DEFINITION OF DISASTER

“Disaster is a sudden calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction”

What makes an event a disaster? The answer lies with how the population is eventually
affected: both the direct effects on the people as well as the indirect effects or damage to
infrastructure. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2015) defines
disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society due to hazardous
events interacting with conditions of vulnerability and exposure, leading to widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses and impacts. Disasters are a type of hazardous
event in which there is a significant disruption of the function of all or part of society. The impact
of the disaster is often widespread and could last for a long period of time. The impact may test
or exceed the capacity of a community or society to cope using its
own resources, and therefore may requires assistance from external sources, which could
include neighboring jurisdictions, or national or international levels.

Disaster results from the combination of:

(1) the exposure to a hazard;
(2) the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and
(3) insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative
consequences. Consequences may include injuries, disease and other negative effects on
human physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, loss of
services and environmental degradation.

Although there are many definitions for disaster (Refer to Box 1), there are common factors.
First, there is an event or phenomenon that impacts a population or an environment
(WIDESPREAD like the flooding in Cagayan or the prolonged rain in Ilocos). Second, a
vulnerable condition or characteristic allows the event to have a more serious impact. For
example, a typhoon will cause much greater damage to life and structures if it directly strikes an
area with poorly constructed dwellings compared to striking a community of well-built homes
with greater structural support. Identifying these factors has practical implications for
communities’ preparedness and provides a basis for prevention (Turkeyi – conducting
investigation on the violations in the construction of buildings and suing Engineers), JAPAN
building stronger ones. Third, local resources are often inadequate to cope with the problems
created by the phenomenon or event. Disaster affects communities in multiple ways (cutting of
basic services – electricity, water; roads becoming inaccessible EX. ROADS ARE FLOODED
(Cagayan, Earthquake). Their impact on the health care infrastructure is also multi-factorial
(HOSPITALS destroyed unfit for occupation). The disaster event can cause an unexpected
number of deaths. In addition, the large numbers of wounded and sick often exceed the local
community’s health care delivery capacity (HOSPITALS destroyed unfit for occupation).

Yolanda, Wow Wowie

Relative to disaster, a salient factor that needs to be addressed properly is disaster risk.
DISASTER RISK can be understood as the likelihood (probability) of loss of life, injury or
destruction and damage from a disaster in a given period of time (adapted from UNISDR,
2015a). Disaster risk is widely recognized as the consequence of the interaction between a
hazard and the characteristics that make people and places vulnerable and exposed.

Risk = Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability

As we can see from the mathematical equation of risk, disaster risk results from the complex
interaction between development processes that generate conditions of exposure, vulnerability
and hazard. Disaster risk is therefore considered as the combination of the severity and
frequency of a hazard, the numbers of people and assets exposed to the hazard, and their
vulnerability to damage (UNIDR, 2015a). The losses and impacts that characterize disasters
usually have much to do with the exposure and vulnerability of people and places as they do
with the severity of the hazard event (UNISDR, 2013).

Disaster risk has many characteristics. In order to understand disaster risk, it is essential to
understand that it is:
• Forward looking: the likelihood of loss of life, destruction and damage in a given period of time
• Dynamic: it can increase or decrease according to our ability to reduce vulnerability (SEA
WALL; ATOMIC BOMB SHELTER, TRAIN SUBWAY)
• Invisible: it is comprised of not only the threat of high-impact events, but also the frequent, low-
impact events that are often hidden ( SINKHOLES )
• Unevenly distributed around the earth: hazards affect different areas, but the pattern of
disaster risk reflects the social construction of exposure and vulnerability in different countries
(TOWN/CITY PLANNING-DRAINAGE SYSTEM; RESIDENTIAL AREAS (SUBDIVISIONS-
MOUNTAINS, BODIES OF WATER)

• Emergent and complex: many processes, including climate change and globalized economic
development, are creating new, interconnected risks (MONEY ECONOMY) are variables that
either aggravate or mitigate the effects of hazards, affecting the degree or scope of a disaster.
1. Physical factors would pertain to tangible objects or infrastructure, like the
availability of fire exits, or the sturdiness of the building, or the presence or
absence of objects that can harm you or help, etc.
2. Psychological factors include the state of mental capacity and health. The
following are psychological risk factors summarized in a study made by ADPC,
2012:
a. Severity of exposure. The amount of exposure to the disaster is highly
related to risk of future mental problems. At highest risk are those that go
through the disaster themselves. Next are those in close contact with
victims. At lower risk are those who only had indirect exposure, such as
news of the severe damage. Injury and life threat are the factors that lead
most often to mental health problems.
b. Gender and family. Women or girls suffer more negative effects than do
men or boys. Disaster recovery is more stressful when children are present
in the home. Women with spouses also experience more distress during
recovery. Having a family member in the home who is extremely distressed
is related to more stress for everyone. Marital stress has been found to
increase after disasters. Also, conflicts between family members or lack of
support in the home make it harder to recover from disasters.
c. Age. Adults who are in the age range of 40–60 are likely to be more
distressed after disasters. The thinking is that if one is in that age range,
he/she has more demands from job and family.
d. Developing countries. Disasters in developing countries, like the
Philippines, have more severe mental health impact than do disasters in
developed countries. This is true even with less serious disasters. For
example, natural disasters are generally thought to be less serious than
human-caused. In developing countries, however, natural disasters have
more severe effects than do human-caused disasters in developed
countries.
e. Low or negative social support. Social support can weaken after disasters.
This may be due to stress and the need for members of the support network
to get on with their own lives. Sometimes the responses from other disaster
victims rely on for support are negative. For example, someone may play
down their problems, needs, or pain, or expect them to recover more
quickly than is realistic.
3. Socio-cultural factors include religion, social status, traditions, perception by
society, etc.
4. Economic factors include assets and liabilities, income, economic class, etc.
5. Political factors include government structure, diplomatic issues, etc.
6. Biological factors include flora and fauna in environment, health, diseases,
etc.

DAY ONE WEEK TWO

The following are the common effects of disaster identified by some studies on
disaster risk and management:
1. Displaced Populations. One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population
displacement. When countries are ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature
like flood and super typhoons, many people have to abandon their homes and seek shelter in
other regions.
A large influx of evacuees can disrupt accessibility of health care and education, as well as food
supplies and clean water. When Mt. Pinatubo erupted in 1991, thousands of families in
Zambales and Pampanga were displaced. Their communities were ravaged by lahar flow that
turned these communities into “wilderness”. Several resettlement areas were established to
accommodate those who were displaced. These resettlement areas which started as tent cities
for those affected by the volcanic eruption became permanent communities.
2. Health Risks. Aside from the obvious immediate danger that natural disasters present, the
secondary effects can be just as damaging. Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that
allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Dengue fever is
another serious health problem caused by mosquitoes (aedis egypti). Without emergency relief
from international aid organizations and others, death tolls can rise even after the immediate
danger has passed.
3. Food Scarcity. After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce. Thousands of people
around the world go hungry as a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural supplies,
whether it happens suddenly in a storm or gradually in a drought. As a result, food prices rise,
reducing families’ purchasing power and increasing the risk of severe malnutrition. The impacts
of hunger following an earthquake, typhoon or hurricane can be tremendous, causing lifelong
damage to children’s development. One of the serious “aftershocks” of Super Typhoon Yolanda
was there’s no food to eat immediately after the storm surge. This resulted into looting of some
stores and supermarkets (TURKEYI) in Tacloban City.
4. Emotional Aftershocks. Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children.
Confronted with scenes of destruction and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many children
develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition resulting from
extreme trauma. Left untreated, children suffering from PTSD can be prone to lasting
psychological damage and emotional distress (COUNSELING).

DAY 2-3
A disaster is a result of a vast ecological breakdown in the relation between humans and their
environment; a serious or sudden event on such a scale that the stricken
community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or
international aid.
Disaster is analyzed from different perspectives as follows:
Physical Perspective
From this view, disaster is defined as a phenomenon that causes damage to physical elements
such as buildings, infrastructures, including people and their properties, e.g. houses and
environmental sources of living (farms). Physical effects are the most visible and quantifiable
effects of a disaster. In assessing the aftermath of a disaster, physical damages are essentially
considered in data recording. Assessment of disaster is focused on the following common
questions:
How many families are affected? (displacement, injury, death)
How many houses are damaged or washed out? (in case of super typhoons)
How many buildings collapsed or are damaged? (in case of an earthquake)
How many roads, bridges, dams and other infrastructures are damaged? (in
case of floods, lahar flows and earthquakes)
What is the extent of damage in agricultural industry? (crop losses, damaged
fish cages, washed out rice fields, etc.)

Psychological Perspective
Psychological research has shown that disasters can cause serious mental health
consequences for victims. These consequences take the form of Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) and a variety of other disorders and symptoms which have been less
investigated. The more stress, defined in a variety of ways, within the disaster, the more likely
there are to be emotional consequences.
In psychological context a disaster is regarded as an occurrence involving an unexpected or
uncontrollable event rather than a long-term experience. In other words, a disaster is something
that could happen within a hazard rather than the hazard itself. Hence, one very important
component of the recovery phase, aside from relief services is debriefing or psychological
support system.
Other psychological effects of a disaster are the following:
• Emotional effects: Shock, terror, irritability, blame, anger, guilt, grief or
sadness, numbing, helplessness, loss of pleasure derived from familiar activities,
difficulty feeling happy, difficulty feeling loved.
• Cognitive effects: Impaired concentration, impaired decision-making
ability, memory impairment, disbelief, confusion, nightmares, decreased self-esteem,
decreased self-efficacy, self-blame, intrusive thoughts, memories, dissociation (e.g.
tunnel vision, dreamlike or ‘spacey’ feeling).
• Physical effects: Fatigue, exhaustion, insomnia, cardiovascular strain,
startle response, hyper arousal, increased physical pain, reduced immune response,
headaches, gastrointestinal upset, decreased appetite, decreased libido, vulnerability
to illness.
• Interpersonal effects: Increased relational conflict social withdrawal,
reduced relational intimacy, alienation, impaired work performance, decreased
satisfaction, distrust, externalization of blame, externalization of vulnerability,
feeling abandoned.

