to set up
a magnetic field.)

Magnetising Force (H)

The magnetising force is the effort the coil provides to magnetise a particular magnetic circuit,
(eg. an electromagnet or a valve solenoid). If a coil is wound close together, then there will be a
greater local magnetising force than if they are loosely wound and a greater distance apart.
The Magnetising Force is the Magnetomotive Force provided per unit length. As a formula it is,

IxN
H =
l
where
H = Magnetising Force
I = current flowing through the coil
N = number of turns in coil
l = length of coil

Units: Ampere turns / metre (At/m)

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Total Flux () = the total number of lines of force in the field.
The total flux ():
Units: weber (Wb), (one weber is 108 lines of force)

The total flux is produced in a magnetic circuit by the Magnetomotive Force. It is represented by
the symbol .

Flux Density (B)

Up to this point we have considered the magnetic fields in terms of the total flux produced either
as a total or as a per metre. However, it is also useful to look at the density of the flux. This is
the number of lines of force per unit area.

Flux Density (B):


B =
A
where
B = Flux Density
 = total flux
A = Area

Units: Tesla (T) (= Wb/m2)

The flux density of a magnetic field refers to the number of lines of force per unit area. The
general symbol for flux density is B
The unit of Flux Density is Wb/m2, (webers/square metre), which is called Tesla.
Those of you who have been involved with compasses and the earth‟s magnetic field will know
that the measure of the earth‟s field at a point is given in Teslas. This is a measure of the flux
density at that point.

F = BIL

where
F = Force
I = Amps
L = Length in metres

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 LENZ LAW
Current flow that results from an induced emf, will produce a field about a conductor in which the
emf is induced.
LENS LAW states that;-
The direction of an induced e.m.f is such that the resulting current flow will produce a
magnetic field, which tends to oppose the original motion causing the induced e.m.f

This is the electrical counter part to Newton‟s third law of motion which states “action and
reaction are equal and opposite”
The direction in which the induced e.m.f reacts can be found directly by the application of
Fleming‟s right-hand rule.
In the figure above, the downward movement of the conductor through the magnetic field,
induces an e.m.f in the conductor, which causes a current to flow in the conductor. The resulting
current flow will cause a circular magnetic field to be created around the conductor. The
interaction between the two magnetic fields also causes a force in the conductor to act in the
opposite direction
For Lenz Law to apply the induced field must oppose the motion. The direction of the induced
field must be such that that the following interactions will occur between the main and induced
fields.
The main field should be strengthened below the conductor and weak above it. The resulting
magnetic force should then act upwards in opposition to the motion of the conductor.
If the above conditions are to apply, it is necessary for the induced field to be in an anti-clockwise
direction. It will follow that that the induced current, which produces the field must flow in the
direction shown above.
A further example of Lenz law can be seen with the two coils and magnets below. A permanent
magnet is moved along the axis of a coil. The action of moving the magnet into the coil will
induce an e.m.f in the coil.
The induced current flow must be in such a direction that the resulting field will oppose the
original motion.

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  The polarity of the field which, is induced about the coil.

 The north pole of the induced field adjacent to the north pole of the permanent magnet.
 The force created by the induced field will then oppose the original motion. This is
consistent with the fundamental law of magnetism which states that like poles repel.
In fig (b) the direction of movement has been reversed. As the magnet is withdrawn from the
coil, the induced field will resist the motion. This opposing action will continue until the magnet
moves beyond the area of influence of the induced field surrounding the coil.

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 MOTOR PRINCIPLES
AC Motors

General Construction

The most common type of motor is the three phase induction motor. These motors are:

 simple;
 tough; and
 require little attention.

There are other types of motors used on board. For example, small single phase motors are used
for galley equipment and small fan installations. However, we will concentrate on three phase
induction moors.

An induction motor (Figure 1), has two main components:

 the stator; and

 the rotor.

The stator (Figure 1) carries the three phase winding in slots cut into a laminated steel magnetic
core.

The ends of the stator windings are terminated in the stator terminal box, where they are
connected to the incoming cable from the three phase supply.

Figure 1

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 The rotor (Figure 2) has an non-insulated “cage” winding. This consists of conductor (copper or
aluminium) bars connected together at the ends by “end rings”. The conductor bars are set in a
laminated steel magnetic core.

Figure 2

Basic Operation

When the three phase supply is connected to the stator windings, the currents which flow in the
windings produce a “multi-pole magnetic field”. Let us see what this means.

VA
A

VC
Rotor
B C

VB Stator
windings

(a) (b)
Figure 3

Consider Figure 3(a), showing the rotor surrounded by the three stator coils.
1. The three stator windings (A, B, and C), are supplied with 3 phase voltage, shown in Figure
3(b). This results in the three stator windings being sequentially supplied with voltage.

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 This can be understood if we consider the voltage peaks in Figure 5.13(b). They occur
sequentially, ie:

VA  VB  VC

Thus, the three stator coils will receive the voltage peaks sequentially in the following
manner:

A  B  C  A  B  C  A  B  C and so on.

