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The problem can be quite computatlonally oxponsive as thers are 4,426,165,368 (,,o,,
64cB)
possiOte ananiemints oidight queens
on ari 8r8 board, but only 92 solutions. lt is possible to uso shortcuts that reduce computational .equiromonts or rules
ofthumb that avoids brute-force computational techniques. For example,
just
by applying a simple rule ihat constrains each queen to a singlo column (or row), though
slill considered bruto fo.ce, it is possible to reduce lhe numbor of possibilities to
just
16,777,216 (that is, 88) possible combinations. Generating permutations
turther roduces the possibilities to
just 40,320 (that is, 8l), which are then checked for diagonal attacks.
Marlin Richards published a program to count solutions to the n-queens problem using bitwise operations.l3l
Solutions
l eair
1
The eight queens puzzle has 92 disiinct solutions. lf solutions that differ only by symmetry operalions(rotations and
refleciions) of the board are counted as one, the puzzle has 12 tundamental solutions.
A tundamental solution usually has eight variants (including its originalform) obtained by rotating 90, 180, or 270
deg/ees and then reflecting each of the four rotational variants in a mirror in a fx6d position. However, should a
solution be equivalent to lts own 90 degree rotation (as happens to one solution with five queens on a 5x5 board) that
tundamental solution will have only two variants (itselfand ils reflectlon), Should a solution be equivalentto its own 180
degree rotation (but not to lts 90 degree rotation)
it
will have four variants (itself, its reflection, its 90 degree rotatlon and
the reflection of that), lt is not possible for a solution to be eouivalent to its own reflecllon (except at n=1) because
thatwould require two queensto be facing oach othsr. (For n- queen problem's solution to be equivalentto its own
mir.or-image solution,lh6 solution n6eds to be symmekical by the center ofthe bosrd either horizontally or vertically.
Then, two queens would be facing each other, making it not a solution.
) Of the 12 tundamental solutions
to th€ problem with oight quoons on an 8x8 board, exacdy one is equal to Is own 180 degree [otation, and none aro
oqual to their 90 degree rotation, thus the number of distinct solutions is 11t8 a 1*4 = 92 (where th6 8 is derived f.om
four
go-degree
rotational positions and their reflections, and the
4 is derived from two 18o-degree rotatlonal positions and their reflections).

\-
-he
diforent fundamental solutions are presented below:

abcdsf
abcd6f
Solulion
1
sbcdsfoh
Solulion 3
abcdsf
abcdef

abcdei
abcdef :....... Solulion 5 rffi;w

;ffi
ii--q b- "-l i
abcd€fqh soluton 6
sbcd6f
abcdef i Soluton 12
Solution 10 has the additional property that ho three queens are in a straight line.

I
"
What isA.l.
A I is the computers study do things ,how which to make
at the moment people do better.
A I is the study & crealion of system that act like human.
svstem '
A I is the study & creation.of
that think like a human machines with mind. i.e. AI Definitions Filr'Ar,
Definition! organized inlo four categories
Th. repl6 rih mjtrng nbrt,
rniEL ffi in th. .-,
.[o.r tuI,
d.r'iB
dd b ndc
litqd
Th. E&
fidy
n r.siblc of
rh...4rlrIiN ro
FBiv., thl
oI'
mpui6 rh.m! do
popt &b.r(d.
!r
th. iJ..o@od iltdligdi [email protected]
bd'.vior of.@plL'ei@
win lno
lur.m.rio lbFd
lb
of
,.
ttiis.
!r $iich,

Act Like Human

Th, TUNNG
Test
Atprcach: Alan Turins
[1950] designed a lest for inteuigent behavior. Ability to achieve humanJevel p€rformance in all cognitiYe
hsks, sufiicient to FOOL an
intenogator
A human (int€nogator) intenogates (without seeing) two candidates A and B (on€ is a human and the other is a
machine).
Computer would nerd:
l.
NlluEt Lssu.s. P.oce$ing
)
Comuic$io,r. 2.
IGo$ledge
sd
dudng irrmogrtion L
Aulonilred
Rep@nldion stoEinfo befoE
nd
@rclosion!. 4.
Ma.hile
Rqsnins) dsM qu6tioN dd dtM l6mim)
.d.or ro
nw .itc@slal@.