Socio-Cultural Perspective
What the people living at risk know and do about natural hazards and disaster
risks is mediated by a range of factors including social conditions (such as age,
gender, wealth, ethnicity, EDUCATION) and cultural settings (language, beliefs, traditions,
customs)(volcanic eruption-God is angry and so with typhoons, droughts caused by global
warming/climate change. In most places people are also more or less exposed by information
andideas coming from the “outside” – the world outside their own cultural setting. At the same,
the field of natural hazards and disasters has developed its own debates, framework, and
notions such as vulnerability, resilience, and ‘risk’. But communities may have different priorities
and notions of natural hazards and disaster risks. People’s socio-cultural background may affect
their response to disasters at the different stages of disaster management. Hence, from the
socio-cultural point of view, a disaster is analyzed based on how people respond having as
parameter their social conditions and cultural settings. These two factors are important
determinants of the degree of risk, resilience and vulnerability of those affected. That is why
some ethnic groups can easily cope with disasters compared to other groups.

Economic Perspective
From an economic perspective, a natural disaster can be defined as a natural
event that causes a perturbation to the functioning of the economic system, with a
significant negative impact on assets, production factors, output, employment and
consumption (FARM TO MARKET ROADS DAMAGED). One salient component of assessing
the impact of disaster impact from this view is defining direct economic cost and indirect losses.
Direct economic cost is the value of what has been damaged or destroyed by the disaster. This
should be seriously considered in disaster risk management and assessment. However, to get
the whole picture indirect losses is crucial in assessing disaster seriousness. This is done by
evaluating the main indirect consequences of a disaster. One example is when a head of family
losses a job due to isolation or the workplace itself is affected. The value of losses is measured
vis-à-vis time period and salary including perks and allowances.

Political Perspective
From this view, natural disasters are commonly thought to be less politically contentious than
armed conflicts. Yet, a closer look reveals that politics are deeply wedded to both the impact of
a natural disaster and the subsequent delivery of humanitarian assistance. Political
considerations before, during, and after a natural disaster can determine who is most at risk,
who can intervene, what actions will be taken, and who will benefit from those actions. Some
case studies demonstrate that economic, social, and political factors can significantly amplify
the devastating impact of a natural disaster.

Governmentality or deliverance of government services to constituents can be a plus or minus

factor in disaster risk reduction and management.

Government interventions should be present in following phases of Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management: (1) Prevention, (2) Mitigation, (3) Preparedness, and (4) Recovery.
Failure to do so adversely affects the capacity and opportunities of those affected to
cope with and recover from the impacts of disaster. (UNEQUAL DEVELOPMENT).

Environmental Perspective
Disasters are not random and do not occur by accident. They are the
convergence of hazards and vulnerable conditions. Disasters not only reveal
underlying social, economic, political and environmental problems, but
unfortunately contribute to worsening them. Such events pose serious challenges
to development, as they erode hard-earned gains in terms of political, social and
educational progress, as well as infrastructure and technological development. The
Millennium Declaration recognizes the risk to development stemming from disasters
and calls on the global community to “intensify our collective efforts to reduce the
number and effects of natural hazards and man-made disasters.” Several studies
have recently highlighted the fact that investments in development are in jeopardy
unless precautionary action is taken toward reducing disaster risk. Yet, few
development organizations adopt a precautionary approach in the design and
management of projects and fewer still recognize the role of environmental
management in reducing disaster risk.

Read and analyze the different statement. Determine the perspective being explained
in each number. Use your notebook for your answer.
1. It is almost always the poor who are disproportionately affected by natural disasters.
2. The occurrence of a natural disaster in an area affected by on-going conflict can lead to more
difficulties for relief agencies in accessing affected communities.
3. People may not blame their government for misfortune and yet, they will likely expect their
government to respond to disasters in an effective and accountable manner.
4. Due to the overexploitation of resources by human beings, the original orderly state of the
ecosystem has been broken, resulting in a decline in the ability of the ecosystem to resist
stress.
5. Disasters can be substantially reduced if people are well-informed and embrace a culture of
prevention.
6. Indigenous knowledge should be considered as a complement to scientific knowledge in the
development of community-based disaster risk management plans and programs.
7. Due to its geographic circumstances, the Philippines has an unusually high exposure to
natural hazards.

1. Economic
2. Political
3. Political
4. Psychological
5. Socio-cultural
6. Economic
7. Political
8. Environmental
9. Political
10. Environmental
11. Socio-cultural
12. Environmental
13. Economic
14. Economic
15. Environmental

Definition
Vulnerability comes from the Latin word for "wound," vulnus.
• According to Dictionary.com: It is the state of being open to injury
(CALAMANSI: OPEN WOUND) BATOHAN NG ITLOG - RAW AND BOILED EGG.
• United Nations Development Program: The degree of loss to a given element at risk at a
certain severity level.
• IFRC: diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover
from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard.
• The degree of loss to each element should a hazard of a given severity occur.
• It is the condition of being susceptible (easily affected) to harm or danger.
• The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
Vulnerability is defined through three major factors
• Exposure and physical susceptibility,
• Social and economic fragilities, and.
• Lack of resilience or ability to cope and recovering.
What makes a person vulnerable?
• The Department of Health defines a vulnerable adult as a person aged 18 years or over who is
or may be in need of community care services by reason of mental or other disability, age or
illness, and who is or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or
herself against significant harm or danger.

To determine people’s vulnerability, two questions need to be asked:

a. to what threat or hazard are they vulnerable?
b. what makes them vulnerable to that threat or hazard?
Is vulnerability good or bad?
To believe vulnerability is weakness is to believe that feeling is weakness. To foreclose on our
emotional life out of a fear that the costs will be too high is to walk away from the very thing that
gives purpose and meaning to living.

Counteracting vulnerability requires:

a. reducing the impact of the hazard itself where possible (through mitigation, prediction and
warning, preparedness); INFRASTRUCTURES
b. building capacities to withstand and cope with hazards; FOOD SECURITY
c. tackling the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty, poor governance, discrimination,
inequality and inadequate access to resources and livelihoods.
What is vulnerability in terms of disaster
Vulnerability is the inability to resist a hazard or to respond when a disaster has occurred. For
instance, people who live on plains are more vulnerable to floods than people who live higher
up.
Vulnerability to Natural Hazards
• The concept of vulnerability encompasses a variety of definitions. In general,
vulnerability means the potential to be harmed. Vulnerability to natural
hazards is thus the potential to be harmed by natural hazards. Some people
and places are more vulnerable to certain hazards than other people and
places. While any one extreme event may be unusual, there are broad trends
in natural hazards. These trends are due to characteristics of both natural
systems and human systems. By characterizing these trends, we can
understand who and what is vulnerable and in what ways they are vulnerable.
This, in turn, helps us reduce vulnerability and, when extreme events occur,
reduce the damage. This work saves lives, and much more.

• Generally speaking, disasters are becoming less deadly but more costly. Fewer people are
dying in disasters, but damages are costing more. Improved science and technology is a main
reason that fewer lives are lost. We are now better at forecasting disasters, and our buildings
and other structures can better withstand the physical impacts. This increases our resilience to
hazards. Growth in population and the economy is a main reason that more money is lost.
Simply put, society now has more of value that is exposed to hazards. Even though much of this
is also more resistant to damage, the total dollar amount of damage has been increasing.
• There is also an increase in the number of disasters reported, which can be caused by
population growth, economic growth, or changes in reporting standards. It seems that natural
disasters are getting more costly perhaps because people are building more expensive
infrastructure in hazard-prone areas. Human Factors
• Wealth affects vulnerability in several ways.
a. The poor are less able to afford good housing and other infrastructure that can withstand
extreme events.
b. They are less able to purchase resources needed for disaster response and are less likely to
have insurance policies that can contribute.
c. They are also less likely to have access to medical care. Because of these and other factors,
when disaster strikes, the poor are far more likely than the rich to be injured or killed.
d. the rich tend to lose more money from disasters, simply because they have more valuable
property at stake.

• Education is another important factor in hazard impacts.

a. With education, we can learn how to avoid or reduce many impacts.
b. When populations are literate, then written messages can be used to spread word about
hazards in general or about specific disasters. Even without literacy, it is possible to educate a
population about hazards in order to help it reduce its vulnerability.
c. When populations include professionals trained in hazards, then these people can help the
populations with their hazard preparations and responses.

