Vector Space and Modules

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Honors
in

Mathematics
Submitted by
Priya Parihar

Dr. Rohit Verma Dr. Narinder Sharma

Supervisor Coordinator

Department of Mathematics, School of Sciences,

Cluster University of Jammu, J&K, INDIA
23 August, 2021
 To
ALMIGHTY GOD
 Certicate

This is to certify that Mr. Priya Parihar, who was registered under the Roll No./Regn.
No. 18532040011 for the degree of Bachelor of Honors in Mathematics under my
supervision, has completed his work pertaining to his thesis. The exact title of his thesis
is Vector Space and Modules . I have gone through the draft of the thesis and
found it worthy of consideration in partial fulllment of the requirements for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Honors. I further certify that:-

i. the thesis embodies the work of the student himself; and

ii. he has put in the required attendance and has also delivered and attended semi-
nars/group discussion sessions.

Dr. Rohit Verma

Department of Mathematics,
Cluster University of Jammu (J&K)

Dated:23-08-2021

i
 Acknowledegment
Firstly, I thank God for completion of this project work. I would like to express my
sincere gratitude to my project advisor Dr. Rohit Verma. I feel proud to state that his
candid attitude, worthy suggestions, guidance, valuable comments and incessant support
provided to me during the completion of this project work was really appreciating. This
Project has strengthened my passion for mathematics and boosted my condence in the
future. I have learned a lot from this project besides having a chance to sharpen my
computer skills also.

I express my special thanks to my co-ordinator Dr. Narinder Sharma for making

signicant comments and suggestions during the completion of this work. His huge work
experience and support is quite instrumental in completion of this work.

My thesis acknowledgement would be incomplete without thanking Dr. Sapna

Sharma whose valuable support for installing the latex software in our gadgets. It also
gives me great pleasure to acknowledge the help and support from all the faculty mem-
bers and the rest of my classmates for their collaborative eort that they have made to
complete this project in such a time frame.

Priya Parihar

Class Roll No. : 111-PGI-MTH-2018

University Roll No. : 18532040011

ii
Contents

Certicate i

Acknowledegment ii

1 Introduction 1

2 Vector Spaces 3

2.1 Internal and External Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.5 Basis and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3 Linear Transformation 31

3.1 Linear Transformation and Linear Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

iii
Contents

3.2 Rank-Nullity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 Modules 45

4.1 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2 Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5 Module Homomorphisms 61

5.1 Module Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.2 Quotient Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

iv
Chapter 1

Introduction

The project thesis entitled, Vector space and Modules , is a study of the foundations
of that branch of mathematics called linear algebra. A vector space also called linear
space is a collection of objects called vectors, a vector space originates from the notion
of a vector that we are familiar with in mechanics or geomertry. We recall that a vector
is dened as a directed line segment, which in algebraic terms is dened as an ordered
pair (a,b), being coordinates of a terminal point relative to a xed coordinate system.
Addition of vectors is given by the rule,

(a1 , b1 ) + (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 )

One can easily verify that set of vectors under this forms an abelian group. Also mul-
tiplication is dened by the rule α(a, b) = (αa, αb) which satises certain properties .
This concept is extended similarly to the three dimensions. We can easily generalise the
whole idea through denition of vector space and vary the scalars not only in the set of
reals but in any eld F . A vector space thus diers from groups and rings in as much as
it also involves elements from outside of itself.

From the various elementary courses that the study of vector spaces and linear trans-
formations notions have an applications in several dierent areas of mathematics. Linear

1
Introduction

operators dened on an innite dimensional complex vector spaces are frequently used
to study the essence of quantum mechanics. In general relativity, the equations are
represented by the operators between certain vector spaces. In modelling problems of
economics, vector spaces play an important role in the production of items and their
exchange in the markets.

Further, vector spaces over some nite elds plays a signicant part for constructing
error-correcting codes, that can be employed in sending o message signals along a tele-
phone line, or for allotting phone numbers which automatically recognize and rectify the
errors.

One of the most elementary introduction to linear algebra is the notion of a deter-
minant which is dened for square matrices and it is assumed that the elements of the
matrices usually taken from a eld F . But, come the consideration of eigen values (or
latent roots), the matrix whose determinant has to be found is of the form

x11 − λ x12 ... x1n

x21 x22 − λ . . . x2n
.. .. ... ..
. . .
xn1 xn2 . . . xnn − λ

and therefore has its entries in a polynomial ring. This prompts the question of whether
the various properties of determinants should not really be developed in a more general
setting, and leads to the wider question of whether the scalars in the denition of a vector
space should not be restricted to lie in a eld but should more generally belong to a ring.
It turns out that the modest generalisation so suggested is of enormous importance and
leads to the most important structure in the whole of algebra, namely that of a module.

Many branches of algebra are linked by the theory of modules. Since the notion of a
module is obtained essentially by a modest generalisation of that of a vector space, it is
not surprising that it plays an important role in the theory of linear algebra.

2
Chapter 2

Vector Spaces

2.1 Internal and External Composition

Denition 2.1.1. Internal Composition. Let A be a non-empty set, then the mapping

f :A×A→A

is called internal composition in it. This is also called binary composition or binary
operation.

Example 2.1.2. Consider R, the set of real numbers, and let f : R × R be dened as

f (a, b) = ab ∀ (a, b) ∈ R × R,

then f is an internal composition in R.

Denition 2.1.3. External Composition. Let V and F be any two non-empty sets,
then the mapping
f :V ×F →V

is called an external composition in V over F .

3
2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

Example 2.1.4. Let V be the set of all n × n matrices over F , where F is the set of real
numbers. If f : V × F → V is dened as

f (A, λ) = λA for all A ∈ V and λ ∈ F,

then f is an external composition in V over F

2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

Denition 2.2.1. Let (F, +, .) be a eld and let V be a non- empty set, then V is called
a vector space or linear space over the eld F , denoted by V (F ), if

ˆ there is an internal composition in V called addition of vectors, denoted by +, such

that (V, +) is an abelian group i.e.
(i) Closure Property ∀ x, y ∈ V , we have

x + y ∈ V.

(ii) Associative Property ∀ x, y, z ∈ V , we have

(x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

(iii) Existence of Additive Identity ∀ x ∈ V , ∃ an element 0 ∈ V such that

x + 0 = 0 + x = x,

where 0 is known as zero vector or additive identity in V .

(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse for each x ∈ V , ∃ an element −x ∈ V
such that
x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0.