AI Definitions
M"t
t.AL l
. A broad field
and m€ans different things to ditr€r€nt people
.
Concemed with getting computers to do tasks that require
human intelligence
Thereare many lasks whichwe might reasonably think require intelligence which computers do without even
thinkiry
There are many tasks drat people do without thinking which are extremely difiicult to automate
Complex
Recognizing
Arithmetic
zFacf,,

Think Like Human

The Cosnitive LIoMlns oppnach
To d€velop a program that think lik€ human
,
$e way the human think should be known.
Knowing t
lhe precise theory ofmind ( how huDrtr think?) expressing the theory as a computer
proglsm.
GPS
(c6€nl
Probt.n
sotE)
[ by
Nwell & si@L le61] $tE hljl@$bjed5dlnrslncsmprobl@r,tt6t' mEE
d rirb @ropriog
tn kGof iLtllsidS
ai.dlttob.
stcp! to
tc of
con?iet nodeblMlt + Etp.ttn ntdlt chniqudl\nprttolosi

Think Rationally
The Law oJ Thotght Apptuach
Aristotle and his syllosism alsly!
slvc
( right qEr thinkins)
pEis :
' sMltB
is
6El
onclsiN
sivm
..
Nlm6.rcMon.l. ! M&. TtercforcsocnreriiMon.l.',6hf.rcn@
c6lr(i,
%
Rde: ilxkaMrnrhoxisModal.
These laws of thouglrts initiated the field of LOGIC.
Tv,o
2. I nain Nor
tl mqh
is
obstactes
oiy u{illy to st trdl.r. thc ce
u info@l trowledg. inro . fon
il
logjc. tlul (sy m.di@{iz.) prcbLm the.ompulalional
powdof&y @nputer Thu the nad for h@rtuics.
1

--e$\r-
'
Act RationallY
T.ie Rirional Ageat Apptooch
A! ag6r i! erlaniry rh.t

Typical AI Problems
p.civs
ed
3cls Lrs oftholr,
) ord iif{o@
[.{.1h8 @r.6t
irf@es i! pul of h€ing
nliotul lgent
f'Mardare
ksks which
People
can do
Acl mlionally=
reason et
logically.to on thatconclusion I
theconclusion
AI
rasks involve both:

]
C
lery easilv( understanding lanEpag€)
c
oded I i.f€..@ n not r.od
.clions ( ading dwlys r.tionaly - olioMlily
*ithour involvirg
iif.Gne)

II
' Erpsr, lasks lhat requne specialisl
knowledc€( rnedrcal diagnosis
)
r Mft gaor qnal\.
Lw! oI
'ldeh(.
The Foundations of Al " Philosophy (423 BC -
Present): - Logic, methods of reasoning. - Mind as a
trElllDis b mhi* Bnmli(v) 1 M**tib.idifi"d*l"F*riro'PF .hdb.!.ddlbnffil

Typical AI Problems
LL dane
tasks

Typical AI Problems
coieltpond to the folo\9itlgAl Prcblen$
arc6:
E\peds tas*s (require specialized ski
s and
t.ahind
include
:
'IlE
ability lo deide on a sood
s€quen@
of
E;"blts,

t"..r.;;il*
"".*-
l
. Medicrl diasnosis
.
Equipment repair
Mundane ta$ks
ar. aercrulu ch
hadet to autonate The abiliiy to Dove
and act in $c worl4
Poscibly
.
Computer
configuation
.
Financial
planning
'IlE
abilily to @mnunicatc widr others
h ay
AI is concemed with automating both mundane and exp€n lasks,

.
The Psychology Foundations of Al
(1879 - present): -Adaptation. physical system. - Foundations ofleaming, language, and rationality.
- Phenomena of perception and motor control.
" Mathematics (c.800 - - Forinal representation present):
and
prooi - Algorithms, clmputation, decidability, tractability. - Probability.
- Experimental techniques. .
Linguistics (1957 - present): - Klowledge representation. - Grammat