Disaster risk is a combination of the interactions of natural hazard, vulnerability and capacity.
Let’s say the hazard is a 7.0 earthquake that hits a major town. How badly the town is affected
by the earthquake partly depends on the vulnerabilities of the town’s infrastructure and
population. Are houses and schools sturdy? Are hospitals still reachable and running when an
earthquake strikes? Here, the effects of this disaster are partially mitigated by the town’s
capacity. Strict building codes, for example, can guarantee that houses and schools are built
earthquake-safe. A population that knows what to do in the case of an earthquake is likely to
fare better than an untrained population.
TYPES OF VULNERABILITY
A. Physical
- May be determined by aspects such as remoteness of a settlement, the site,
the design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for housing
Example:
1. Wooden homes are less likely to collapse in an earthquake, but are more
vulnerable to fire.
2. Houses built with light materials may not be a problem during an
earthquake, but may be totally damaged by a super typhoon.
- buildings, transportation, lifelines (electricity, water supply), essential
facilities
B. Social
• Refers to the inability of people, organizations and societies to withstand
adverse impacts to hazard due to characteristics inherent in social
interactions, institutions and systems of cultural values.
• It includes aspects related to levels of literacy and education, the existence
of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of good
governance, social equity, positive traditional values, customs and
ideological beliefs and overall collective organizational systems
• People with disabilities, children, seniors, medication-dependent
individuals, women, ethnic minorities, aboriginal or indigenous people,
homeless or street people, incarcerated individuals and marginalized
groups
Example:
1. When flooding occurs some citizens, such as children, elderly and persons
with disability, may be unable to protect themselves or evacuate if necessary.
2. Educated and well-informed are more likely to survive when disaster strikes
C. Economic
• The level of vulnerability is highly dependent upon the economic status
of individuals, communities and nations.
• Economic vulnerability is the susceptibility of individuals,
communities, businesses, and governments to absorb or cushion the
effects of a hazard event (NASIRANG PANANIM-HOW TO START AGAIN; RESERVE)
• Rural households are more vulnerable than those in urban because of
greater number of people living in poverty.
• Women are more vulnerable than men because they lack access to
livelihood.
Example: poorer families may live in squatter settlements because they
cannot afford to live in safer (more expensive areas)
D. Environmental Elements
• Natural resources depletion and resource degradation are key aspect of
environmental vulnerability
Example: deforestation of mountains due to illegal logging is the main
cause of landslide and mudflows like what happened in Ormoc, Leyte 1994
and in Infanta, Quezon (2011)

WEEK FOUR DAY ONE

Terms that I should familiarize and remember….

 Hazard - A dangerous phenomenon, substance (OIL SPILL IN MINDORO TANKER),
human activity or condition (CROWDING-STAMPEDE,FIRE) that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social
and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
 Vulnerability - The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system
or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard (WOODEN HOUSES –
EARTHQUAKE, FIRE)
 Exposure - People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard
zones that are thereby subject to potential losses (MICRONESIA, RISING SEA LEVEL)

ELEMENTS AT RISK AND EXPOSURE

Elements at risk are the people, properties, economic activities, and public
and private services potentially threatened by a harmful event.

Risk assessment involves the identification and mapping of the elements at

risk and the assessment of vulnerability. In order to reduce risk, most of the focus is
on reducing vulnerability. Do you know the reason why? Understanding the elements
at risk exposed to each type of hazard is the first step in reducing vulnerability (Ex. OLD
PEOPLE CAN STAY IN THE FIRST FLOOR).
As the risk model (RISK = HAZARD x EXPOSURE x VULNERABILITY) shows, risk is also a
function of hazard. Hazard refers to the probability of occurrence at a given magnitude. In the
next module, the concept of hazard will be discussed in more detail. Exposed element can refer
to the number of people or structures within the exposed area. Figures for these two types of
elements at risk are the most reliable and least subjective. The combination of both hazard and
exposed population provides the physical exposure.
PhExp = Hazard x Exposure
Where:
PhP = physical exposure for the affected area
Hazard = probability of occurrence of an event at a given magnitude (West Valley Fault) 7.2
magnitude
Exposure = total population living in the affected area for each event (Valley Fault System which
runs through Metro Manila to the cities of Marikina, Quezon City , Pasig, Makati, Taguig and
Muntinlupa=34,000 possible casualties)
(Model and variable definition after Peduzzi et al., 2009)

WEEK 5 DAY ONE

Hazards are the potentials for damage to man and his environment that may result from the
occurrence of natural events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods and storm surges.
An event in itself does not constitute a hazard. It is when man and his environment are
threatened that these events can be considered hazards.
The various hazards we are exposed to at home or at school are some common that we tend to
overlook these for varied reasons. The tendency is to simply delay making changes to remove
the hazards (waiting until tomorrow or a time when “we are not so busy”). We are also faced
with varied threats from natural phenomena. It is never acceptable to make natural hazards for
granted.
There are many different ways of classifying hazard. Natural hazards such as volcanic eruptions
and earthquakes result from earth’s natural processes. Secondary hazards are the
consequences of other hazards like landslide, liquefaction, and tsunamis. Other examples of
hazards secondary to earthquakes are building collapse, dam failure, fire, and power
interruption

DAY 2

The scale of a natural disaster refers to the size of impact on both people and the environment
with the latter being of less importance when people are not directly impacted.

The Human Impact of Natural Disasters

1. Displaced Populations (LAHAR IN PAMPANGA)
One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population displacement. When
countries are ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature, many people have to
abandon their homes and seek shelter in other regions. A large influx of refugees can disrupt
accessibility of health care and education, as well as food supplies and clean water.
2. Health Risks
Aside from the obvious immediate danger that natural disasters present, the secondary effects
can be just as damaging. Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that allows breeding of
waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying mosquitos. Without emergency relief from
international aid organizations and others, death tolls can rise even after the immediate danger
has passed.
3. Food Scarcity
After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce. Thousands of people around the world go
hungry as a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural supplies, whether it happens
suddenly in a storm or gradually in a drought. As a result, food prices rise, reducing families’
purchasing power and increasing the risk of severe malnutrition or worse. The impacts of
hunger following an earthquake, typhoon or hurricane can be tremendous, causing lifelong
damage to children’s development.
4. Emotional Aftershocks
Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children. Confronted with scenes of
destruction and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many children develop post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition resulting from extreme trauma. Left
untreated, children suffering from PTSD can be prone to lasting psychological damage and
emotional distress.
5. Child-Centered Spaces, or CCSs, help families cope with their new reality following a
disaster; they allow parents to seek water, food and shelter while their children are in a safe
place with supervision. Also, children can talk about the traumatic things they saw and
experienced during the disaster, allowing them to gradually recover.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA NEGATIVE IMPACTS / WHY IT IS
HAZARDOUS
Lava flows rarely threaten human life
because lava usually moves slowly -- a
few centimeters per hour for silicic
flows to several km/hour for basaltic
flows. Most characterize this as quiet
effusion of lava. Major hazards of lava
flows -- burying, crushing, covering,
burning everything in their path.
Lavas can burn. The intense heat of
lavas melt and burn. As lava flows are
hot and incandescent, areas it covers
are burned (forest, built up areas,
houses).
Lavas can bury. Lavas can bury
homes and agricultural areas under
meters of hardened rock. Areas
affected by lava flows once solidified
are also rendered useless and will not
be useful anymore (for agriculture,
etc) for years due to the solid nature of
the lava deposit. Lavas can also block
bridges and highways, affecting
mobility and accessibility of people
and communities.
Collapsing viscous lava domes can
trigger dangerous pyroclastic flows.
Ashfall endangers life and property by
During peak of eruption with
excessive ash, can cause poor or low
visibility (driving, slippery roads).
Loss of agricultural lands if burial by
ashfall is greater than 10 cm depth,

Producing suspensions of fine-grained

particles in air and water which clogs
filters and vents of motors, human
lungs, industrial machines, and
nuclear power plants.
Ash suspended in air is also
dangerous for aircrafts as the abrasive
ash can cause the engines to fail if the
suspended ash is encountered by the
airplane
Carrying of harmful (even poisonous,
unpleasant) gases, acids, salts, and,
close to the vent, heat.
Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of
buildings, break power and
communication lines and damage or
kill vegetation. Even thin (<2 cm) falls
of ash can damage such critical
facilities as hospitals, electric generating
plants, pumping stations, storm sewers and
surface-drainage
systems and sewage treatment plants,
and short circuit electric-transmission
facilities, telephone lines, radio and
television transmitters.

OTHER GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS AND THEIR CAUSES

Rainfall-Induced Landslide
A landslide is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming materials. This
term landslide is restricted to movements of rocks and soil masses. These masses may range in
size up to entire mountainsides. Their movements may vary in velocity. A landslide is initiated
when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of a sea bed is rendered too weak to support its
own weight. This is generally triggered by other natural hazards such as prolonged, heavy
rainfall or by other sources of water which increase the water content of the slope materials.
Landslide as a geological hazard is caused by earthquake or volcanic eruption. Susceptibility of
hill slope to landslide is developed as a result of denudation of mountainsides which removes
the trees or ground cover that holds the soil, or alteration of the surface of the ground like
grading for roads or building constructions.

TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
The term landslide describes a wide variety of processes that result in the downward and
outward movement of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or a combination
of these. The materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing. The various
types of landslides can be differentiated by the kinds of material involved and the mode of
movement. Although landslides are primarily associated with mountainous regions, they can
also occur in areas of generally low relief. In low-relief areas, landslides occur as cut-and fill
failures (roadway and building excavations), river bluff failures, lateral spreading landslides,
collapse of mine-waste piles (especially coal), and a wide variety of slope failures associated
with quarries and open-pit mines.
1. Slides. Although many types of mass movements are included in the general term
“landslide,” the more restrictive use of the term refers only to mass movements, where there is a
distinct zone of weakness that separates the slide material from more stable underlying
material. The two major types of slides are rotational slides and translational slides. Rotational
slide: This is a slide in which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to the ground surface and
transverse across the slide (Figure A). Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide
mass moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or backward tilting (Figure B). A
block slide is a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit or a few
closely related units that move downslope as a relatively coherent mass (Figure C).
2. Falls. Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and
boulders, that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation occurs along
discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes and movement occurs by free-fall,
bouncing, and rolling (Figure D). Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical
weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.
3. Topples. Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about
some pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted by
adjacent units or by fluids in cracks (Figure E).
4. Flows. There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another in fundamental
ways.
a. Debris flow. A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose
soil, rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as a slurry that flows downslope (Figure F).
Debris flows are commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy precipitation or
rapid snowmelt that erodes and mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also
commonly mobilize from other types of landslides that occur on steep slopes, are nearly
saturated, and consist of a large proportion of silt- and sand-sized material. Debris-flow source
areas are often associated with steep gullies, and debris-flow deposits are usually indicated by
the presence of debris fans at the mouths of gullies. Fires that denude slopes of vegetation
intensify the susceptibility of slopes to debris flows.
b. Debris avalanche. This is variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow (Figure G).
c. Earthflow. Earthflows have a characteristic “hourglass” shape. The slope material liquifies
and runs out , forming a bowl or depression at the head (Figure H). The flow itself is elongate
and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and
under saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular material are also possible.
d. Mudflow. A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly
and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles. In some instances, for
example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris flows are commonly referred to as
“mudslides.”
e. Creep. Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming soil or
rock (Figure I). Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent
deformation, but too small to produce shear failure. There are generally three types of creep:
(1) seasonal, where movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal changes in soil
moisture and soil temperature; (2) continuous, where shear stress continuously exceeds the
strength of the material; and (3) progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure as
other types of mass movements. Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or
retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges.
5. Lateral spreads. Lateral spreads usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat terrain (Figure J).
The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose, cohesion less
sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is
usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced during an earthquake, but
can also be artificially induced.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDE
1. Geological causes
a. Weak or sensitive materials
b. Weathered materials
c. Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials
d. Adversely oriented discontinuity (bedding, schistosity, fault,
unconformity, contact, etc.)
e. Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of materials
2. Morphological causes
a. Tectonic or volcanic uplift
b. Glacial rebound
c. Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe or lateral margins
d. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)
e. Deposition loading slope or its crest
f. Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)
g. Thawing
h. Freeze-and-thaw weathering
i. Shrink-and-swell weathering
3. Human causes
a. Excavation of slope or its toe
b. Loading of slope or its crest
c. Drawdown (of reservoirs)
d. Deforestation
e. Irrigation
f. Mining
g. Artificial vibration
h. Water leakage from utilities

EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a variety of
resources. For example, water supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal systems, forests, dams and
roadways can be affected for years after a slide event. The negative economic effects of
landslides include the cost to repairstructures, loss of property value, disruption of transportation
routes, medical costs in the event of injury, and indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish
stock. Water availability, quantity and quality can be affected by landslides. Geotechnical
studies and engineering projects to assess and stabilize potentially dangerous sites can be
costly.

SINKHOLE
A sinkhole is an area of ground that has no natural external surface drainage – when it rains, all
of the water stays inside the sinkhole and typically drains into the subsurface. Sinkholes can
vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres and from less than one to more than 100 feet deep.
Some are shaped like shallow bowls or
saucers whereas others have vertical walls; some hold water and form natural ponds.
Sinkholes form in what geologists call “karst terrain.” Karst terrain is a region where the bedrock
can be dissolved by ground water. Bedrock in a karst area
typically is limestone, dolomite (a rock similar to limestone but with magnesium along with the
calcium normally present in the minerals that form the rocks) or gypsum. Karst areas are
characterized by special features not present elsewhere:
springs, caves, dry streams that lose water underground, and sinkholes.
These features all form because water that is slightly acidic from absorbing carbon dioxide from
the air and soil dissolves the bedrock and forms pathways and
channels in the rock. These pathways called conduits, are like underground
plumbing that carries water from the surface to springs located in valleys.
Eventually, these conduits become exposed by erosion and, if large enough, become caves.
The process of forming a conduit and a soil bridge typically takes many years
to decades to form and can be aggravated by human activities. Since the process of
forming a sinkhole depends on water to carry away soil particles, anything that
increases the amount of water flowing into the subsurface can speed up this process.
Parking lots, streets, altered drainage from construction, and roof guttering are some
things that can increase runoff; even weather can make a difference.
Collapses are more frequent after intense rainstorms, and there is some
evidence that droughts play a role as well. Areas where the water table fluctuates or has
lowered suddenly are more prone to collapse formation. Collapses are not limited
to karst areas as they form above old mines and even from leaky pipes-though they are much
more frequent in areas that have significant karst development.
TYPES OF SINKHOLES (Source: US Geological Services – USGS)
1. Dissolution sinkholes. Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the
water first contacts the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow is focused in
preexisting openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in the
zone of water-table fluctuation where groundwater is in contact with the atmosphere.
2. Cover-subsidence sinkholes. Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where
the covering sediments are permeable and contain sand. Inareas where cover material is
thicker or sediments contain more clay, cover subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon,
are smaller, and may go undetected for long periods. (See illustrations below)
3. Cover-collapse sinkholes. Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of
hours) and cause catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a
significant amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole into
a shallower bowl-shaped depression.
4. Sinkholes can be human-induced. New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use
practices, especially from groundwater pumping and from construction and development
practices. Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new
water diversion systems are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is
changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. The substantial weight
of the new material can trigger an underground collapse of supporting material, thus causing a
sinkhole.

SIGNS OF IMPENDING GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

A. Landslide
The following are some of the observable signs that a landslide is possible to occur in a
particular area:
1. Earlier Landslide as an indicator
Observing old landslides is a good indication that the area has unstable geology, and that more
landslides are likely in the future. Multiple landslide events in the same place can be
retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated. A reactivated landslide is where something changed at
an old, semi-stable landslide, triggering a new failure at the same location. By looking around an
area a whole lot of old landslide scarps and deposits are seen, this is a pretty good indication
that even if a particular landslide doesn’t reactivate, the underlying geology makes the whole
region unstable and susceptible to landslides.
2. Tension Cracks
Tension cracks are created by the stress of geological material pulling apart. They often mark
the eventual landslide scarp, the top edge of the failure zone. They can be identified as road
segments that constantly need long, thin patches, or out in the wild as actual cracks in the
ground. Tension cracks above an existing landslide can hint at a future reactivation. However, if
tension cracks are found on flat ground, they’re still being created by extensional stress, but are
more likely related to a fault than a landslide.
3. Things Moving
Observable movement and deformation of things are also indicators of an impending landslide.
The most common among these is that trees are bending in a J-curve as a sign that the ground
slips out from under them. A patch of angled forest on a slope or J-curved trees somewhere can
be a good indicator that the ground is less solid than it seems. While so far the motion has been
slow, the slope could catastrophically collapse as a rapid landslide, especially if you find tension
cracks farther uphill.Inside structures, signs of slow shifting can be floors tilting, doors no longer
closing properly, or broken utilities. Creaking and cracking can also be warning signs.
4. Water Doing Something Different
Another warning sign for a landslide is changes in water flow. The sudden arrival of water in a
spring, seep, or wet ground somewhere that is usually dry indicates that something changed,
and this change is not to be trusted. The sudden disappearance of water is just as ominous.
Water levels in a creek suddenly dropping can be due to an upstream obstruction like a
landslide-dam that will break and send a debris flow rushing downstream. A debris flow is a very
wet, very mobile landslide,where water is loaded with trees, mud, rock, and everything else
caught in thetorrent. Low water level precedes the arrival of the debris flow surge.This list
doesn’t cover every possible sign of an impending landslide, nor does everything on this list
immediately lead to a landslide. Listed are warning signs to help people recognize when it’s time
to hire an expert to assess a slope’s stability, or to make people more aware that something is
wrong.

B. Sinkholes
Sinkholes rarely strike without giving some warning in the surrounding
environment or in a nearby home. Here are some signs to watch for they may indicate
a problem about the present and imminent danger of sinkhole:
a. Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
b. Foundations that slant
c. New small ponds that appear after rain
d. Cracks in the ground
e. Sudden drainage of a pond
f. Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
g. Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard
h. Dead patches of grass or plants
i. Sinkholes in the neighborhood
j. Wilted vegetation in a limited area
k. Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
l. Cracking or buckling of home’s concrete slab
m. Presence of odd bugs like slugs and centipedes in the home
n. Earthy odor in home after rain
o. New or widening cracks
p. Separation between walls and ceiling or floors
q. Cracks in interior walls
r. Cracks around door and window frames
s. Cracked grout between tiles
t. Cracked tiles
u. Stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
v. Uneven floors, warping of hardwood, bulging or sagging sections
w. Doors or windows that don’t open or close easily
x. Cracks in sheetrock near doors or windows
All homes are subject to some settling characteristics. Any of these signs
could exist without the presence of a sinkhole. However, the presence of one or more
of these signs calls for further careful observation and an abundance of caution.