Thus, the voltage (and hence the current it creates), will rotate around the stator in the above
sequence:

2. You have learnt that the flow of current in a conductor will create a magnetic field.
Therefore, each stator coils will generate a magnetic field. As the voltage (and hence the
current), rotates around the stator, so will the generated magnetic field. The speed of this
rotation of the field is called synchronous speed.

Thus, we now have a rotating magnetic field, which rotates at the synchronous speed.

3. As this rotating magnetic field passes the rotor, it cuts the copper or aluminium conductor
(bar) on the rotor. We know this will induce a voltage in the rotor conductors.

4. The voltage induced in the bars produces currents in the bars, which in turn produce a
magnetic field around the bars.

5. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the stator. This results in a force on
the rotor, which makes the rotor turn.

Some points to note:

 The direction of rotation of the rotor will be the same as the direction of the stator magnetic
field. Thus, the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field.
 The rotor cannot turn as fast as the stator magnetic field. This means that an induction
motor does NOT run at synchronous speed. It runs at a speed slightly less than
synchronous speed.

This is because the moving magnetic field of the stator must cut the bars of the rotor to
produce an induced voltage. If the rotor turned at synchronous speed, there would be no
relative movement between the rotor and stator, (refer back to sub-section 1 in this
section).

The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual speed of an induction
motor is called the slip.

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PRODUCTION OF AN E.M.F. DUE TO A ROTATING LOOP
IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Generation of a Voltage

This requires:
 a conductor;
 a magnetic field; and
 the movement of one relative to the other.

This will result in the generation of a voltage in the conductor.

This voltage will cause the flow of an electric current.

This is the basic principle of an alternator.

An alternator consists of a magnetic field and a set of conductors. One or the other is then moved
by the prime mover (engine). This gives relative motion between the two, and hence induces a
voltage in the conductor.
When a voltage is induced into a conductor it is referred to as the induced voltage.
The value of the induced voltage is dependent on the rate at which the loop cuts the
magnetic field.
The simplest method of generating electricity is by using a single rotating loop in a magnetic field,
shown in Figure.1. The single loop is rotated in a magnetic field created between two fixed,
permanent magnets.

As the loop is rotated there will be relative motion between the loop and the magnetic field, (ie.
the loop cuts the field). This will result in an e.m.f. (voltage) induced in the loop.

(Note: only the “sides” of the loop will have e.m.f. generated in them. The ends of the
loop run parallel to the magnetic field and therefore, do not actually cut the field. Thus,
no e.m.f. is generated.)

The e.m.f. induced in the loop needs to be connected to an external circuit. This is achieved by
two metallic “slip rings” that are connected to the respective ends of the loop. Carbon brushes,
rubbing on the rings complete the connection, (see Figure.1(a)). This then can be connected to
the load (ie. the circuit). If a meter is connected across the load, it will measure the voltage.

Let us see how the e.m.f.. (voltage) and hence the current is generated in the alternator. The
sequence of events are shown in Figures. 1(a) to.1 (e).

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Note: the loop (conductor) in the alternator consist of two “sides”, that cut the magnetic field as
they rotate.

Figure.1(a)

Figure 1(a)
In this position, the sides of the loop will be parallel to the magnetic field. Therefore, they will not
cut the field. Hence no e.m.f. (voltage) will be induced in the loop.
As the loop rotated, the sides will enter the field and start to cut through the magnetic field. This
will result in the generation of a small e.m.f. in the loop.

Figure.1 (b)

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Figure.1(b)
Further rotation of the loop will result in the gradual increase in the rate the loop sides cut the
magnetic field. This will result in a corresponding increase in the induced e.m.f.
The increase in e.m.f. will continue till it reaches the position in Figure 1(b). at this point the sides
will be cutting the magnetic field at 90, ie. at the maximum rate. Hence, it will generate the
maximum voltage.

The flow of current along the loop due to the induced e.m.f. (voltage) is shown by the arrows in
Figure.1(b)

Figure.1 (c)

Figure.1(c)
Further rotation of the loop will gradually decrease the rate the sides cut through the field. This
results in a reduction in the induced e.m.f., eventually reaching the position shown in Figure.1(c)

At this point the induced e.m.f. will again be zero, This is due to the sides of the loop again
moving parallel to the magnetic field, ie. not cutting it.

As the loop rotates further, the sides will begin to cut through the magnetic field again.

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 Figure.1(d)
Figure.1(d)
As the loop rotates from the position in Figure.1(c) to that in Figure.1(d), the increase in the rate
the sides cut the field will result in an increase in the induced e.m.f. However, the direction of
motion of the loop sides through the magnetic field will be opposite to that in Figure.1(b).
Therefore, the induced e.m.f. will be in the opposite direction.
This is shown by the arrows in Figure.1(d). Compare this with the arrows in Figure 1(b).
At the position in Figure 1(d), the voltage will again be at a maximum, but in the opposite
direction to the maximum obtained in Figure.1(b).

Figure.1(e)

Figure.1(e)

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Further rotation will cause the induced e.m.f. to decrease as the rate the sides cut through the
field decreases. This will continue until the position in Figure 1(e) is reached. This is the same as
Figure 1(a) and will generate no e.m.f., (ie. sides parallel to the field).