The element −x is called the additive inverse of x in V .

4
 2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

(v) Commutative Property ∀ x, y ∈ V , we have

x + y = y + x.

ˆ there is an external composition in V over F called scalar multiplication i.e.

∀ α ∈ F and ∀ x ∈ V , we have
αx ∈ V.

In otherwords, V is closed with respect to scalar multiplication.

ˆ the two compositions i.e. scalar multiplication and addition of vectors satisfy the
following conditions
(i) ∀ α ∈ F and ∀ x, y ∈ V , we have

α(x + y) = αx + αy.

(ii) ∀ α, β ∈ F and ∀ x ∈ V , we have

(α + β)x = αx + βx.

(iii) ∀ α, β ∈ F and ∀ x ∈ V , we have

(αβ)x = α(βx).

(iv) ∀ x ∈ V , we have
1.x = x,

where 1 is the unity element of F .

Note. If V is a vector space over the eld F , then the members of F are called scalars
and the members of V are called vectors.

Example 2.2.2. Let F = R be the eld of real numbers and let V = Rn =

{(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi ∈ R}, then V forms a vector space over F with the operations
of coordinatewise addition and scalar multiplication dened as:

5
2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

ˆ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) and

ˆ α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn )

for (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn and α ∈ F .

Proof. ˆ (V, +) is an abelian group:

(i) Closure Property. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be any

elements of V = Rn , where xi , yi ∈ R for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, then

x + y = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )

∴ x+y ∈V [∵ xi , yi ∈ R ⇒ xi + yi ∈ R for i = 1, 2, . . . , n]

(ii) Associative Property. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ), z =

(z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) ∈ V , where xi , yi , zi ∈ R for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then

(x + y) + z = [(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )] + (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn )

= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) + (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn )

= ((x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 , . . . , (xn + yn ) + zn )

= (x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 ), . . . , xn + (yn + zn ))

[∵ xi , yi , zi ∈ R and associativity holds in R]

= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , . . . , yn + zn )

= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + [(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) + (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn )]

= x + (y + z)

(iii) Existence of Additive Identity. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V ; xi ∈ F =

R for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, then

6
 2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

there exists 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) ∈ V such that

x + 0 = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (0, 0, . . . , 0)

= (x1 + 0, x2 + 0, . . . , xn + 0)

= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

=x

Similarly, 0 + x = x
∴ x + 0 = x = 0 + x ∀ x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V
Thus, 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) is the additive identity in V .

(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V ; xi ∈ R

for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Now, xi ∈ R ⇒ −xi ∈ R such that

xi + (−xi ) = 0 = (−xi ) + xi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Let −x = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ), then −x ∈ Rn . Now,

x + (−x) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn )

= (x1 + (−x1 ), x2 + (−x2 ), . . . , xn + (−xn ))

= (0, 0, . . . , 0)

=0

Similarly, (−x) + x = 0

∴ x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0.

Thus, −x = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ) is the additive inverse of x in V .

(v) Commutative Property. Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈

7
2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

V ; xi , yi ∈ R for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then

(x + y) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )

= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )

= (y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 , . . . , yn + xn )

[∵ xi , yi ∈ R ⇒ xi + yi = yi + xi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n]

= (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) + (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

=y+x

Thus, addition is commutative in Rn .

ˆ Scalar multiplication holds in V over R. Let α ∈ R and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈

V = Rn ; xi ∈ R (1 ≤ i ≤ n), then

αx = α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

= (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn )

∈V

[∵ α ∈ R, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ R ⇒ αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ∈ R]

ˆ Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors satisfy the following prop-

erties in V.

(i) Let α ∈ F = R and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ V , then

α(x + y) = α[(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )]

= α(x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )

= (α(x1 + y1 ), α(x2 + y2 ), . . . , α(xn + yn ))

= (αx1 + αy1 , αx2 + αy2 , . . . , αxn + αyn )

= (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ) + (αy1 , αy2 , . . . , αyn )

= α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + α(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )

= αx + αy

8
 2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

(ii) Let α, β ∈ R and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V , then

(α + β)x = (α + β)(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

= ((α + β)x1 , (α + β)x2 , . . . , (α + β)xn )

= (αx1 + βx1 , αx2 + βx2 , . . . , αxn + βxn )

= (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ) + (βx1 , βx2 , . . . , βxn )

= α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + β(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

= αx + βx

(iii) Let α, β ∈ R and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V , then

(αβ)x = (αβ)(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

= ((αβ)x1 , (αβ)x2 , . . . , (αβ)xn )

= (α(βx1 ), α(βx2 ), . . . , α(βxn ))

= α(βx1 , βx2 , . . . , βxn )

= α(β(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ))

= α(βx)

(iv) Let 1 ∈ R and x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ V , then

1.x = 1.(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

= (1.x1 , 1.x2 , . . . , 1.xn )

= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

=x

Hence, V = Rn is a vector space over F = R.

Now, we can generalize the above example by replacing R by any eld F .

9
2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

Let F be any eld and let V = F n = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi ∈ F }. Dene coordinate-

wise addition and scalar multiplication dened on V as:

For (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ F n and α ∈ F ,

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) and

α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ),

then F n is a vector space over F . The following theorem shows the properties of vector
space.

Theorem 2.2.3. Let V (F ) be a vector space over eld F , then

(i) α0 = 0 ∀ α ∈ F

(ii) 0x = 0 ∀ x ∈ V

(iii) α(−x) = (−α)x = −(αx) ∀ α ∈ F, x ∈ V

(iv) αx = 0 ⇒ α = 0 or x = 0 ∀ α ∈ F, x ∈ V

(v) α(x − y) = αx − αy ∀ α ∈ F and x, y ∈ V

Denition 2.2.4. Let V be a vector space over a eld F , then a non-empty subset W
of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space over F with the
same operations of addition and scalar multiplication dened for V .

Note. If V is any vector space over a eld F , then V itself is a subspace of V and
the subset {0} of V which contains zero vector alone is also a subspace of V called zero
subspace of V . These two subspaces i.e. {0} and V of V are called improper subspaces.
And the subspaces other than these two subspaces are called proper subspaces.

10
 2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

Criteria for subspace:

Theorem 2.2.5. A non-empty subset W of a vector space V over a eld F is a subspace

of V i W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication i.e.