Geological Hazard Map

A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are vulnerable to hazards
caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. It is a tool used by
scientists and local government authorities to anticipate any hazard that a geological
event may bring. It also helps the public be informed and prepared for the geological
hazard. It represents the distribution of different types of rocks and surficial deposits,
as well as location of geologic structures such as faults and folds. Rock types or
unconsolidated materials are generally grouped into map units and depicted using
different colors.
How can you determine if a certain location is prone to geological hazards?
How do you read a geological hazard map?
You must take note of the following elements in studying the geological hazard map:
1. Orientation compass
2. Map title - indicates what type of information is being presented by the map
Example: Landslide and Flood Susceptibility Map of La Union
3. Symbols - are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map. For
example, a line may indicate faults or tsunamis while a triangular shape may
represent a volcano.
For Rain Induced Landslide Prone Areas: Red; Green; Yellow
For Flood-Prone Areas: Violet; Pink
Dark Colors: used to represent Igneous rocks
Light Shade: represents Sedimentary rocks
The typical color standard for topographical maps depicts contours in brown,
bodies of water in blue, boundaries in black and grids and roads in red.
Topographic maps may use different colors to represent area features.
Physical maps commonly use color most dramatically to show changes in
elevation.
4. Legend - tells you specifically what symbols mean.
5. Coordinates
Components of a Geological Map:
1. Map units – show different rock types and other earth materials with specific
color and symbol.
2. Contacts and Faults
3. Strike and Dip

Hazard Identification and Assessment

Hazard assessment is the process of estimating, for defined areas, the probabilities of the
occurrence of potentially damaging phenomenon of given magnitude within a specified period of
time (UNDRO)
If you are living in an area exposed to multiple hazards, you should try to gather information
about hazards and the threats they pose. Individuals, disaster– related agencies, and planners
do this sort of information gathering and analysis as part of their hazard assessment (Hazard
Evaluation or Hazard Analysis), which is required to come up with risk assessment. Hazard
Assessment and Risk
assessment are two different concepts. Risk Assessment involves both the
assessment of hazards from a scientific point of view and the socioeconomic
impacts of a hazardous event. Thus, without hazard assessment, no risk
assessment can be complete.
Scientists employ various methods to assess natural hazards. These include the following:
1. Quantitative Approach
The use of mathematical functions or equations
relating the hazard variables used are formulated or adopted to quantify the hazard. Data from
past historical records and from those derived from basic science principles are used to come
up with the relationship between the variables considered.
2. Qualitative Approach
This method uses expert opinion in ranking the intensity or probability of occurrence of a hazard
event. It is more preferred especially when data is
not enough to come up with a quantitative evaluation or when it is not possible to express
numerically one or more variables.
3. Probabilistic Approach
It provides an objective estimate of the probability of each hazard affecting an area or region by
considering past record of events. Probability of
occurrence of rainfall of a given intensity can be estimated. (Ex. Number of typhoons visiting our
country in a year).
4. Deterministic Approach
Subjective approach of estimating probability. A past event of a given intensity or magnitude is
selected and the consequences at certain intensities are described.

Hazard Mapping
Hazard mapping is the process of identifying the spatial variation of hazard
events or physical conditions such as potential ground shaking, steep slopes,
floodplains, and hazardous materials site. Through this process, one side of the
hazard –exposure – vulnerability risk triangle maybe displayed in hazard maps.
For information and education campaigns, hazard scientists and land-use planners, hazard
maps are indispensable.
A hazard map is quite useful in communicating vital information about the
spatial variation of size and potential intensity of a particular hazard. The overlay
function of GIS (Geographic Information System), which combines multiple
hazard maps (MHMs) makes risk analysis more convenient. MHMs provide
comprehensive information on the magnitude, frequency, and area of effect of all
the hazards combined with critical facilities map. (CFM). CFMs accurately and clearly portray
the location, capacity, and service area of critical facilities. The combination of these maps
allows determination of areas requiring more information, whish areas require what type of
hazard reduction measures, and which ones need priority attention in case of hazardous event.
Ways of minimizing
vulnerability of critical facilities are adopted, disasters can be avoided or
substantially lessened. Ways of minimizing vulnerability include relocating to
least hazardous areas, strengthening and retrofitting, boosting emergency
preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.

Natural Hazards Mapping Methods and Techniques

1. Use of various field techniques like compass, GPS or stadia rods to establish the locations
and orientations of relevant geologic materials, landforms, and structures. Symbols and colors
are used to represent the different features in topographic base maps.
2. Stereoscopic pairs of air photographs enable three-dimensional visualization
of the features of the area being mapped. Digital Elevation models (DEMs)
serve similar purpose. DEMs are derived from high resolution satellite images.
3. Scientific investigation involving experts from various fields. Landslide hazard
mapping would require skills of geologists, geo-technical engineers, and
morphologists.

Earthquake Hazard Map

The map below shows the earthquake-prone areas in the Philippines. Based on the
legend, the different locations are colored depending on the number of earthquake
hits for the past 30 years. For example, Baguio City (Benguet), which is found in the
northern part of Luzon, experienced 76-100 earthquakes. Meanwhile, Puerto
Princesa City (Palawan), which is in the Southwest of Luzon, experienced fewer
earthquakes (0-11).

The top ten provinces that are most prone to earthquakes are:
1. Surigao Del Sur
2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10.Nueva Ecija

Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental, are earthquake-prone because
they are located along the Philippine Trench and because of nearby active fault lines.
Deep-focus earthquakes that are experienced in La Union and Pangasinan are due
to the Manila Trench, while shallow earthquakes in these areas together with Nueva
Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Benguet are generally due to their location along the
Philippine Fault Zone. Although Ifugao experienced fewer earthquakes in the past, it
is still very vulnerable to future earthquakes.
In addition, the size of the red dots indicates the magnitudes of the earthquakes that
hit the area for the past 30 years. For example, a large dot in Manila indicates that
the magnitude of the earthquake is 7.3 to 7.6. On the other hand, a tiny dot, as seen
in areas around Palawan, means that the magnitude of earthquake is around 5.5 to
6.2.

Tsunami Prone Areas Hazard Map

The following map shows the places along the coastal areas in the Philippines that
are prone to tsunami hazards. Cyan, magenta, and yellow lines indicate the potential
of the tsunami and the tsunami generators. When the earthquake occurs in the
Philippines, then tsunami is locally generated. On the other hand, an earthquake
that occurs outside the country may be a foreign tsunami generator for the
Philippines. Majority of the coastal areas in Luzon (with the exception of Palawan
and northern islands) have a high tsunami potential with historical tsunami records.
Meanwhile, the coastal places in the Visayas region also show tsunami potential
mostly from local generators with a small percent of foreign generators. Furthermore,
in the Mindanao region, high tsunami potential is also evident in the mainland area
while the small islands located in the southwest show tsunami potentials by local
generators. Tsunamis that are locally generated are more dangerous than those that
are generated by foreign or distant sources because they may reach a nearby shore
in few minutes. There may not be enough time for tsunami warning centers to issue
a warning. People living near the coast with high risk of locally generated tsunami
must be alert when there is a reported earthquake in their area. They must observe
unusual ocean changes and listen to loud ocean roars. They must evacuate
immediately when they sense these natural tsunami warning signs.

Distribution of Volcanoes Map

Below is the map showing the distribution of volcanoes all over the Philippines. These
volcanoes are classified as active (red), potentially active (orange), and inactive (gray).
Places where active and potentially active volcanoes are prone to hazards of volcanic
activities or volcanic eruptions. For example, Mayon Volcano situated in Albay in the
Bicol Region, is known not only for its perfect cone, but also for its volcanic activities.
It has 49 recorded eruptions as of 2013. The areas surrounding the volcano are
highly affected by volcanic hazards. On the contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to
volcanic eruption hazards since there are very few volcanoes near the area and all of
them are inactive.

Earthquake-Induced Shallow Landslides Map

Places that have landslide hazards are presented in the map below. The legend tells
you the levels of the danger of the occurrence of landslide. For example, majority of
the provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-danger zone. These include
mountainous areas like Abra, Benguet,

Disaster Prevention and Hazard Mitigation

1. Developing resistant structures
• Strengthening buildings and making them earthquake proof.
• Design and build structures capable of withstanding earthquakes.
2. Creating seismic hazard maps
Consider the following:
• Size and frequency of earthquakes
• History of seismicity
• Previous records of intensity
3. Mainstreaming disaster mitigation culture to communities and reinforcing
national and local legislation.
• Organize or support community programs
• Participate in disaster committees
• Support enforcement of local building codes to minimize earthquake
hazards in new construction

Hydrometeorological Hazards

What is hydrology?
Scientific discipline concerned with the waters of the Earth, including their occurrence,
distribution, and circulation via the hydrologic cycle and interactions with living things. It also
deals with the chemical and physical properties of water in all its phases.
What is meteorology?
Meteorology entails the systematic study of weather and its causes, and provides the basis for
weather
forecasting.

What is Hydrometeorology?
Hydrometeorology involves studying tropical depressions, super typhoons, droughts, and
desertification, among others. It is studying natural
phenomena with atmospheric, hydrological, or oceanographic origin. It is the study of the
transfer of water and energy between the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. As we study
how the weather and water flow and energy work together to create distinct weather conditions,
we begin to understand the dynamics of hydrometeorology and how it affects our everyday lives

Hydrometeorological Weather Systems

In the Philippines, we experience a variety of weather systems both in the dry and wet seasons.
Other countries experience their own weather systems. These different weather systems are
powerful of nature that can
lead to disasters as produces many hydrometeorological hazards

What is Hydrometeorological Hazards?