The loop has now completed one complete revolution and is said to have completed one cycle.

Further revolutions will repeat the process explained above.

Assuming that the rotational speed of the prime mover is constant, the results of the following
cycles will be identical to that in the first cycle.

Thus, the produced voltage starts at zero, reaches a maximum, and returns to zero. It then
changes direction and repeats this in the opposite direction, until it again reaches zero.

A voltage which first goes one way, then the other, and repeats the process at regular
intervals is said to be alternating.

Figure 2, shows a typical alternating voltage (and current) output. .

The rate at which the cycles occur is called the frequency of the induced voltage.

Frequency:

The number of complete cycles occurring in one second.

Units of frequency = Hertz (Hz)

(It is also referred to as “cycle”)

For example, the frequency of the supply voltage is 50 Hz or 50 cycle. Thus, the voltage has 50
cycles per second. You may have noticed that in some countries the supply of electricity is stated
as being a 50 Hz, while others have a 60 Hz supply. What is the frequency of the voltage in your
country?

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 Figure 2

The generator discussed in Figure 1, (ie. with two magnets - North and South), is called a two
pole machine.

The machine and its output voltage is shown in Figure 2 It takes one revolution to produce one
cycle.

Imagine a prime mover driving an alternator at a set speed of 3000 RPM.

This means that the loop in the alternator will rotate at 3000 revolutions each minute. The
number of revolutions per second would be:

3000RPM
Rev per sec = = 50 rev per sec.
60

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Because one complete cycle is generated each revolution, there would be 50 cycles generated
each second. Thus, the frequency of the voltage developed is 50 Hz.
Not all machines are two pole machines. When there are more than one set of magnets, the
machine has more than two poles.
Each set of magnets has two poles, ie. the North and South magnetic poles.
This means that a machine with four magnets, (ie. two North and two South), is a four pole
machine.
One with six magnets is a six pole machine and so on.
Note, the number of poles is always an even number. This is because there always must be a
South pole for each North pole, ie. a pole pair.
Depending on the number of pole pairs, the frequency of the voltage will change. For the same
engine speed, more pole pairs will result in a higher frequency, (Figure 2). Since this machine
has two pole pairs (four magnets), the frequency is twice that of the previous machine. Thus, one
revolution produces two cycles.
The wave shape shown for the output voltage in Figure.2 is known as a “sinusoidal” wave. All
generators are designed to produce sinusoidal wave output,

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 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT
Instruments are devices that measure various quantities and gives the operator an accurate
indication of the size of the quantity measured.
 On a switchboard there is a number of instruments that you should be familiar with. They
are very important, as they give an indication of the state of the electrical system. The
instruments provided on a switchboard are:ammeter;voltmeter;frequency meter;wattmeter;
and power factor meter (not always present).

Ammeter
An ammeter measures the flow of current in a circuit. The meter is connected in series with the
circuit, (Figure.1). However, circuitry inside the meter ensures that only a very small part of the
overall current actually flows through the ammeter coil. (The ammeter would have to be very
large and robust to take a large current through it).

Ammeter
Power Load
supply

Fig1 Connecting an Ammeter to a Circuit.

The main operating force in an ammeter is provided by the magnetic field around an electric
current. Remember the magnetic field is proportionate to the current flowing.
Figure 2(a) shows the operational principle of a moving iron ammeter. It consists of two irons,
one stationary and the other fitted to a moving pointer.
The small current flows through a coil surrounding the irons, [Figure 2(b)]. This creates a
magnetic field, which magnetise the two irons.
Remember like magnetic poles repulse each other. Therefore, the magnetised irons will develop a
repulsion force between each other. This will cause the pointer to move against the spring.

The pointer stops moving when the spring tension equals the repulsion force between the
magnets.
Because the measurement is being carried out by the attraction or repulsion of two iron magnets,
this type of meter is called a „moving iron‟ meter.

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 Fixed
coil

(a) (b)
Figure .2
From Figure 2 it is noticed that the pointer is fitted between two pivots. The spring is of a small
cross-section area and the pointer is counterbalanced.
These features make this meter, (and similar instruments), very easy to be damaged, if misused.
Therefore, do NOT hit or knock the front of the meter when reading it. This type of action can
damage the pivot, break the glass, or upset the spring any of which could render the meter
inaccurate or stop it functioning.

PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL MOVEMENT

The compass and conducting wire meter can be considered a fixed-conductor moving-magnet
device since the compass is, in reality, a magnet that is allowed to move. The basic principle of
this device is the interaction of magnetic fields-the field of the compass (a permanent magnet)
and the field around the conductor (a simple electromagnet).
A permanent-magnet moving-coil movement is based upon a fixed permanent magnet and a coil
of wire which is able to move, as in figure 1-4.
When the switch is closed, causing current through the coil, the coil will have a magnetic field
which will react to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The bottom portion of the coil in
figure 1-4 will be the north pole of this electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the coil will
move to the position shown in figure 1-5.