(i) x + y ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W

(ii) αx ∈ W ∀ α ∈ F, x ∈ W

Proof. First suppose that W is a subspace of V , then W is itself a vector space over F
with the operations of addition and scalar multiplication in V . Thus, W is closed under
vector addition and scalar multiplication i.e. x + y ∈ W and αx ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W , α ∈ F .
Conversely, suppose that W is a non-empty subset of V and W is closed under addition

and scalar multiplication in V i.e. x + y ∈ W and αx ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W , α ∈ F . We claim

that W is a subspace of V i.e. we have to show that W is a vector space over F .

Let x ∈ W . If 1 is the unity of F , then

−1 ∈ F [∵ F is a eld]

Since W is closed under scalar multiplication, we have

−1 ∈ F, x ∈ W ⇒ (−1)x ∈ W

i.e. − (1.x) ∈ W
⇒ −x ∈ W

Now, let x ∈ W , then −x ∈ W

⇒ x + (−x) ∈ W [∵ W is closed under addition]

⇒ 0 ∈ W , where 0 is the zero vector of V .

i.e. the zero vector of V is also the zero vector of W .

∴ x + 0 = x = 0 + x ∀ x ∈ W and also ∀ x ∈ W, ∃ − x ∈ W such that

11
2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

x + (−x) = 0 = (−x) + x
Thus, the additive identity exists in W and the additive inverse of each element of W
also exists in W .

Further, the elements of W are also the elements of V , therefore, vector addition will
be commutative and associative in W . Hence, W is an abelian group with respect to
vector addition.

Moreover, it is given that W is closed under scalar multiplication and also W being
a subset of vector space V will satisfy all the remaining properties to be a vector space .
Therefore, we have

ˆ α(x + y) = αx + αy ∀ α ∈ F and x, y ∈ W

ˆ (α + β)x = αx + βx ∀ α, β ∈ F and x ∈ W

ˆ (αβ)x = α(βx) ∀ α, β ∈ F and x ∈ W

ˆ 1.x = x ∀ x ∈ W and 1 ∈ F .

Remark 2.2.6. 1. A non-empty subset W of a vector space V over a eld F is a

subspace of V i x − y, αx ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W and α ∈ F .

2. A non-empty subset W of a vector space V over a eld F is a subspace of V i

αx + βy ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W and α, β ∈ F .

Example 2.2.7. Let a, b, c be xed elements of a eld F , then the subset

W = {(x, y, z) | ax + by + cz = 0; x, y, z ∈ F }

is a subspace of V3 (F ).

12
 2.2 Vector Space and its Subspaces

Proof. Since (0, 0, 0) ∈ W as a.0 + b.0 + c.0 = 0

⇒ W ̸= ϕ
Clearly W ⊆ V3
Let α, β ∈ F and u, v ∈ W
Then u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and v = (x1 , y2 , z2 )
Where x1 , y1 , z1 , x2 , y2 , z2 ∈ F
such that ax1 + by1 + cz1 = 0
and ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 0
Now

αu + βv = α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β(x2 , y2 , z2 )

= (αx1 , αy1 , αz1 ) + (βx2 , βy2 , βz2 )

= (αx1 + βx2 , αy1 + βy2 , αz1 + βz2 )

Here a(αx1 + βx2 ) + b(αy1 + βy2 ) + c(αz1 + βz2 )

= aαx1 + aβx2 + bαy1 + bβy2 + cαz1 + cβz2

= α(ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) + β(ax2 + by2 + cz2 )

= α(0) + β(0)

=0

∴ αu + βv = (αx1 + βx2 + αy1 + βy2 , αz1 + βz2 ) ∈ W

Hence W is a subspace of V3 (F )

Note. The above example implies that any plane passing through (0, 0, 0) is a subspace
of R3 .
Denition 2.2.8. Let W1 and W2 be the two subspaces of a vector space V over a eld
F , then the sum of W1 and W2 , denoted by W1 + W2 , is dened as

W1 + W2 = {x + y | x ∈ W1 and y ∈ W2 }.

13
2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

Theorem 2.2.9. Let W1 and W2 be the two subspaces of a vector space V over a eld
F , then

(i) the intersection of W1 and W2 i.e. W1 ∩ W2 is also a subspace of V .

(ii) the union of W1 and W2 i.e. W1 ∪ W2 is a subspace of V i W1 ⊆ W2 or W2 ⊆ W1 .

(iii) the sum of W1 and W2 i.e. W1 + W2 is also a subspace of V .

Note. The arbitrary intersection of subspaces of a vector space V over a eld F is also
a subspace of V .

2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

Linear combination. Let V be a vector space over F . If v1 , v2 ..., vn ∈ V , then any

element v ∈ V is said to be a linear combination of v1 , v2 ..., vn if there exists scalars
α1 , α2 , . . . , αn in F such that

v = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + . . . + αn vn
n
or v =
X
αi vi , αi ∈ F
i=1

Note. 1. If v ∈ V is a linear combination of v1 , v2 ..., vn , then we say that v is generated

or spanned by v1 , v2 ..., vn .
2. For vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vn ,we shall get dierent linear combinations by taking dierent
sets of scalars α1 , α2 , ..., αn .

Example 2.3.1. Let V be a vector space over a eld F such that V = R2 = {(a, b) | a, b ∈
R} and F = R, then write v = (−1, 37 ) as a linear combination of (1, 2) and (3, −1).

14
 2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

Proof. Let v = (−1, 73 ) and let x = (1, 2), y = (3, −1).

Choose scalars α, β ∈ F such that

v = αx + βy
 
7
i.e. −1, = α(1, 2) + β(3, −1)
3
= (α, 2α) + (3β, −β)
 
7
⇒ −1, = (α + 3β, 2α − β)
3

By equality of vectors, we have

α + 3β = −1 · · · (1) and
2α − β = 7
3
or 6α − 3β = 7 · · · (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get
α= 6
7
and β = −13
21

Thus, v = 76 x + −13
21
y = 67 (1, 2) + −13
21
(3, −1)

Linear span or Span of a set. Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ⊂ V , where V is a vector space

over a eld F , then the set of all linear combinations of elements of S is called linear span
of S . It is denoted by L(S) or span(S) i.e.
n
X
L(S) = {v ∈ V | v = αi vi ; vi ∈ S, αi ∈ F }.
i=1

Note. L(S) is spanned or generated by S . If S = ϕ, then L(S) = 0.

Theorem 2.3.2. Let V be a vector space over a eld F , then the linear span of any
subset S of V is the smallest subspace of V containing S .

