1.1 What is GPS?

 GPS is a satellite based navigation system. The present NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging
(NAVSTAR) GPS, belonging to USA that makes use of known positions of satellites in space to determine
unknown positions on land, sea, air and in space.
 It is 24 hours, all weather space based navigation system to accurately determine position, velocity and
time anywhere on or near the earth.
 The satellites or space vehicles emit signals that can be tracked by the GPS receivers for positioning and
navigational purposes. The positioning accuracy ranges from ± 100 m to a few mm depending upon the
type of receivers, surveying methods and techniques in post processing of data. The position computed is
referenced to a mathematical ellipsoid, the WGS-84.

The GPS system consists of three major segments explained below:

a. Space Segment

 It consists of an all-weather global system of 24 satellites orbiting the earth every 12 hours in 6 orbital
planes at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km.

Figure 1 : GPS Constellation

 The six equally-spaced orbital planes are inclined at 55° to the equator each having four "slots" for the
satellites. The 24-slot arrangement ensures that from any point on the earth a GPS receiver can view at
least four satellites.
  The GPS satellites are powered primarily by solar panels, with Ni-Cd batteries providing secondary power.
On board GPS satellites are the atomic clocks that provide accurate time.
 GPS satellites transmit two radio signals, viz. L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.6 MHz). L1 carries a precise
(P) code and a coarse/acquisition (C/A) code. L2 carries only the P code. Civilian GPS uses the L1
frequency. The P code is normally encrypted so that only the C/A code is available to civilian users. The
signals can pass through clouds and glass but can’t penetrate solid objects such as buildings and
mountains.
 There are often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to replace the older satellites
but these extra satellites are not considered part of the core constellation.

b. Control Segment

GPS control segment is a network of ground facilities that track the GPS satellites, monitor their transmissions,
and send commands and data to the constellation. The NAVSTAR control segment has a master control station,
an alternate master control station, 12 command and control antennas, and 16 monitoring sites. (See the map for
locations)

The master control station in Colorado give commands and controls the GPS constellation. It generates and
uploads navigation messages and ensures proper functioning of the satellite constellation.
 Figure 2 : Control Segment
(Image source: http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/control/)

Monitor stations collect atmospheric data and navigation signals. They track the GPS satellites and channel their
observations back to the master control station.

Ground antennas are used to communicate with the GPS satellites for command and control purposes.

c. User Segment

The user segment consists of GPS receivers and the users.

1.2 How does the GPS work?
Principle: GPS works on the principle of trilateration i.e. determining absolute or relative locations of points
based on the distances to at least three known positions.
Determining the location of a receiver

GPS receiver calculates its distance from a satellite by measuring how long a signal from the satellite takes to
reach it. It is implied that the receiver is located somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere centered at
the satellite.

The distance to the other satellite will also be calculated by the receiver. Similarly a sphere centred at B
(satellite ) with a radius R can be imagined on whose surface lies the receiver. Since the receiver is R distance
2 2 1

from A (satellite ) and R distance from B (satellite ), it is clear that the receiver will be on either of the points of
1 2 2

intersection of the two spheres (shown by red dots).

The distance calculated from the third satellite will add one more sphere to be imagined on whose surface lies the
receiver. This gives rise to only one valid intersection i.e. the point where the three spheres intersect is the
position of the receiver in a two dimensional space.
A GPS receiver determines its position by using the signals that it receives from different satellites. Since the
receiver must solve for its position (X,Y,Z) and the clock error (d), four satellite are required to solve receiver’s
position using the following four equations:
 Figure 3 : Determining the location of receiver

Where (X , Y , Z ) (X , Y , Z ) (X , Y , Z ) and (X , Y , Z ) are the locations of the satellites and R , R , R , R are the
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 2 3 4

distances of satellites from the receiver position. Hence solving the four equations for four unknown factors X, Y,
Z and d, the location of the receiver is calculated.
Dilution of Precision
Satellite geometry can also affect the accuracy of GPS positioning. This effect is called Geometric Dilution of
Precision (GDOP). GDOP is calculated from geometric relationship between the receiver and the satellites and is a
measure of the quality of the satellite configuration. In general, the wider the angle between satellites, the better
the measurement. A low DOP indicates a higher accuracy, and a high DOP indicates a lower accuracy. Another
term called TDOP (Time Dilution of Precision) refers to satellite clock offset or the error in the time. The TDOP
value is important to scientists who attempt to synchronize distant atomic clocks.

Figure 4 : Satellite geometry and Dilution of precision

Sources of Error
Following are the possible sources of errors that may affect a GPS reading:
 Ionosphere and troposphere delays : When a satellite signal passes through the atmosphere it slows
down. This slow down is taken care of by the built-in model of the GPS system which calculates the
average delay to correct this type of error.