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Figure 1-4. - A movable coil in a magnetic field (no current).

Figure 1-5. - A movable coil in a magnetic field (current).

The coil of wire is wound on an aluminium frame, or bobbin, and the bobbin is supported by
jewelled bearings which allow it to move freely. This is shown in figure

1-6.Figure 1-6. - A basic coil arrangement.

To use this permanent-magnet moving-coil device as a meter, two problems must be solved.
First, a way must be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current
through the coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil movement.
The first problem is solved by the use of hairsprings attached to each end of the coil as shown in
figure 1-7. These hairsprings can also be used to make the electrical connections to the coil.
With the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when there is no current. The
springs will also tend to resist the movement of the coil when there is current through the coil.
When the attraction between the magnetic fields (from the permanent magnet and the coil) is
exactly equal to the force of the hairsprings, the coil will stop moving toward the magnet.

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Figure 1-7. - Coil and hairsprings.

As the current through the coil increases, the magnetic field generated around the coil increases.
The stronger the magnetic field around the coil, the farther the coil will move. This is a good basis
for a meter.

But, how will you know how far the coil moves? If a pointer is attached to the coil and extended
out to a scale, the pointer will move as the coil moves, and the scale can be marked to indicate
the amount of current through the coil. This is shown in figure 1-8.

Figure 1-8. - A complete coil.

Two other features are used to increase the accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement.
First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, curved pole
pieces are attached to the magnet to ensure that the turning force on the coil increases steadily
as the current increases.
The meter movement as it appears when fully assembled is shown in figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9. - Assembled meter movement.

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This permanent-magnet moving-coil meter movement is the basic movement in most measuring
instruments.
It is commonly called the d'Arsonval movement because it was first employed by the Frenchman
d'Arsonval in making electrical measurements. Figure 1-10 is a view of the d'Arsonval meter
movement used in a meter.

Figure 1-10. - A meter using d'Arsonval movement.

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Voltmeter
A voltmeter is similar in construction to an ammeter. It is a lightly constructed meter which uses
a very small current to operate it. The internals are similar to that in Figure .2.
The difference between a voltmeter and an ammeter is the way they are connected to the circuit.
The ammeter shown in Figure.1 is connected in series with the circuit. It is very low in
resistance in order to allow the current to pass through the meter without too much interference.
A voltmeter, on the other hand, is connected in parallel with the circuit or component it is
measuring, (see Figure .3).

Components

Supply V2 Load
V1

Voltmeters

Figure 3
Connecting a Voltmeters to a Circuit to Measure the Voltage across a Component (V 1) and the
Load Circuit (V2)

In Figure 3:
 Voltmeter V1 is connected in parallel with the component and therefore, will only measure
the voltage across that component.
Voltmeter V2 is in parallel with the load at the end of the circuit and measures the voltage
across that part of the circuit.
Built into the voltmeter is a large resistance. This restricts the current taken by the meter,
ensuring that the meter does not have too much of an affect on the circuit.
Connecting any meter into a circuit will change the circuit. This is because a meter has resistance
and will take some current and have a voltage drop across it. Usually, if the meter is connected
properly, the effect of the meter is so small, that it is not noticeable and can be ignored

Wattmeter
A wattmeter measures the power being dissipated in the circuit at a given time.
The formula for power is given as P = V x I

This means that the power measurement is made up of:

 a measure of the current; and
a measure of the voltage.

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Therefore, in a wattmeter there are two coils, one for the current and the other for the voltage.
The current coils is, as before, connected in series with the load. The voltage coil is connected
across the load, (ie. in parallel).These two coils combine to give a reading containing both volts
and amps. The meter is scaled in watts.

Current

voltage Load
Supply
Wattmeter

Figure 4 Connecting a Wattmeter to a circuit

Frequency Meter
Some frequency meters are of the vibrating reed type. The frequency is indicated by small reeds
that vibrate at the frequency of the voltage supply and are visible on the instrument face.
However, most modern frequency meters are electronic. They have an electronic counter that
counts the number of cycles per second. An electronic circuit displays the result as a digital or
analogue reading.
These meters are connected across the supply similar to the voltmeter connection shown in Figure
3.

Power Factor Meters

These meters are connected in a similar manner to power meters. However, the instrument
processes the input to give a reading of the power factor.
Generally there is not much that can be done about the power factor of the circuit. However, the
closer it is to unity (one), the better it is for the alternators.

Multimeters
As the name “Multimeter” implies, this instrument has „multi‟ uses. It can measure current,
voltage, resistance, and (depending on the type of the meter) a range of other measurements.
In addition to selecting what quantity to measure, the multimeter can also scale the reading.
In each type of reading, the operator can select an appropriate range. For example, for
volts, the meter may have the ranges:0-200 V;0-500 V; and0-1000 V
Thus, depending on the voltage to be read, the operator can select the range that will give the
most accurate reading. Note: some electronic multimeter will have automatic range selection.
In trouble shooting and fault finding, the operator may not be in a position to read the
switchboard instruments. Therefore, the operator will need an instrument that is portable and
reliable. This is where the portable multimeter is useful. Multimeters are usually one of two
types: Analogue and Digital

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Measuring Current and Voltage
When measuring current or voltage with a multimeter, it must be remembered that a multimeter
is still a meter. Therefore, it must be connected to the circuit in the same manner as a
switchboard instrument. Thus:
 Ammeter in series; and
 Voltmeter in parallel.
The rules for using a multimeter are reasonably simple and straight forward.