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(UNISDR), hydrometeorological hazards are process of atmospheric, hydrologic or
oceanographic nature, with cause the loss of lives, injury or other health impacts, damages to
property, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, and environmental
damage.
Potential Hydrometeorological Hazards

The following are the most common Hydrometeorological hazards as defined by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
CYCLONE STORM SURGE
TYPHOON EL NIŇO
THUNDERSTORM LA NIŇA
FLOOD

• CYCLONE
A cyclone is an intense low-pressure system which is characterized by strong spiral winds
towards the center called “EYE” in a counterclockwise flow in the northern hemisphere. Hazards
due to tropical
cyclone are strong winds with heavy rainfall that can cause widespread flooding, flash floods,
storm surges, landslides and mudflows.

Classification of Cyclone
1. Tropical Depression - maximum winds from 35 kilometers per hour (kph) to 63 kph
- This refers to a low-pressure area forming over warm sea and oceans and made up of
merging thunderstorms.
2. Tropical Storm - maximum from 64 kph to 118 kph
- The weather system takes on a more definite circular form as the winds rotate around center.
3. Typhoon - maximum exceeding 118 kph
- In this category, the “eye” of the typhoon is formed, referring to the relatively calm area at the
center surrounded by the spinning winds.
• TYPHOON
Typhoons cause a variety of impacts to vegetation including pruned or downed vegetation from
intense wind, defoliation and damage from wind, heavy rain and salt spray, and mortality by
saltwater inundation in low-lying areas (Kerr, 2000).
Typhoons can inflict terrible damage due to thunderstorms, violent winds, torrential rain, floods,
landslides, large and very big waves associated with storm surges.

• THUNDERSTORM
A thunderstorm is weather condition that produces lightning and thunder, heavy rainfall from
cumulonimbus clouds and possibly a tornado. The typical thunderstorm caused by convection
occurs when
the sun’s warmth has heated a large body of moist air near the ground. This air rises and cooled
by expansion. The cooling condenses the water vapor present in the air, forming a cumulus
cloud.
• FLOOD
A flood occurs when a normally dry piece is covered by a large amount of water. This can be
brought by excessive rainfall, or when the level rises. Floods usually affect areas which are low-
lying, and where land meets the sea or another body of water. Floods are one of the most
common natural disaster, second only to fires.
• STORM SURGE
A storm surge is the abnormal rise of water level in coastal areas brought about by the strong
winds, waves and low atmospheric pressure of a storm. This is higher than the normal or
regular astronomical tide. A storm surge is the result of the push of winds and pressure on the
water towards the shore.
• EL NIŇO
El Niño is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific, as
opposed to La Niña, which is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the
Equatorial Pacific. El Niño is
an oscillation of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific having important
consequences for weather around the globe.
• LA NIŇA
This phenomenon is the counter part of El Niňo. It occurs when the sea temperature of the
Pacific Ocean changes to lower than usual, by three to five degrees Celcius. In the Philippines,
La Niňa makes the wet season even wetter, and increase the chances of formation of tropical
cyclones.

Fire is the process of rapid oxidation of any

material resulting in burning. Oxidation means
that oxygen molecules interact with different
substances in the environment, making it
unstable and thus creating a reaction. When
burning happens, heat, and other reaction
products are released.

A fire triangle is a model that shows the three essential components that when present together
can start a fire and sustain it- fuel, heat, and oxygen.

FUEL
- Fire needs fuel source or combustible material in order to burn. Fuel comes in different forms:
solid (e.g., wood, paper, plastic), liquid (e.g., gasoline, kerosene, acetone), and gas (e.g.,
methane –LPG , propane, acetylene). Different types of fuel burn at
different rates.
HEAT
- This is needed to start and continue the combustion process. Combustion happens when
flammable vapor mix with air (oxygen) and is ignited by a spark or
flame. In essence, when the ignition temperature (heat) of the fuel (any material) is reached,
combustion reaction happens. This is because the energy stored in that material reacts with the
oxygen that is present in the air, giving off heat. Most solid
combustible materials ignite immediately because they instantly give off vapor and readily reach
their ignition or flammable temperature. Other solids may take time to.

THE FIRE TRIANGLE

Fire hazards can occur anywhere because the
three components of fire are present everywhere:
fuel, heat, and oxygen.
FUEL
ignite because of their density such that the flammable vapor does not get released fast. Liquid
fuels, on the other hand, give off flammable vapor even in cold temperatures. Hence, fire may
still be produced even in temperatures below 0oC.
Petrol is an example of a liquid fuel that can be ignited at 43oC below 0.

OXYGEN
- This constitutes about 21% of the air around
us. Oxygen reacts with flammable vapors given off by
fuels and the reaction releases heat. The magnitude
of the fire, whether it is going to be explosive or
flammable, depends on the ratio between the oxygen
and fuel.

THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component in the chemical chain reaction, to
the three already present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic
chain reaction sustains the fire and allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the
elements of the fire is blocked. Foam can be used to deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Water
can be used to lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or
disperse the fuel. Halon can be used to remove free radicals and
create a barrier of inert gas in a direct attack on the
chemical reaction responsible for the fire.
Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more
heat and allows it to continue.
When the fire involves burning metals like lithium, magnesium, titanium, etc., it becomes even
more important to consider the energy release. The metals react faster with water than with
oxygen and thereby more energy is released. Pouring water on such a fire results in the fire
getting hotter or even exploding. Carbon dioxide
extinguishers are ineffective against certain metals such as titanium. Therefore, inert
agents (e.g. dry sand) must be used to break the chain reaction of metallic combustion. (When
do we use water or sand to put out a fire?)
In the same way, as soon as one of the four elements of the tetrahedron is removed,
combustion stops.

OXIDIZER
The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is the ambient air,
and in particular one of its components, oxygen (O2). By depriving a fire of air, it can be
extinguished. For example, when covering the flame of a small candle with an empty glass, fire
stops. To the contrary, if air is blown over a wood fire (as with bellows), the fire is activated by
the introduction of more air.
Some chemicals, such as fluorine gas, perchlorate salts such as ammonium
perchlorate, or chlorine trifluoride, act as oxidizers, sometimes more powerful ones
Fire hazards can occur anywhere because the
three components of fire are present everywhere.
Fire will not cease until one or more of the components are removed than oxygen itself. A fire
based on a reaction with these oxidizers can be very difficult to put out until the oxidizer is
exhausted; that leg of the fire triangle cannot be broken by normal means (i.e., depriving it of air
will not smother it).
In certain cases, such as some explosives, the oxidizer and combustible are the same (e.g.,
nitroglycerin, an unstable molecule that has oxidizing parts in the same molecule as the
oxidizable parts).
Reaction is initiated by an activating energy, in most cases, it is heat. Several examples include
friction, as in case of matches, heating an electrical wire, a flame (propagation of fire), or a
spark (from a lighter or from any starting electrical device).
There are also many other ways to bring sufficient activation energy including electricity,
radiation, and pressure, all of which will lead to a temperature rise. In most cases, heat
production enables self-sustainability of the reaction, and enables a chain reaction to grow. The
temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to get a flammable mix with self-
sustainable combustion is called its flash-point.

EXTINCTION OF FIRE
To stop a combustion reaction, one of the three elements of the fire triangle must be removed.
Without sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can be removed by the
application of a substance which reduces the amount of heat available to the fire reaction. This
is often water, which absorbs heat for phase change from water to steam. Introducing sufficient
quantities and types of powder or gas in the flame reduces the amount of heat available for the
fire reaction in the same manner. Scraping embers from a burning structure also removes the
heat source. Turning off the electricity in an electrical fire removes the ignition source.
Without fuel, a fire will stop. Fuel can be removed naturally, as where the fire has consumed all
the burnable fuel, or manually, by mechanically or chemically removing the fuel from the fire.
Fuel separation is an important factor in wild land
fire suppression, and is the basis for most major tactics, such as controlled burns.
The fire stops because a lower concentration of fuel vapor in the flame leads to a
decrease in energy release and a lower temperature. Removing the fuel thereby
decreases the heat. Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With
a decreased oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be denied to a
fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or water.

ROLE OF WATER IN FIRE-FIGHTING

Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid
fuel produces pyrolyzing products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation.
This process is halted by the application of water, since water is more easily
evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel
surface and it is cooled and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the
flames. In firefighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.
In the gas phase, i.e. in the flames or in the smoke, the combustible cannot
be separated from the oxidizer, and the only possible action consists of cooling down.
In this case, water droplets are evaporated in the gas phase, thereby lowering the
temperature and adding water vapor making the gas mixture noncombustible. This
requires droplets of a size less than about 0.2 mm. In firefighting, this is referred to
as gas cooling or smoke cooling.
Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For
example, a smoke explosion is a very violent combustion of unburned gases
contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The
interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air.
This interval can be very small (kerosene) or large (acetylene).
Water cannot be used on certain type of fires:
• Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents an electrocution
hazard.
• Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in
density/hydrophobicity. For example, adding water to a fire with an oil source
will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.
• Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550
calories/kg for aluminum) and water can also create violent chemical reactions
with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional oxidizing agent).
Since these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create
specific water-additives which will allow:
• A better heat absorption with a higher density than water.
• Carrying free radical catchers on the fire.
• Carrying foaming agents to enable water to stay on the surface of a liquid fire and
prevent gas release.
• Carrying specific reactive which will react and change the nature of the burning
material.
Water-additives are generally designed to be effective on several categories of
fires (class A + class B or even class A + class B + class F), meaning a better global
performance and usability of a single extinguisher on many different types of fires
(or fires that involve several different classes of materials).