Theorem 2.3.3. If S and T are subsets of a vector space V over a eld F , then

(i) S ⊆ L(T ) ⇒ L(S) ⊆ L(T )

(ii) S ⊆ T ⇒ L(S) ⊆ L(T )

15
2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

(iii) S is a subspace of V ⇔ L(S) = S

(iv) L(S ∪ T ) = L(S) + L(T )

(v) L(L(S)) = L(S)

Proof. (i) Given S ⊂ L(T )

Let v ∈ L(S) ⇒ ∃ v1 , v2 , ...., vn ∈ S; α1 , α2 , ..., αn ∈ F such that
n
X
v= αi vi
i=l

⇒ vi ∈ L(T ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
[∴ S ⊂ L(T )]
αi vi ∈ L(T ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
Pn
⇒ i=1

[∴ L(T ) is a subspace of V (F )]
⇒ v ∈ L(T )
∴ L(S) ⊂ L(T )

(ii) Given S ⊂ T

Letv ∈ L(S) ⇒ ∃v1 , v2 , ..., vn ∈ S; α1 , α2 , ..., αn ∈ F such that

n
αi vi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
X
v=
i=1
P
⇒v= αi vi ∈ L(T )
[∴ S ⊂ T so that v1 , v2 , ..., vn ∈ T ]
∴ L(S) ⊂ L(T )

(iii) Given S is subsapce of V (F )

We have to prove L(S) = S.

Let v ∈ L(S) ⇒ ∃ v1 , v2 , ...vn ∈ S and α1 , α2 , ..., αn ∈ F such that

16
 2.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

n
X
v= αi vi
i=1

⇒v∈S

[∵ S is a subspace of V(F) and it is closed under addition and scalar multiplication]

∴ L(S) ⊂ S

Also obviously S ⊂ L(S)

[ ∴ if vk ∈ S Then vk = 1.vk ]

From (A) and (B) we have L(S) = S

Conversely, let L(S) = S

Here, we have to prove that S is subsapce of V(F)

As L(S) is a subspace of V(F)

⇒ S is a subsapce of V . [ ∴ S = L(S)]

Hence the result.

(v) As L(S) is subsapce of V(F)

⇒ L(L(S)) = L(S) [ By using the result of Part (iii)]

Hence the result.

Theorem 2.3.4. A linear sum of two subspaces W1 and W2 of a vector space V over a
eld F is a subspace of V generated by W1 and W2 i.e.

W1 + W2 = ⟨W1 ∪ W2 ⟩

17
2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence

2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence

Linear Dependence. If V is a vector space over a eld F , then the vectors v1 , v2 , ...., vn
in V are called lineraly dependent over F if there exists scalars α1 , α2 , ...., αn in F not all
of them are zero such that

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αn vn = 0.

For Example. The vectors v1 = (2, 3, 4), v2 = (1, 0, 0), v3 = (0, 1, 0) and v4 = (0, 0, 1)
are lineraly dependent in R3 (R). Here,we have

(1)v1 + (−2)v2 + (−3)v3 + (−4)v4

=1(2,3,4) + (-2)(1,0,0) + (-3)(0,1,0) + (-4)(0,0,1)

=(2,3,4) + (-2,0,0) + (0,-3,0) + (0,0,-4)

=( 2-2, 3-3, 4-4 ) = (0,0,0) = 0

so we have α1 v1 + α2 v2 + α3 v3 + α4 v4 = 0

where α1 = 1 ̸= 0, α2 = −2 ̸= 0, α3 = −3 ̸= 0, α4 = −4 ̸= 0

Hence v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 are linearly dependent vectors.

Linear Independence. If V is vector space over a eld F , then the vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vn
in V are called linearly independent over F if there exists scalars α1 , α2 , ..., αn in F , all
of them are zero, such that

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αn vn = 0.

For Example. The vectors v1 = (2, 0, 0); v2 = (0, 3, 0) and v3 = (0, 0, 4) are lineraly
independent in R3 (R). Consider α1 v1 + α2 v2 + α3 v3 = 0 for some scalars α1 , α2 , α3 ∈ R.

⇒ α1 (2, 0, 0) + α2 (0, 3, 0) + α3 (0, 0, 4) = 0

⇒ (2α1 , 3α2 , 4α3 ) = (0, 0, 0)

18
 2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence

∴ 2α1 = 0, 3α2 = 0, 4α3 = 0

⇒ α1 = 0, α2 = 0 and α3 = 0

Hence vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are L.I.

Note. 1. If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }, then we call the set S as linearly dependent set or
linearly independent set according as vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vn are linearly dependent or linearly
independent.

2. An innite subset A of a vector space V is linearly independent or L.I. if every

subset of A is L.I.

Theorem 2.4.1. Let V be a vector space over a eld F, then

(i) Every non zero singleton subset of V is L.I. over F.

(ii) Every set containing only zero vector is L.D. over F.

(iii) Any subset S of V containing zero vector is L.D. over F.

(iv) If a subset S of V is L.I. then it cannot contain zero vector.

(v) Every superset of a L.D. set of vectors is L.D.

(vi) Any subset of a L.I. set of vectors is L.I.

Proof. (i) Let v ̸= 0 and v ϵ V

Take α ϵ F such that αv = 0

⇒ either α = 0 or v = 0

⇒ α=0 [∵ v ̸= O, given]

∴ αv = 0 ⇒α=0

Hence {v} is L.I. set,

19
2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence

(ii) Let S = {0} ⊂ V

take α be non zero element of F

Then α . 0 = 0 for α ̸= 0 ϵ F

⇒ S is L.D. set.

(iii) Let S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } be a subset of vector space V (F) such that one of the
vectors of S is zero vector.

Let vk = 0 for some k, where 1 ≤ k ≤ n.

Choose α1 = α2 = ... = αk−1 = 0 = αk+1 = ... = αn

and αk = 1

∴ αi′ s ϵ F and not all are zero [∵ αk = 1 ̸= 0]

Now α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ...αn vn

=α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αk−1 vk−1 + αk vk + αk+1 vk+1 + ... + αn vn

=0v1 + 0v2 + ... + 0vk−1 + 1.(0) + 0vk+1 + ... + 0vn

=0 + 0 + ... + 0 + 0 + 0 + ... + 0

=0 ∴ we have scalars α1 , α2 , ..., αn , not all of them zero such that

α1 v1 + α2 v2 = ... + αn vn = 0

⇒ v1 , v2 , ..., vn are L.D.