 Signal multipath Error : The error arises when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall
buildings, mountains or such other hindrances before it reaches the receiver. The reflectance increases the
distance that the signal had to travel to reach the receiver and the receiver assumes that the satellite is
more distant than it actually is.
  Receiver clock errors : The built-in clock of a receiver may not be as accurate as the atomic clocks
onboard the GPS satellites and this may lead to errors in calculating the time.

 Orbital errors : These are the inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location. Though the satellites
remain in a fixed orbit but due to graviatational force a slight shift in the orbit could occur.

 Satellite visibility : The more number of satellites a GPS receiver can observe, the better the accuracy.
Buildings, terrain, or dense foliage can block signals which can cause inaccurate estimation of the position
or no position reading at all.

 Satellite geometry : The satellite geometry refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given
time. Better GPS signals are obtained when satellites are separated from each than when they are in tight
grouping.

Differential GPS

A single GPS receiver can achieve accuracies of approximately 10 meters. One can improve the accuracy of GPS
navigation from 1 or 2 meters to a few centimetres by using differential GPS (DGPS).
DGPS is based on the principle that any two receivers within a few hundred kilometres of distance will have the
same amount of errors contributed by atmospheric disturbances since their signals travel almost the same
distance in atmosphere. DGPS works through two receivers one of which is stationary and the other that moves to
make position measurements. The GPS receiver that is set upon a precisely known location is known as base or
reference station and the other that moves is known as roving receiver. The base station receiver calculates its
position based on satellite signals and compares this location with the known location. The difference obtained is
applied to the data recorded by the second GPS receiver. The corrected information can be applied to data from
the roving receiver in field in real time or through postprocessing after the data is captured.
 Figure 5 : Working of DGPS
(Image Source: http://www.environmental-studies.de/Precision_Farming/GPS_E/5E.html)

When real-time DGPS is in operation the base station calculates and broadcasts corrections for each satellite as it
receives the data. The correction is received by the roving receiver and applied to the position it is calculating. As
a result, the position displayed and recorded in the data file of the roving GPS receiver is a differentially corrected
position. In post processing method, the roving GPS receiver files are processed using softwares and the data
from the base station file. This processing computes corrected positions for the rover's file as an offline process.
1.4 Applications of GPS

GPS is an essential element of the global information infrastructure. It is free, open and so dependable that it
makes its presence in everything from wrist watches to shipping containers. One may find GPS in sectors such as
farming, construction, mining, surveying, and logistics.

The benefits arising from the use of GPS in various fields are mentioned below:
Agriculture
 Allows accurate field navigation, and maximum ground coverage in the shortest possible time.
 Enhancement of crop productivity by having precision soil sampling, correct estimation of variation in
chemical applications and planting density.

Environment
  Environmental disasters such as fires and oil spills can be tracked accurately.
 GPS tracking and mapping to facilitate monitoring and preservation of endangered species.

Aviation
 Free, continuous and accurate positioning information of flights on a global basis.
 Safe and fuel-efficient routes for airspace service providers.

Public Safety & Disaster Relief

 Helps in mapping the disaster affected regions.
 Can provide positional information about individuals with mobile phones in case of emergency.

Surveying & Mapping

 Provides significant productivity gains over traditional surveying by eliminating many of its inherent
limitations
 Allows surveyors to work uninterrupted in periods of poor weather conditions

The satellite navigation systems other than US’s NAVSTAR GPS have also been available and these are:
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) – Russia
GALILEO – Europe
GLONASS Navigation System

The fir st GLONASS satellite was launched in October 1982. The full constellation consists of 24 satellites in 3 orbit
planes at a height of 19,100 km, which have a 64.8 degree inclination to the earth's equator. The orbiting period
is 11 hrs 15 minutes. Each satellite transmits on two L frequency groups (L group is centered on 1609 MHz and
1

L on 1251 MHz). The GLONASS signals carries both P and C/A codes. Some GPS receiver manufacturers have
2

incorporated the capability to receive both GPS and GLONASS signals.

Galileo Navigation System

Galileo is the European programme for a global satellite navigation system under civil control. When fully
operational, there will be 30 satellites in three orbital planes at an altitude of 23222 kilometres. Ten satellites will
occupy each of three orbital planes inclined at an angle of 56° to the equator. The orbiting period will be of 14
hours. Galileo will provide initial services as of 2014/2015. This will include an initial Open Service for normal
navigation applications, an initial Search-And-Rescue Service for rescue operations and an initial Public Regulated
Service for use by governmental authorities.
References