Rules when using a Multimeter:

1 Check that the meter is operating. This can be done by using the meter to read a known
value or simply by selecting an  scale and touching the leads together. In the latter case,
the reading will move from it maximum value when leads are apart, to a zero on contact
2 Determine the type of quantity to be measured - volts or amps.
3 Select an appropriate scale.
4 If an approximate size of the reading is known then set the scale of the multimeter
appropriately.
5 the scale switch to the highest scale available.
6 Turn the meter on and take a reading. Move the scale switch down the ranges until an
accurate reading is obtained.
7 Connect the meter to the circuit and proceed to take the reading.8 Disconnect the
meter, restore the circuit to its original condition, (if required), and make the meter safe for
storage.

Measuring Resistance

The resistance of a circuit is measured for three reasons:

 1 to check the continuity of a circuit, (ie. to trace an open circuit fault);
2 to check for accidental cross connections, (ie. to trace possible short circuit); and3 to
check the resistance of specific component, (eg. resistors).
A multimeter when reading a resistance, uses its internal power supply (usually a battery), to
pass a current through the circuit or component being measured. The amount of current able to
pass through the circuit is used as a measure of its resistance.
If there is another power supply to the circuit, the reading will be inaccurate and the meter may
suffer damage.
The component or part of the circuit being measured, must be disconnected from the
rest of the circuit in order to eliminate parallel paths.

Two problems due to parallel circuits are:

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 If there is another path for the current to flow in parallel with the one being measured, then
the total resistance will be lower. When using the multimeter to identify an open (fault) circuit,
an unwanted parallel path will give a totally incorrect result, (see Figure 6).
Multimeter

Open circuit

Load

Parallel path

Figure 6Before taking any readings, in some multimeters the zero adjustment must be set to
read zero, when the leads are touched together.
Because the power required to pass a current through the circuit comes from an internal battery,
it is possible that the battery may be partly flat. Setting the zero before a reading, removes the
error which would occur with a partially flat battery. Zero adjustments must also be done when
there is a change of range. For example, if you change from the 10 k scale to the 100 k scale,
the zero must be rechecked before the reading is taken.
 Always leave a multimeter on the highest possible AC voltage scale, when not in use.
The most common reason for damage to multimeters is the connection of the meters to
a circuit without prior inspection of the multimeter range setting. Leaving a meter on the
high AC voltage range reduces the possibility of damage. When checking an unknown
voltage (or current), always start with the highest range. If the reading is too low, a
quick check will soon show if a lower range is more suitable. Never attempt to take a
resistance reading in a circuit while there is power applied to the circuit. Capacitors in a
circuit can hold a charge that can damage a meter. Capacitors should be short circuited
temporarily after the power is disconnected to discharge them, before using the
multimeter. Always take care not to drop any meter. Analogue (moving needle) meters
are very susceptible to physical damage, which can dislodge the movement. Digital
meters can have their printed circuits damaged by physical jolts. Instruments should
never be cleaned with solvent based cleaners.

Fault Tracing
There are two method of tracing faults using a multimeter:
 Voltage measurement with the circuit supply ONContinuity (or resistance) measurement with
the power OFF
The most common fault in a circuit is the open circuit. This can be caused by broken wires, bad
terminals or connections, burnt coils, bad contacts, and switches that are open that should be
closed. In fact anything that can interfere with the flow of current can cause an open circuit.

Insulation Resistance Measurement

The common term for the instrument used to measure insulation resistance is the “Megger”. This
term is used because the first commonly used meter for this purpose was called a “Megger”, and
the name has been applied to all instruments of that style.
The method used by a Megger to measure insulation resistance is similar to the measurement of
the resistance of a component. The main difference being that the resistances measured when
checking insulation is much larger.

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The method is to generate a large voltage, 500 V or sometimes 1000 V, in the Megger and apply
it to the insulation.
The idea is to try to force some current through the insulation.
If the insulation is good, the current forced through will be very small. If not, there will be a flow
of current through the insulation. The reading is an indication of this current.
High current Poor insulation
Low or no current good insulation
The condition of the insulation is judged by considering the resistance of the insulator per volt of
electricity carried through the system. An acceptable reading is 1000 / Volt.
If the reading is lower than this figure, then appropriate action must be taken.

Example
If the voltage of a circuit is 415 V, calculate the minimum acceptable reading when the circuit is
meggered.

Since the minimum reading is 1000 / Volt, then for a 415 V circuit,
Minimum Resistance = 1000 /Volt x 415 V = 41500  = 0.415 MNote: if the reading is
between 0.415 M and 0.1 M, then the trend of the circuit insulation resistance should be
monitored regularly.
If the resistance slowly increases, then all will probably be OK. However, if the trend is
downwards, then action must be taken. At a reading of 0.1 M the equipment in question must
be taken out of service for remedial action.