⇒ S is L.D.

20
 2.4 Linear Dependence and Independence

(iv) Suppose S is a L.I. subset of V(F)

If S contains zero vector , then S is L.D. which contradicts the given that

S is L.I. [by Part (iii)]

∴ S cannot have any zero vector.

(v) Let S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } be a L.D. set of vectors

⇒ there exists scalars α1 , α2 , ..., αn ,not all zero such that

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αn vn = 0 ...(A)

Consider T = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn , vn+1 , vn+2 , ..., vn+i } be a super set of S

Now equation (A) implies

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αn vn + 0vn+1 + 0vn+2 + ... + 0vn+i = 0 ...(B)

where α1 , α2 , ..., αn , 0, 0, ...0, are not all zero

⇒ v1 , v2 , ..., vn , vn+1 , ..., vn+i are L.D.

⇒ the set T is L.D.

(vi) Let S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vm } be L.I. set of vectors.

∴ α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αm vm = 0 ...(A)

⇒ α1 = α2 = ... = αm = 0

Consider T = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp } where 1 ≤ p ≤ m

∴ clearly T is a subset of S

21
2.5 Basis and Dimension

Consider α1 v1 + ... + αp vp = 0

⇒ α1 v1 + α2 v2 + ... + αp vp + 0vp+1 + ... + 0vm + 0

⇒ α1 = α2 = ... = αp = 0 [∵ S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } is L.I. set]

Hence T is L.I. set.

Theorem 2.4.2. Let V be a vector space over a eld F, then

(i) The set {v} is L.D. i v = 0

(ii) The set {v1 , v2 } is L.D. i v1 and v2 are collinear i.e., i one is a scalar multiple
of the other.

(iii) The set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is L.D. i v1 , v2 and v3 are coplanar i.e., i one is a linear
combination of the other two.

2.5 Basis and Dimension

Denition 2.5.1. Let V be a vector space over a eld F , then a subset B of V is called
a basis of V if

(i) B is a linearly independent set; and

(ii) L(B) = V i.e B generates or spans V .

Note.(i) A set of vectors containing zero vector is always L.D. set, so it cannot be a
basis of any vector space. Thus, a zero vector cannot be an element of a basis of a vector
space.
(ii) Since L(ϕ) = 0 and ϕ is L.I.

∴ ϕ is a basis of {0}.

22
 2.5 Basis and Dimension

Example 2.5.2. (a) The set B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) is a basis of V3 (R).
B is L.I.

Let a,b,c ∈ R such that

a(1,0,0) + b(0,1,0) + c(0,0,1) = 0

⇒ (a,b,c) = (0,0,0)

⇒ a= 0, b= 0 and c= 0

∴ the set B is L.I.

L(B) = V3 (R)

We know that L(B) ⊆ V3 (R) ........(1)

Now, let (α,β ,γ ) ∈ V3 (R, then we can write

(α,β ,γ )=(α,0,0) + (0,β ,0) + (0, 0, γ)

= α(1,0,0) + β (0,1,0) + γ(0, 0, 1)

⇒ each elements of V3 can be expressed as a linear combination of elements of B

∴ V3 (R) ⊆ L(B) ........(2)

From (1) and (2), we get L(B) = V3 (R)

Hence B is a basis of V3 (R).

(b) The set B1 = {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 0)} is not a basis of V3 (R).
For, let a,b,c,d ∈ R such that
a (1,0,0) + b (1,1,0) + c (1,2,3) + d (0,1,0) = 0 ....... (A)

23
2.5 Basis and Dimension

⇒ ( a + b + c , b + 2c + d , 3c ) = (0 , 0 , 0 )

∴a+b+c=0 ........(1)

b + 2c + d = 0 ........(2)

3c = 0 ........ (3)

From Eq. (3) , we have c = 0

Putting in Eq.(1) and (2) we get

a + b = 0 and b + d = 0

⇒a=-b,d=-b

Let b = - k ̸= 0 real

∴a=k,d=k,c=0

Thus we have scalars a = k , b = - k , c = 0 , d = k such that Eq. (A) holds.

∴ the vectors (1,0,0),(1,1,0),(1,2,3), (0,1,0) are not L.I.

Hence B1 is not a basis of V3 (R).

Note. In general , any subset of Vm (F ), where F is any eld, having more than m ele-
ments is linearly dependent and hence cannot be a basis of Vm (F ).

Denition 2.5.3. A vector space V over a eld F is said to be nite dimensional or

nitely generated vector space if there exists a nite subset S of V such that L(S) = V
i.e linear span of S is equal to V .
Theorem 2.5.4. LetV be a vector space over a eld F and S be a nite subset of V ,

24
 2.5 Basis and Dimension

then S is a basis of V i each x ∈ V can be uniquely expressed as linear combination of

vectors of S .

Note. 1. If there exists no nite subset of V which generates or spans V , then V is

called an innite dimensional vector space.
2. An ordered set S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } which is a basis of nite dimensional vector space
V over a eld F is called an ordered basis of V .

Theorem 2.5.5. [Existence Theorem] There exists a basis for each nite dimensional
vector space or Every nite dimensional vector space has a basis.

Proof. Let V be a nite dimensional vector space over a eld F , then there exists a nite
subset S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } of V such that
L(S) = V · · · · · · · · · (A)
Without any loss of generality we may suppose here that all vectors in the subset S are
non-zero because contribution of zero vector in any linear combination of the vectors of
S is zero.
Since S ⊂ V , so either S is L.I. or L.D.
If S is L.I. , then S is a basis of V(F) [ ∵ by (A) , it is given L(S) = V ]
Hence the result.
If S is L.D., then exists m, 2 <m <n such that vm ∈ S is a linear combination of
v1 v2 , . . . , vm−1 i.e.

m−1
ai vi , ai ∈ F · · · · · · · · · (B)
X
vm =
i=1

Consider the set

S1 = {v1 , v2 , ...... , vm−1 , vm+1 , ....... vn . }
We shall show that L(S1 ) = V.
Clearly S1 ⊂ S
⇒ L(S1 ) ⊂ V ........(1) [ By (A) , L(S) = V ]