Causes of Fire
Generally, there are two causes of fire: natural and man-made. The natural causes of fire are
those that result from natural hazards such as lightning and volcanic activities. Lightning triggers
fire because it carries with it a large amount of energy that can induce ignition temperature
changes in the material (fuel) that it comes in contact with. So, when lightning strikes, say on a
hut or grass, the ignition temperature of the hut or grass s suddenly reached, causing
combustion to take place at once. The other natural causes of fire are volcanic eruptions. Fire
can be generated by the objects that
get burned along the path of lava or by ejected pyroclastic materials from a volcano.
When the object comes in contact with combustible materials, such as plants, fire can
happen. Similarly, when there is land movement due to seismic activities, damaged power lines
or power circuits may ignite a fire.
On the other hand, man-made causes of fire are those caused by human or machine errors.
Here are some examples:
A. Electric wiring. Faulty wiring, short circuits, overloaded circuits, and loose wiring
connections may induce fire in any structure or building. To prevent electrical fires,
avoid overloading the circuits and overheating electrical appliances; check electrical
cords and replace old, worn wirings; and get an electrical engineer or licensed electrician
to check your electrical wirings and connections, especially if you detect any electrical
malfunction.
B. Unattended ignition sources. A lighted candle, an improvised gas lamp, a cooking stove, and
other sources of ignition which are left unattended may topple and/or burn nearby flammable
objects. Never leave an open flame unattended, and keep
combustibles away from it to prevent fire.
C. Cigarettes. Cigarette butts that are not properly put out and are thrown carelessly
can spark fire. The glowing ember from a discarded cigarette can come in contact with
a flammable material and cause fire. Careless smoking such as falling asleep at night
with a lit cigarette can also start a fire. To prevent creating fire, make sure that cigarette is fully
extinguished before throwing it. Fire hazard can happen anywhere because all three
components are present everywhere. Fire will not cease until one or more of the components
are
removed.
D. Chemicals at home. Many hazardous and flammable substances can be found at
home. Pesticide, lighter fluids, gasoline, spray paints, kerosene, dry cleaning agents, paints
solvents, and nail polish are flammable liquids that are used for wide variety of purposes in the
household. These substances contain chemicals that when mixed with air will give off vapor that
can ignite and burn when an ignition source is present. Flammable liquids should be kept closed
and stored in proper containers. Do not store flammable liquids in the same cabinets with other
dangerous substance because they can react violently. Make sure they are kept away from any
ignition source and away from children.
E. Gasoline leaks from vehicles. A gasoline (fuel) leak from a vehicle is likely caused by
corrosion, a worn-out seal or gasket, or a broken fuel injector. A leak from the tank,
engine, fuel pump, or motor compartment can be dangerous because these places get
very hot. With enough heat and gas, along with the oxygen in the air, ne spark can ignite
the gas and start a fire. One indicator of an imminent car explosion is the release of a strong
gas smell where gas is leaking. If you detect a strong gas odor, immediately take your car to an
auto repair shop and have it checked and repaired by a professional
mechanics.

Pump water out from the lowlands into the rivers (Netherlands).
Bakawan
Earthquake detector warning system Taiwan
Smoke detector – water sprinkles
Landslide – Taiwan (tunnels in the mountains)

THIRD PERFORMANCE TASK (FOURTH GRADING)

1. Think of a thing (tool, instrument, project, activity or any initiative) that you can introduce to
the community or can use at home or school or at work that can help to prevent a hazard
(natural or man-made) or mitigate its impacts. Here are some of them:
a. Flooding – windmills were originally put up in Netherlands to pump water out from the
lowlands into
the rivers addressing the problem of flooding
b. Flooding and soil erosion in coastal areas like Bangui – planting of Bakawan trees to keep
and retain
the soil at the seashore
c. earthquake detector and early warning device or system in Taiwan – alarming the
community a couple
of minutes before an earthquake strikes
d. Fire - smoke detector that sets off the alarm at the same time sprinkles water
e. Landslide – in Taiwan, tunnels are carved in the mountains for trains, buses and vehicles
that
somehow reduced the hazards and damages caused by landslides
2. No need to think of a big “project” or invention; a simple one will do
3. Criteria for scoring – appropriateness, relevance, creativity and originality.
4. Be creative and original.
5. Due date is June 2 (Friday).
Thanks. Take care.

WEEK FIVE

Pump water out from the lowlands into the rivers (Netherlands).
Bakawan
Earthquake detector warning system Taiwan
Smoke detector – water sprinkles
Landslide – Taiwan (tunnels in the mountains)

After going through this module, you are expected to: 1. Apply basic response procedures
during a fire incident (DRR11/12-IIe-f-40) 2. Follow fire emergency and evacuation plans
(DRR11/12-IIe-f-41)

Week 5
Basic Response Procedures During Fire Incident

The phases of fire:

I. Ignition – First stage: heat, oxygen, and fuel source
combine and have a chemical reaction (fire triangle
is complete)
A. Also known as incipient
B. 2 types: Piloted ignition and auto ignition
C. Piloted ignition – fuel + oxygen + external heat
source (spark)
D. Auto ignition – combustion by heat without spark
or flame
E. Smoke and heat is produced.
F. Oxygen supply = 21%
G. Does not have high temperatures
H. Breathing is barely affected.
II. Growth – Expansion of fire, depletion of oxygen supply, and increase in temperature
A. Also known as free burning phase
B. Oxygen supply is less than 21%
C. Temperatures reach between 640° to 870°
D. Factors that affect the growth of fire: (1) fuel load, (2) fuel type, (3) orientation of fuel relative
to fire, (4) available oxygen, (5) ceiling height, (6) potential for thermal layering
E. Fire influences the environment and is influenced by the environment.
F. High levels of carbon monoxide.
G. Breathing becomes difficult.
H. Highly dangerous flashovers may occur anytime.
III. Fully Developed – All fuels have been ignited and burning.
A. Hottest phase of a fire
B. Fire is now dependent on the amount of oxygen.
C. Spread of flammable gases within the area
D. Oxygen supply < 16%
E. Too much carbon monoxide is present
IV. Decay – Fire starts to diminish as fuel and/or oxygen is consumed
A. Also known as smoldering phase
B. Usually the longest stage of a fire
C. Characterized by significant decrease in oxygen and fuel
D. Backdraft could potentially occur.
1. Before an actual fire incident occurs, there are some information that people need to know.
I. Emergency contact numbers specially the nearest fire station
II. Exit points
III. Location of fire hose and fire extinguishers
IV. Proper use of fire hose and fire extinguishers
V. Proper precautionary measures (e.g. proper storage of combustibles, fuels, etc.)

Basic Response Procedures:

1. If inside a burning area
A. Once you hear the fire alarm, evacuate to a safe area right away.
B. If you see fires, pull fire alarms as you exit the area. Inform other people present in the area
of the fire that is occurring.
C. If the fire is still small and can be extinguished, use an appropriate fire extinguisher (recall the
different classes of fire). Usually, normal fire extinguishers
do the job, but if unavailable, buckets of water or damp cloths would do.
Note: One should only fight a fire if the fire department has been notified, the fire is small, fire is
confined to its point of origin, an escape route is available, and one can fight the fire with their
back to the exit.
D. If the fire is already large and is rapidly spreading (growth phase), immediately find the
nearest exit and exit the area.
E. Touch doors first to check if they are warm before opening them. If they are warm, do not
attempt to open and proceed to a different route.
F. Use the stairs not elevators.
G. Close all windows and doors that you can reach as you exit.
H. If there is smoke, stay as low as possible. Also, try to cover your nose to prevent inhalation.
I. Once outside, move away from the exits and assemble in a safe area designated by the
evacuation plan of the area or by emergency response teams.

2. If outside a burning area

A. Do not attempt to go inside the burning area.
B. Immediately contact the nearest fire station and other emergency response numbers.
C. Listen and follow orders of the emergency response teams.
D. Organize/Participate in a bucket relay. Bucket relay is when people help the fire fighters by
passing buckets full of water either to try to extinguish the fire or to prevent the fire from further
spreading.
3. If you catch fire, do the “stop, drop, and roll” right away.
4. If you are unable to leave the area unscathed or you have suffered burns, immediately attend
t o them depending on the degree of burn.

Type of burns:
1. First degree – skin is red
• “Cool a burn” = Hold burn under running cool tap water
2. Second degree – skin is red and blistery
• “Cool a burn” and see a doctor if the burn is large or blisters are damaged.
3. Third degree – skin is gray, dry, and with no feeling.
• Don’t remove clothing from burn area.