,x\-
I
.
A Brief History of Al The gestation ofAl '
- 1943: Mccllloch - 1950;t'dns's'comp,ning (1943 - 1956):
& Pilt€: Boolean cirorit modsl ol brain. Mad n6ryand tnte ismc€'. 1956: Mccarlh/sname'Arlinciallnt6llig6n@'adoptsd. .
Eady enthusiasm, great expectations (1952 -
1969): - Eady succ€$tulAl preglamsl
New€ll & Simon s LAic Tneorisr, Gslomtefs G€ometry Th6orcm Provgr - RobiNon's complote algorithm for logicar
rcasoning.

.
A Brief History of Al Adose of reality (1966 -
1974): - Al discovered computational complexity. - Neuml network research almost djsappeared
afrer
Minsky & Papert's book in 1969. .
Knowledge-based systems (1969-
1979): -
1969: DENDRAL by Buchanan - - 1976; 1979: Task Domains of Al
-
NatldlaanguaC.s
.
Lrtrd.Er.nou
- Cmmon
MYCIN by Shodlifie. PROSPECTOR by Duda

A Brief History of Al . ,
Al becom€s E{jertsysl€ms
an industry industry (1980 booms. -
1988):
- 1981 : Japan's 1Gy6.r Fiflh G8mration
ploi€cl .
The - - retum Mid Exped 8O'3: of systoms NNs Back?ropagation and industry novelAl busts.
loaming (1986 atgorirhm - present):
rsinvsnr€d.
- 1988: R6luE6nc€ ol
3.8.
caenlnO
grob.bility - 1988: NovalAl (Alife, GAs, Sofl Computing)
--
Gam6
:
.h.s3. clr€ckd .rc M.rh.maric: G@ret y, locic, PEvine pop.rri.3
ot -
t 995r Agsnts €!€rywhere. - 2OO3i Human-lovelAl back on tho aqonda.

Al Technique . .
lntelligence requires Knowledge Knowledge possesses less desirable prop€rties such as:
,
p@eBm. -
Engin€.nno ( D.siOn. F.ut tinding, M$utactudno pt.nning) -
M.di@loia9nosi!

The State of the Art

Computer beals human in a choss gamo. Compuler-humah conversation using speech

......
----
voluminou \ Had to charactgnz€ Constantly chgnging Oiffers from data Al technique is accural€ly
that c€n be us6d a melhod that exploits knowledge that
recognition.
Expert system controls a spacecEfr.
Robot can walk on stairs and hold a cup of water should
----
be represonted in such a way lhat: Knowbdge captur63 genEralization lt can be undsrstood by p€opt. l|ho must
provide lt can b€ €asily modmed b cor€ct enors. ll c€n be used in varisly of situations
it
Language lranslation forw€b pag6s.
Home appliances uso fuzzy logic.
And many more

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History Turing Test
of A
I
1940 1945 1950 1965 1970 1971- - - - - - - lntel Seymours Tudng Newmann's LISP Dendral Prolog 4004 Language
Tost
Language System Mic,oprocessor work 'Stored on DoveloPed
Developed
Cybemetics
program Concept'
1 972 982 1984 1985 - - - - Knowledge

Problem Representation in Al
1 State Space Representation
2 Problem Reduction, Representation
4 Mycin System Developed Japanese 5h Gen computer
PraclicalAl programs aro available RISC machinos c.mes into piclure

Field of Application of
Al
1 -Autonomus
Planning and Scheduling 2 - Game Plane 3 -Autonomus
Conlrol
4
- Diagnosis 5 - Robotics 6
- Natural Language Understanding

Characteristics of Al Problems
1- ls probtem decomposable into a set of
independent smaller and easier sub- problems 2 - Can solution steps can be ignored or undone 3
- ls problem is universally predictable - ls a good solution absolute or relative - ls a solution is a state or path - What is
the role of Knowledge

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