25
2.5 Basis and Dimension

Now let v ∈ V
⇒ v is linear combination of the elements of S [ ∵ L(S) = V ]
∴ v = β1 v1 + β2 v2 + ......+ βn vn for Bj ' s ∈ F
= β1 v1 + β2 v2 + ...... + βm−1 vm−1 + βm vm + βm+1 vm+1 + ...... + βn vn
= β1 v1 + β2 v2 + ... + βm−1 vm−1 + βm ai vi + βm+1 vm+1 + ..... + βn vn .
Pm−1
i=1

[By using (B) ]

= β1 v1 + β2 v2 + ...... + βm−1 vm−1 + βm ( a1 v1 + a2 v2 + ...... + am−1 vm−1 ) + βm+1
vm+1 + ...... + βn vn
= ( β1 + βm α1 ) v1 + ( β2 + βm α2 ) v2 + ...... + ( βm−1 + βm αm−1 ) vm−1 + βm+1
vm+1 + .... + βn vn .
⇒ v is linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , ..... , vm−1 ,vm+1 , ...... , vn of the set S1
⇒ v ∈ L(S1 ) ..... (2)
∴ V ⊂ L(S1 )
From (1) and (2) , we get
L(S1 ) = V ....... (C)
If S1 is L.I. , then S1 is a basis of V(F)
Hence the result [∵ by (C) , L(S1 ) = V ]
If S1 is L.D., then proceeding as above we can get a set S2 of (n-2) vectors such that
L(S2 ) = V and if S2 is L.I. , then S2 is a basis set . But if S2 is L.D. we repeat the above
procedure till we get a set Sm for m > 2 , m ∈ N which is L.I.
and L(Sm ) = V , so that Sm is basis set for V(F).
At the most by repeating the procedure , we are left with a subset having a single non
zero vector which generates V . But we know that a singleton set having non-zero vector
is L.I. Hence there exists a basis for each nite dimensional vector space .

Theorem 2.5.6. [Extension Theorem] Any linearly independent set in a nite dimen-
sional vector space is either a basis or can be extended to form a basis.

Proof. Given V(F) be a nite dimensional vector space

26
 2.5 Basis and Dimension

⇒ ∃ a set B ={v1 , v2 , ..., vn } ⊂ V, which is a basis of V(F). then B is L.I and L(B) = V
Also we are given that the set
S={w1 , w2 , ..., wp } is L.I set in V
Consider the set S2 = {w1 , w2 , ...wp , v1 , v2 , ...vn }.
Let wj ∈ S1 ⇒ wj ∈ V f or1 ≤ j ≤ p as S1 ⊂ V
⇒ wj can be expressed as L.C of the elements of B (∵ L(B) = V )
⇒ wj = ni=1 aij vi , ...(1)
P

For each v ∈ V ⇒ v = vbiji for b,i (Since L(B) = V)

P

⇒ v = pj+1 Oj Wj + ni=1 bij vi where Oj = O

P P

⇒ v is L.C of w1 , w2 , ...., wp , v1 , v2 , ..., vn

⇒ v ∈ L(S2 ) ....(2)
Also S2 ⊂ V ...(3)
From(2) and (3), we get V = L(S2 )

The relation (1) can be written as

aij vi , where t = 1,2,...,p
P Pn
wj = t̸=j Oj Wj + i=1

⇒ One element wj of S2 can be expressed as a linear combination of the remaining ele-

ments of S2 , so that S2 is a L.D. set.
⇒ since we know that one of the vectors in S2 is a linear combination of the preceding
vectors and this vector cannot be any one of wj, s (since S1 is L.I) so this vector must be
one of the vi, s and let it be vk ∈ B
. αi vi for αi , βj ∈ F ...(4)
Pp Pk−1
∴ vk = j=1 βj wj + i=1

Now consider the set

S3 = |w1 , w2 , ..., wp , v1 , v2 , ..., vk , vk+1 , ...vn |
Clearly S3 ⊂ S2 ⇒ L(S2) ⊂ L(S2)
⇒ L(S3 ) ⊂ V (∵ L(S2 ) = V ) ....(5)
Now let any y ∈ V

27
2.5 Basis and Dimension

for scalars ci ∈ F
Pn
⇒y= i=1 ci vi
P
= i̸=k ci vi + ck v k
P 
p
[Using (4)]
P Pk−1
= i̸=k ci vi + ck

j=1 βj wj + i=1 αi vi


Pk−1 Pn Pk−1 Pp
= i=1 ci v i + i=k+1 ci vi + i=1 (ck αi )vi + j=1 (ck βj )wj

i=1 (ci + ck ai )vi +

Pk−1 Pn Pp
= i=k+1 ci vi + j=p (ck βj )wj

⇒ y is expressed as a linear combination of the vectors of S3 .

∴ y ∈ L(S3 ) ....(6)
so that V⊂ L(S3 ).
From (5) and (6), we get V=L(S3 ). Since S3 ⊂ V so either it L.D is or L.I.
if S3 is L.I., then S3 is a basis set, which has been obtained by extending L.I. set S1 of V.
But if S3 is L.D. set, then we go on repeating the above procedure to get a new set Sk
such that Sk is L.I. and L(Sk ) = V.
Thus Sk . which is an extension of S1 is basis set of V. However any L.I set in V can be
extended as a basis set.
At the most by repeating this procedure, we shall get the set {w1 , w2 , ..., wp } which is
given as L.I. set and so becomes a basis of V.

Remark 2.5.7. Any two basis of a nite dimensional vector space have same number of
elements.

Denition 2.5.8. Dimension of vector space. The number of elements in a basis of

vector space V over a eld F is called dimension of vector space V and is denoted by
dim (V ).

If a basis of V contains nite number of elements, then we say V is a nite dimensional

vector space. A vector space which is not nite dimensional is called innite dimensional

28
 2.5 Basis and Dimension

vector space.
For example, If V = Rn and F = R, then
dim (V ) = n
as B = {e1 , e2 , ........, en }, where
ei =(0,0,....1,....0), 1 occurs at ith place, is a basis of V having n elements.
Thus, Rn is a n-dimensional vector space over R.

Note.(i) dim {0} = 0, as basis of zero space is empty set which contains no element.
(ii) If a eld F is taken as a vector space over the same eld F , then dim (F ) = 1 and
{1} is a basis of F , where 1 is the unity of a eld F .

Dimension of Subspace.

Theorem 2.5.9. Let W be a subspace of a nite dimensional vector space V over a eld
F , then W is nite dimensional and dim (W ) ≤ dim (V ). Moreover, if dim (W ) = dim
(V ), then V = W .