THE R.A.C.E. ACRONYM AND FIRE EXTINGUISHER USE

If you are involved in a fire, remember R.A.C.E. to help you respond safely and correctly:
R = RESCUE anyone in immediate danger from the fire, if it does not endanger your life
A = ALARM: sound the alarm by calling “2600” (on campus locations only) and activating a pull
station alarm box
C = CONFINE the fire by closing all doors and windows
E = EXTINGUISH the fire with a fire extinguisher, or EVACUATE the area if the fire is too large
for a fire extinguisher.
PROPER USE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS (P.A.S.S.)
To use fire extinguishers correctly, remember the P.A.S.S. acronym:
P = PULL the pin on the fire extinguisher
A = AIM the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire
S = SQUEEZE or press the handle
S = SWEEP from side to side until the fire appears to be out

WEEK 6

In terms of disaster risk, Philippines ranked third among all of the countries
with the highest risks worldwide according to the World Risk Report of 2018. At least
60% of the country’s total land area is exposed to multiple hazards, and 74% of the
population is susceptible to their impact. This is largely due to the location and
geographical context as the risk involving coastal, geological, and
hydrometeorological hazards such as typhoons, storm surges, earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions are posing serious risks to the safety of the populace

Historically, dealing with disasters focused on emergency response, but

towards the end of the 20th century it was increasingly recognized that disasters
are not natural as it was, perhaps due to global climate change (SUPER TYPHOONS).
Since we cannot reduce the severity of natural hazards, the main opportunity for reducing risk
lies
in reducing vulnerability (SEA WALLS) and exposure (RELOCATION).
Addressing these underlying risk drivers will reduce disaster risk, lessen the
impacts of climate change and, consequently, maintain the sustainability of
development.
R.A. 10121 or the Philippine disaster management law makes sure that
policies and plans are in place to prepare communities for when disasters strike.
Hence, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council or NDRRMC
was established which is composed of various government, non-government, civil
sector and private sector organizations. Its task is to carry out programs that would
increase public awareness of risks and hazards, preparedness for effective response
and early recovery, as well as to promote self-reliance among the Filipino people.
DRR main goals are to mitigate the impacts of natural hazards and the
vulnerabilities of the society in order to safeguard the level of development
achieved. The key concepts of DRR to maintain a sustainable development of a
community despite the occurrence of natural hazards are the following:
A. GOVERNANCE - making disaster risk reduction a priority (e.g. integrating disaster
risk reduction into development policies, and planning);
Ensures that disaster risk reduction is a national and local priority. In support
of Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), countries are urged to develop policies, laws,
and organizational arrangements, plans, programs, projects to integrate risk
reduction and allocate funds and resources to support the program.
B. RISK ASSESSMENT AND TAKING ACTION - improving risk information and
early warning (e.g. developing effective early warning systems which are
appropriately adapted to the unique circumstances of the people at risk);
Identifies, assesses and monitors disaster risks and enhances early warning
mechanisms. Early warning is to relay to individuals, groups or community the
messages which provide information such as the upcoming natural phenomenon,
existence of danger, preventive measures, and mechanisms to save lives and
property.
C. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT BY BUILDING UNDERSTANDING AND
AWARENESS - building culture of safety and resilience (e.g. including DRR
subject matter in formal, non-formal, and informal education, and training

activities);Uses knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resiliency
at all levels. It works on the principle that knowledge is important for
disaster reduction.
Strategies includes provision of relevant information on disaster risks, means of protection,
strengthening networks and promoting dialogue and cooperation among disaster experts and
stakeholders, conducting capability training for teachers, community members, parents and
children.
D. RISK REDUCTION - reducing the risks in key sectors (e.g. protecting precious
ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, allowing these to act as
natural storm barriers);
Reduces the underlying risk factors by building local resilience in order to
protect school communities. These activities include relocating communities away from hazard-
prone areas, building school facilities strong to withstand impacts of
hazards, encouraging reforestation and protection of wetlands, implementation of RA 8749, RA
9003, PD 1185, PD 856, PD 1096, brigada eskwela and other mitigation
measures to protect key sectors of the nation.

E. DISASTER PREPAREDNESS - strengthening preparedness for response (e.g. development

and regular testing of contingency plans and regular disaster
preparedness exercises including evacuation drills which are also keys to ensuring rapid and
effective disaster response).
The goal of disaster preparedness is to lessen the impact of disasters on
vulnerable populations, to ready an organization for an influx of activity, and to design a
coordinated plan that reduces the waste of resources, time, and efforts.

COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS PLAN

Good Practices for DRR
The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan aims to provide policies,
plans and programs to deal with disasters in the Philippines. It also serves as “the
principal guide to disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) efforts to the
country…” The Framework envisions a country of “safer, adaptive and disasterresilient Filipino
communities toward sustainable development.”

Four themes in disaster risk reduction management framework

1. Disaster prevention and mitigation
2. Disaster preparedness
3. Disaster response
4. Disaster rehabilitation and recovery

Definition of Terms
Disaster prevention – the outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. It expresses the concept and intention to completely avoid
potential adverse impacts through action taken in advance such as construction of
infrastructure to eliminate certain risks, land use regulation that do not permit any
settlement in high-risk zones and seismic engineering designs that ensure the
integrity of building in an earthquake.
Disaster mitigation – the lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. Mitigation measures encompass engineering techniques and
hazard-resilient construction as well as improved environment policies and public
awareness.
Disaster preparedness – the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional
response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate
respond to, and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent or
current hazard, events or conditions.
Disaster response – the provision of emergency services and public assistance during or
immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts,
ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected.
Disaster rehabilitation and recovery – the restoration and improvement where appropriate, of
facilities, livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to
reduce disaster risk factors, in accordance with the
principle of “build back better.”
Rehabilitation – measures that ensure the ability of affected communities and/or areas to
restore their normal level of function by rebuilding livelihood and damaged
infrastructure and increasing the communities’ organizational capacity.

The concepts of the thematic areas discussed above are not mutually
exclusive, their concepts and activities involved overlap, with no clear distinction over
time.
(1) They mutually reinforce each other – Activities under each of the areas may
affect each other. For instance, appropriate prevention and mitigation can
complement the level of preparedness in a community.
(2) They do not, should not and cannot stand alone – Equal attention should be
given to all areas.
(3) They have no clear starting or ending points – Activities can be under several
priority areas.
Note: Reduce people’s vulnerabilities and increase their capacities.
The outcomes of the activities could be focused on a specific area but should
be considered as a part of the whole plan. The table below lists the activities involved
and illustrates the overlap between the different thematic areas.

DRR Related Laws and Principles

RA 10121
Republic Act No. 10121, known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
(DRRM) Act of 2010, is an act mandated to strengthen disaster
management in the Philippines, a country prone to natural hazards. Signed on May 27, 2010,
it aims to develop a framework and roll out resources that will enable the national government,
the local government units, and other stakeholders to build communities that can survive
disasters. The DRRM Act adopts and adheres to principles & strategies consistent with the
international standards set by the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA).
The HFA is a comprehensive, action‐oriented response to international concern
about the growing impacts of disasters on individuals, communities & national
development. The HFA was formulated and adopted by 168 governments at the
World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan
in 2005. It is aimed at building the resilience of nations and communities to
disasters, and reducing vulnerabilities and risks to hazards. On September 14,
2009, the Philippine Senate ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster
Management and Emergency Response (AADMER) which is ASEAN’s affirmation
of its commitment to the HFA.
DRRMC Organizational Structure and Functions
1. Chairperson/Chairman - Secretary of National Defense
(DND) – the agency mandated to guard against
external and internal threats to national peace and security in times of peace, war
and disasters
Office of the Civil Defense (OCD) – the implementing arm of the NDRRMC and
has the primary mission of administering a comprehensive national civil defense
and DRRM program
2. Vice-Chairmen – four secretaries of
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
– for prevention and mitigation
- provide central direction, leadership and coordination of scientific and
technological efforts and ensure that the results there from are geared and
utilized in areas of maximum economic and social benefits for the people
*PHIVOLCS and PAGASA
Department of the Interior and Local Governance (DILG)
– for preparedness
- develops and implements comprehensive national and local preparedness
and response, policies, plans and systems
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)
– for response
- provides, Water Sanitation and Health (WASH) needs and assorted
medicines from Department of Health (DOH). DSWD is also conducting
assessment and validation to provide Cash-for-Work assistance to qualified
beneficiaries
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)
– for rehabilitation and recovery
-prepares report providing synthesis of the overall impact of disasters
including that on the macroeconomy, poverty, incomes and employment
Members: Thirty-Nine (39)
*Fourteen (14) line departments (DOH, DENR, DA, DepEd, DOE, DOF, DTI, DOTC,
DBM, DPWH, DFA, DOJ, DOLE and DOT)
*Twelve (12) other government agencies / offices (Office of the Executive Secretary,
OPAPP, CHED, AFP, PNP, Office of the Press Secretary, NAPC-VDC, NCRFW,
HUDCC, Climate Change Commission, PHILHEALTH and OCD)
*Two (2) GFIs (GSIS and SSS)
*One quasi-government agency (Philippine Red Cross)
*Five (5) LGU Leagues (ULAP, LPP, LGP, LMP and LMB)
*Four (4) Civil Society Organizations
*One (1) Private Sector Organization
*Executive Director: OCD Administrator with the rank of Undersecretary
DRRMCs Network
National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council
17 Regional Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils
79 Provincial Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils
122 City Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils
1,512 Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction Management Councils
42,026 Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council
Who can declare a State of Calamity? The President can declare a state of calamity upon the
recommendation of the NDRRMC. The local sanggunian may now also declare and lift the state
of
calamity within their locality. This is upon the recommendation of the LDRRMC based on the
results of the damage assessment and needs analysis (Sec. 16).
What are remedial measures?
Remedial measures are the mandatory courses of action which shall immediately be
undertaken during the declaration of a state of calamity (Sec.17).
These are as follows:
1. Imposition of a price ceiling on basic necessities and prime commodities
2. Prevention of overpricing/profiteering and hoarding of prime
commodities, medicines and petroleum products
3. Programming/reprogramming of funds for the repair and upgrading of public infrastructure
4. Granting of no‐interest loans by government financing institutions to the most affected
population
How will DRRMCs coordinate during a disaster?
The LDRRMCs take the lead in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from
the effects of any disaster based on the following criteria (Sec. 15):
The Barangay Development Council– One (1) barangay is affected.
The City/Municipal DRRMCs— Two (2) or more barangays are
affected.
The Provincial DRRMC ‐ two (2) or more cities/municipalities are
affected.
The Regional DRRMC—Two (2) or more provinces are affected.
The NDRRMC— Two (2)or more regions are affected.

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