Obtaining Insulation Resistance Measurements

The voltage output of a Megger is at least 500 V, or even 1000 V.

This voltage can be very dangerous, do not touch the leads.

The taking of insulation resistance measurements is straightforward. We need to apply the output
voltage of the Megger to the insulation of the equipment.
The insulation is physically between the conductor and the frame of the equipment. Therefore, we
need to place one Megger lead on the conductor and the other on the frame of the equipment.
The conductor, in equipment such as a motor can be accessed via the terminal. The casing could
be accessed through a nut or bolt on it. Ensure that any paint or dirt on the casing contact point
is removed before connecting the clamp on to it.

1. Steps to check if contact on the casing is true:-

2. Scrape any dirt from the point and fit one clamp.
3. Repeat step 1 for “another” point on the casing and fit the other clamp.
4. Activate the Megger and observe the reading. If proper contact has been made, the
reading should be around zero, as there should be very little resistance between the two
points. If so, either contact point is acceptable.
If the reading is high (ie. the resistance is high), clean and re-clamp the lead or to find another
point/s and re do the steps “1” to “4”.

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 Figure 9

Figure 9 shows the measuring points of a three phase induction motor

Top - insulation between the three stator windings.

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Bottom - continuity of each of the three stator winding set.

Note: first disconnect any bridging connections between the winding that may be present in the
terminal box.

Action on Low Insulation Readings

A low insulation reading means that there is something in the windings or insulation that is
allowing a current to flow to earth, (casing). This is usually dirt or moisture.
As this test is commonly carried out on motors, we will only discuss actions applicable to motors.
They are as follows:
 Inspect the windings of the motor. If dirt is seen in the winding it should be cleaned. This
is carried out with a brush, rag, air blower, or maybe even some liquid cleaner.
The more common cause of low insulation resistance, particularly at sea, is moisture. This is
best remove by warming the windings with warm air, electric heating, or supplying a
sufficiently large current to the windings for a period of time
A repeat of the insulation reading will indicate whether or not the cleaning or drying has been
successful. If there is no improvement, the motor will need to be sent to a repair facility for a
more thorough check and repair.

Use of a “Tong Tester”

A “tong tester”, (Figure 10), is also called a clip-on ammeter, or a split ring ammeter. It is a
device for measuring the current flowing in a conductor without opening the circuit to inset an
ammeter.
As stated before, a current flowing through a conductor will create a magnetic field around it. The
strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the current flowing through the conductor.
A tong tester has two arms or „tongs‟ of magnetic material. One of the tongs is pivoted, so that
the tongs may be parted to fit around a conductor.
The magnetic field around the conductor magnetises the tongs. The strength of the magnetic field
is detected by the meter and a reading is displayed on the meter scale in Amps.
Tong testers are usually only for AC circuits. Special testers are available for DC circuits, but these
are rare.

Hinged tong
Pivot

Scale

Fixed tong

Figure.10 Tong Tester

When using a tong tester, the tongs must encircle only one conductor.
Encircling more than one conductor allows two or more magnetic fields to be present in the loop
at once. This introduces large errors. Usually, putting two or more conductors through the tongs
gives a zero reading, as the magnetic fields tend to cancel each other out.

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Measurement of the Resistance of a Component using an Ammeter and a
Voltmeter

To achieve this, it is required to have a suitable power supply. The circuit to carry out this
measurement is as shown in Figure 11.

Ammeter

Power Component
supply V

Voltmeter

Figure.11
The circuit in Figure.11 measures:
the voltage across the component; and the current being taken by the component.
Now using Ohm‟s Law, V = I x R we can easily calculate the resistance.

Remember the insertion of an instrument into a circuit will always have an affect on that circuit.

In the case just shown, the ammeter measures the TOTAL current being taken by the circuit.
This includes the current taken by the voltmeter.
The current taken by the voltmeter is usually very small, so for practical purposes it may be
ignored.
However, if the resistance of the component is roughly the same as the resistance of the
voltmeter, then the current through the voltmeter represents approximately half of the current
through the total circuit. This will introduce large errors in the final calculation

It is however, possible to change the circuit to accommodate this problem as shown in Figure.12.

Ammeter

Power Component
supply V

Voltmeter

Figure.12
In Figure.12, the ammeter reads only the current through the component. This eliminates the
problem encountered in Figure 11.

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However, if the resistance of the component is low, then the voltage drop across the ammeter
becomes a problem. This will affect the voltage reading, as the meter will reflect the voltage
across the ammeter and the component.
Therefore, follows the guide lines given below when using a multimeter and an ammeter to
measure the resistance of a circuit.
Measuring Resistance with a Voltmeter and an Ammeter.
 If the resistance of the component is known to be very low, then the voltmeter should be
connected to read only the voltage across the component, (Figure.11).
If the resistance of the component is known to be very high, then the ammeter should be
connected to read only the current through the component, (Figure.12).