Theorem 2.5.10. If a basis of a vector space V over a eld F contains n elements, then
(i). A subset W of V having more than n elements is L.D.
(ii) A L.I. subset of V cannot have more than n elements.
(iii) A subset W of V which generates V must have atleast n elements.
Theorem 2.5.11. If W1 and W2 are the two nite dimensional subspaces of a vector space
V over a eld F , then W1 + W2 is a nite dimensional subspace and dim (W1 + W2 ) =
dim (W1 )+ dim (W2 )− dim (W1 ∩ W2 ).
Denition 2.5.12. (Quotient space) Let V be a vector space over a eld F and W
be a subspace of V , then the set
V
= {x + W | x ∈ V }
W
of all cosets of W in V is a vector space over the eld F with the operations vector
addition and scalar multiplication dened as:

29
2.5 Basis and Dimension

(x + W ) + (y + W ) = (x + y) + W ∀ x, y ∈ V and
α(x + W ) = αx + W ∀ α ∈ F, x ∈ V .
This vector space V
W
over the eld F is called quotient space.

Dimension of quotient space.

Theorem 2.5.13. If W is a subspace of nite dimensional vector space V over a eld

F , then dim ( W
V
) = dim (V )− dim (W ).

30
Chapter 3

Linear Transformation

3.1 Linear Transformation and Linear Operator

Denition 3.1.1. If V and W are two vector spaces over the same eld F , then a
mapping
T :V →W

is said to be a linear transformation or vector space homomorphism or linear mapping if

(i) T (v + w) = T (v) + T (w) ∀ v, w ∈ V and
(ii)T (αv) = αT (v) ∀ v ∈ V, α ∈ F .

Notation. In this chapter, we abbreviate a linear tansformation as L.T.

Remark 3.1.2. If V and W are the two vector spaces over a same eld F , then a
mapping T : V → W is a linear transformation i T (αv + βw) = αT (v) + βT (w) ∀ v, w ∈
V and α, β ∈ F .

Denition 3.1.3. If V is a vector space over a eld F , then a linear transformation

T : V → V is called a linear operator on V . In short, we write a linear operator as L.O.

31
3.1 Linear Transformation and Linear Operator

Example 3.1.4. 1. Let T : R2 → R2 be dened as

T (a1 , a2 ) = (2a1 + a2 , a1 ), a1 , a2 ∈ R,

then T is a linear transformation.

2. Dene T : R3 → R2 as

T (a, b, c) = (a − b, a + c), a, b, c ∈ R,

then T is a linear transformation.

Denition 3.1.5. If V is a vector space over a eld F , then a linear transformation

T : V → F is called a linear functional on V . In short, we write a linear functional as
L.F.

Theorem 3.1.6. A linear transformation T : V → V is one-one i T is onto.

Proof. Let T : V → V be one - one . Let dim V = n . Let { v1 , v2 , .... , vn }

be a basis of V , then { T ( v1 ) , ..... , T ( vn ) } will also be a basis of V
α1 T ( v1 ) + α2 T ( v2 ) + ..... + αn T ( vn ) = 0
⇒ T ( α1 v1 + ..... + αn vn ) = T ( 0 ) ( T a L.T. )
⇒ α1 v1 + ..... + αn vn = 0 ( T is 1 - 1 )
αi = 0 for all i
thus T ( v1 ) ,.... T ( vn ) are L.I. and as dim V = n
Let now v ∈ V be any element then v = a1 T ( v1 ) + a2 T ( v2 ) + .... + an T ( vn ) ai
∈F
= T ( v ′ ) for some v ′
Here T is onto
conversely , let T be onto . Here again we show that if { v1 , v2 , .... , vn } is a basis of
V then so
also is { T ( v1 ) , T ( v2 ) , .... , T ( vn ) }
For any v ∈ V , Since T is onto , ∃ some v ′ ∈ V such that

32
 3.1 Linear Transformation and Linear Operator

T ( v′ ) = v
Again v ′ ∈ V means v ′ = αi vi αi ∈ F
P

∴ v = T ( v′ ) = T ( αi vi ) = αi T ( vi )
P P

⇒ T ( v1 ) , T ( v2 ) , ..... , T ( vn ) spans V
and as dim V = n , { T ( v1 ) , ..... , T ( vn ) } forms a basis of V .
Now if v ∈ ker T be any element then T ( v ) = 0
⇒T( αi v i ) = 0
P

αi T ( vi ) = 0
P
⇒
⇒ αi = 0 for all I as T ( v1 ) , ..... , T ( vn ) are L.I.
⇒v= αi vi = 0
P

⇒ ker T = { 0 } ⇒ T is 1 - 1 .

Theorem 3.1.7. If V and W are the two vector spaces over a eld F . Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
be a basis of V and w1 , w2 , . . . , wn be any vectors in W , then there exists a unique L.T.
T : V → W such that T (vi ) = wi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Proof. Let v ∈ V be any element , then v = ni=1 αi vi , α ∈ F

P

as { v1 , v2 , ..... , vn } is a basis of V .
Dene T : V → W such that
T ( V ) = αi wi
P

Then T is a linear transformation n. clearly here

T ( vi ) = T ( 0 v1 + ..... + 1 . vi + ..... + 0 vn ) = 1 wi for all i .
To show uniqueness
Let T ′ be any other L.T.
from V → W such that
T ′ ( vi ) = w i
Let v ∈ V be any element then v = αi vi
P

T′ ( v ) = T′ ( αi vi ) = αi T ′ ( vi ) = αi w i = T ( v )
P P P

33
3.2 Rank-Nullity Theorem

Hence T ′ = T
Thus, we notice that a linear transformation is completely determined by its values on
the elements of a basis.

3.2 Rank-Nullity Theorem

Denition 3.2.1. Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are vector spaces over a
eld F , then the range of T is the set of all vectors y in W such that y = T (x) for some
x ∈ V i.e.
Range (T ) = {y ∈ W | y = T (x) for some x ∈ V }.

Denition 3.2.2. Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are vector spaces over a
eld F , then the set of all vectors x in V such that T (x) = 0 is called kernel or null space
of T . It is denoted by N (T ) i.e.

N (T ) = {x ∈ V | T (x) = 0W }.

Theorem 3.2.3. Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are vector spaces over a
eld F , then

(i) Range (T ) is a subspace of W .

(ii) ker (T ) or N (T ) is a subspace of V .