Safe Use of Test Equipment

It is important for the vessel‟s engineers to know the condition of the electrical system on board.
The correct use of test equipment will greatly assists in achieving this.
Let us look at the safe operation of the test equipment commonly used on board vessels.

Meter Multipliers
A high value resistor (multiplier) when connected in series with the meter, ensures that the
current in the meter circuit does not exceed the rated value of current for full scale deflection of
the meter when a higher than normal voltage is applied.
By using Ohm‟s Law the resistor required can be determined.
ExampleA permanent magnet moving coll meter has an internal resistance of 100 ohms and
requires a current of 1mA to give full scale deflection. Determine the value of the multiplying
resistor required to enable the to be used as a voltmeter reading up to 50v at full scale
deflectioLook at the circuit above. When 50 V are applied to the terminals (A and B), the current
through the metre circuit must be limited to 1mA, to avoid overloading the meter. The total
resistance of the meter circuit must be
V 50
R total = = = 50,000 Ω 50 k Ω
Im 0.001

This value of the combined resistance of the multiplying resistor and the meter R multiplier =R
total - R meter = 50,000 - 100 = 49,900 Ohms

SHUNT MULTIPLIERS The value of a series resistor should remain constant even though
it‟s temperature changes. Multipliers are manufactured from low temperature coefficient of
resistance.
In addition to extending the range of a voltmeter, the total resistance of the meter circuit must be
hight enough to prevent it placing too much additional burden on the circuit under test. The
higher the voltmeter resistance for any one voltage, the more sensitive it is.

Precautions to take when using test equipment include:

Know, or find out, the size of the quantity to be measured. This prevents the application of a
meter to the system with a lower than required scale resulting in a blown fuse or damage to the
meter.

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Can the equipment be measured live? This is important, because an accidental trip of the circuit
during measurement can be disruptive and dangerous to the operation of the vessel.
Does other equipment need to be isolated or disconnected during testing?
Will the meter have an effect on the circuit?
Is there a similar circuit operating, which can be used for comparison? This could be useful in
interpreting the results.
ALWAYS have another person with you during electrical testing.
Keep a record of all measurements for future reference and trend analysis.

SUMMARY
1. List the types of instruments fitted to a switchboard.
2. Explain the operation of the moving iron meter.
3. Using sketches, show how the moving iron meter is connected to read: current, voltage, and
power.
4. Is an ammeter connected in series or parallel with the load?
5. Explain the operation of measuring resistance using a multimeter.
6. Using sketches, explain the procedure of measuring the resistance of a component using
an ammeter and a voltmeter in the following circuits:a) circuit having a low resistance;
and b) a circuit having a high resistance.
How does the operator check that a multimeter is operating?
8 List the “rules” for using a multimeter.
9 List the precautionary and procedural steps to be taken when using test equipment.10
Explain why insulation resistance measurements are required.
11 Using sketches, explain the process of measuring the insulation resistance of a three phase
induction motor. Briefly explain the action to be taken if low insulation readings were
recorded in the above test.
13 Why must a component be disconnected from the circuit before being measured for
resistance. What is a tong tester for and why is it such a convenient instrument to use? 14 How
many conductors do you clamp the tong tester around to take a reading?

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 FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE
In electromagnetic studies reference is often made to the interaction between the magnetic fields
and conductors that are within the field. The common cases are:

 If a conductor carrying a current is within a magnetic field, there is an interaction between

the main existing field and the field produced by the current in the conductor. This
results in the conductor experiencing a force.

 If on the other hand, the conductor is pushed through the field, it will have a voltage
induced in it. This voltage will cause a current to flow, if there is a circuit connected to the
conductor. This current in turn will produce a magnetic field around the conductor, which
again will give an interaction with the main field. This will result in the conductor
experiencing a force.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is a method of determining the direction of the voltage induced in a
conductor, which is being pushed through a magnetic field.

If the first finger of the right hand be pointed in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb
be pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the
second finger, held at right angles to the thumb and first finger, represents the direction of the
induced voltage, (see Figure 1).

The manipulation of the thumb and fingers and their association with the correct quantity often
presents some difficulty. Easy manipulation can be acquired by experience, but some assistance
may be gained by remembering the following hints:

 First finger is associated with the Field or Flux.

 Motion of the conductor associated with the thumb.

 E.m.f (voltage) associated with the second finger.

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 Figure 1 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Figure 2 Direction of Induced Voltage

The principle of an AC induction motor

One of the simplest and safest ways to demonstrate the principle of an AC induction motor is to
show how an aluminium disc that is free to rotate will rotate when a permanent magnet is rotated
close to it.

Explanation of the model

In this model the rotating magnetic field of the bar magnet induces a current in the aluminium
disc that produces a magnetic field opposing that of the bar magnet. The interaction between the
two magnetic fields causes the aluminium disc to spin, chasing the rotating permanent magnet.

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The main features of an AC electric motor

 There are two main types of electric motors that run on AC: universal motors and induction
motors. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC and are essentially similar in
construction to a DC motor.

 An induction motor consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator consists of a series of wire
coils wound on soft iron cores that surround the rotor. These are connected to the external
power supply in such a way that they produce a magnetic field whose polarity rotates at
constant speed in one direction. This is achieved in a three-phase induction motor by
connecting consecutive coils in opposing pairs to the three phases of the power supply.
Many single-phase induction motors use capacitors to simulate the three-phase effect.

 The rotor consists of coils wound on a laminated iron armature mounted on an axle. The
rotor coils are not connected to the external power supply, and an induction motor has
neither commutator nor brushes. An induction motor is so named because eddy currents
are induced in the rotor coils by the rotating magnetic field of the stator. The eddy currents
produce magnetic fields which interact with the rotating field of the stator to exert a torque
on the rotor in the direction of rotation of the stator field.

 The rotor coils are often simplified to single copper bars capable of carrying a large
current, imbedded in the surface of the armature. The bars are connected at the ends by a
ring or disc of copper which allows current to flow in a loop between opposite bars. This
physical arrangement is referred to as a squirrel cage because it resembles an exercise
wheel for small mammals.

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An induction motor has a fixed maximum speed. The magnetic field of the stator rotates at the
frequency of the AC supply. Induction motors spin at about 3000 revolutions per minute (50 Hz x
60 seconds) without a load, but the speed of the rotor slips behind that of the field as a load is
applied.

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 ELECTRICAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Charge or Quantity of Electricity is the excess of positive or negative electricity in a body or in

a space. If the excess is positive, the body has a positive charge; if negative, a negative charge
Electric Field is a space in which an electric charge experiences a mechanical force.
Electric Force or Electric Field Strength at a point in an electric field is expressed by the
potential gradient at that point.
Line of Electric Force is a line drawn so that its direction at any point is the direction of the
electric force at that point.
Electric Flux is the quantity of electricity displaced across a given area in a dielectric.
Electric Flux Density is the electric flux per unit area normal to the direction of the flux.
Electromotive Force (abbreviation, E.M.F.) is that condition which exists in an electric circuit
tending to cause a movement of
electricity around the circuit.
Potential Difference (abbreviation, P.D.) between two points in an electric circuit is that
difference in their electric states tending to cause a movement of electricity from the one point to
the other.
Voltage is the value of an E.M.F. or a P.D. given in volts.
Potential Gradient at a point in an electric field is the potential difference per unit length
measured in the direction of the field.
Electric Current is the flow of electricity around a circuit and its value is expressed by the rate at
which the flow takes place.
Resistance is that property of a substance whereby the flow of electricity through it is resisted
and by which energy is converted into heat.
Specific Resistance or Resistivity is the resistance between opposite faces of a cube, each side
of which has unit length at a given temperature.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance is the change in resistance of a conductor per degree
change in its temperature, expressed as a fraction of its resistance at a stated temperature,
usually '1
Self-Inductance or Inductance is that property of a circuit whereby a change in the
magnetic flux linked with the circuit causes an E.M.F. to be induced in it.
Mutual Inductance between circuits is the properly whereby a change in the current flowing in
the circuit causes an E.M.F. to be induced in the other.
Absolute Permittivity of a dielectric medium or space is the ratio of the electric flux density to
the electric force at a point in the medium. The absolute permittivity of free space or a vacuum is
8.854 x ro-12 farad per metre.
Direct, Current (abbreviation D.C.) is an electric current which flows in one direction only and
whose magnitude is not pulsating
Alternating Current (abbreviation, A.C.) is an electric current which periodically reverses its
direction in a circuit at a frequency which is not determined by the circuit itself.
Cycle. The complete series of changes taking place in the value of an alternating current, E.M.F.,
or P.D.
Frequency. The number of cycles traced out by an alternating current, E.M.F., or P.D., in one
second.
in watts to the total volt-amperes in the system.

2. MAGNETIC
Magnetic Field is a space in which forces of attraction or repulsion due to magnetic effects can
be observed.
Magnetic Force or Magnetic Field Strength at a point in a magnetic field is expressed by the
magneto-motive force per unit length measured along the lines of force. It is that which produces
or is associated with the flux density at the point.

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Line of Magnetic Force is a line drawn so that its direction at any point is the direction of the
magnetic force at that point.
Magnetic Flux is a phenomenon produced in a medium in the neighbourhood of electric currents
or magnets. It is expressed by the electromotive force induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux
is removed from that circuit in unit time.
Magnetic Flux Density at a point in a magnetic field is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area
over a small area at the point, the area being at right angles to the direction of the .magnetic
force at that point.
Magnetomotive Force (abbreviation, M.M.F.) in a magnetic circuit is that quantity which,
analogous to E.M.F. in the electric circuit, is necessary to establish a magnetic flux. It is the line
integral of the magnetic force around the magnetic circuit.
Electra-chemical equivalent (E.C.E.) of an element is the weight of the element which is
liberated by the passage of unit charge of electricity through an electrolyte. It is usually given in
grams per coulomb. Faraday showed that the E.C.E. of an element is proportional to its chemical
equivalent (First Law of Electrolysis).
Valency of an element is the number of atoms of hydrogen which one atom of the element will
combine with or displace.

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