Denition 3.2.4. Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are vector spaces over a
eld F , then the dimension of range of T is called the rank of T and denoted by rank
(T ). And the dimension of kernel or null space of T is called nullity of T and denoted by
Nullity (T ).

Theorem 3.2.5. (Dimension theorem or Sylvester's law or Rank-Nullity The-

orem) Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are vector spaces over a eld F . If V

34
 3.2 Rank-Nullity Theorem

is nite dimensional, then

Rank (T ) + N ullity (T ) = dim (V ).

Proof. Let {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } be a basis of ker (T ), then {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } will be L.I. in V .

Thus, it can be extended to form a basis of V.
Let { x1 , x2 , ..... , xm , v1 , v2 , .... , vn } be the extended basis of V .
Then dim ker T = nullity of T = m
dim V = m + n
we show { T ( v1 ) , T ( v2 ) , .... , T ( vn ) } is a basis of range T .
Now α1 T ( v1 ) + α2 T ( v2 ) + ..... αn T ( vn ) = 0
⇒ T ( α1 v1 + ..... + αn vn ) = 0
⇒ α1 v1 + α2 v2 + .... + αn vn ∈ ker T .
⇒ α1 v1 + .... + αn vn = β1 x1 + ..... + βm xm
or α1 v1 + αn vn + ( - β1 ) x1 + .... + ( - βm ) xm = 0
⇒ α1 = α2 = ..... = β1 = ..... = βm = 0
⇒ αi = 0 for all i
i.e, { T ( v1 ) , T ( v2 ) , ..... , T ( vn ) } is L.I.
Now if T ( v ) ∈ Range T be any element then as v ∈ V .
v = a1 x1 + ..... + am xm + b1 v1 + ..... + bn vn ai , bi ∈ F
∴ T( v ) = a1 T( x1 ) + ..... + am T( xm )+ b1 T( v1 ) + ..... + bn T( vn )
= 0 + .... + 0 + b1 ( T ( v1 ) + ..... + bn T ( vn ) as [ x ∈ ker T ]
or that T ( v ) is a linear combination of T ( v1 ) , ..... , T ( vn )
which , therefore , forms a basis of range T .
∴ dim Range T = n = rank
which proves the theorem .

35
3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation

Theorem 3.2.6. If T : V → V be a L.T., then the following statements are equivalent

(i) Range T ∩ KerT = {0}
(ii) If T (T (v)) = 0 then T (v) = 0, v ∈ V

Proof. (i) ⇒ (ii)

Since T (T (v)) = 0 ⇒ T (v) ∈ Ker (T )
Also, T (v) ∈ Range T (by denition)
⇒ T (v) = 0

(ii) ⇒ (i)
Let x ∈ Range T ∩ Ker T
⇒ x ∈ Range T and x ∈ Ker T
⇒ x = T (v) for some v ∈ V and
T (x) = 0
Now, x = T (v)
⇒ T (x) = T (T (v))
⇒ 0 = T (T (v))
⇒ T (v) = 0
⇒x=0

3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation

Denition 3.3.1. Let V and W be two vector spaces over the same eld F . Let T :
V → W and S : V → W be two linear transformations, then the function T +S : V → W
dened by
(T + S)(x) = T (x) + S(x) ∀ x ∈ V

36
 3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation

is a linear transformation, called the sum of linear transformation T and S .

If α is any element of a eld F , then the function αT : V → W dened by

(αT )(x) = αT (x) ∀ x ∈ V

is a linear transformation and called the product of linear transformation with scalar.

Denition 3.3.2. Let U , V and W be the three vector spaces over the same eld F .
Let T : U → V and S : V → W be two linear transformations, then the function
ST : U → W dened by
(ST )(x) = S(T (x)) ∀ x ∈ U

is a linear transformation, called the composition of linear transformation T and S .

Theorem 3.3.3. Let T, T1 , T2 be linear operators on vector space V over a eld F, and
let I : V → V be the identity operator on V , then
(i) IT = T I = T
(ii) T (T1 + T2 ) = T T1 + T T2 and
(T1 + T2 )T = T1 T + T2 T
(iii) α(T1 T2 ) = (αT1 )T2 = T1 (αT2 ) α ∈ F
(iv) T1 (T2 T3 ) = (T1 T2 )T3

Proof. (i) Obvious.

(ii)

[T (T1 + T2 )]x = T [(T1 + T2 )x] = T [T1 (x) + T2 (x)]

= T (T1 (x)) + T (T2 (x)) = T T1 (x) + T T2 (x)

= (T T1 + T T2 )x

⇒ T (T1 + T2 ) = T T1 + T T2

37
3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation

The other result follows similarly.

(iii)

[α(T1 T2 )]x = α[(T1 T2 )x] = α[T1 (T2 (x))]

[(αT1 )T2 ]x = (αT1 )[T2 (x)] = α[T1 (T2 (x)]

[T1 (αT2 )]x = T1 (αT2 )x = T1 (αT2 (x)) = αT1 (T2 (x))]

Hence the result follows.

(iv) Follows easily by denition.

Example 3.3.4. The Range ,Rank, Ker and nullity of the linear transformation

T : R3 → R3

such that
T (x, y, z) = (x + z, x + y + 2z, 2x + y + 3z)

is given here. Let (x, y, z) ∈ Ker T be any element ,then

T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒ (x + z, x + y + 2z, 2x + y + 3z) = (0, 0, 0)

⇒x+0+z =0

x + y + 2z = 0

2x + y + 3z = 0

Giving x = −z, −z + y + 2z = 0 i.e y = −z

Thus Ker T consists of all elements of the type (x, x, −x) = x(1, 1, −1) where x is any
real no. i.e., Ker T is spanned by (1,1,-1) which is L.I .Note (1, 1, −1) ∈ Ker T
Hence dim (Ker T ) = 1 = nullity of T

38
 3.3 Algebra of Linear Transformation

Again,from def.of T ,we notice elements of the types

(x = z, x + y + 2z, 2x + y + 3z) are in Range T
Now,

(x + z, x + y + 2z, 2x + y + 3z) = (x + 0 + z, x + y + 2z, 2x + y + 3z)

= (x, x, 2x) + (0, y, y) + (z, 2z, 3z)

= x(1, 1, 2) + y(0, 1, 1) + z(1, 2, 3)

Thus, Range T is spanned by {(1,1,2),(0,1,1),(1,2,3)}

Since(1, 1, 2) + (0, 1, 1) = (1, 2, 3) we nd these vectors are L.D.
so dim Range T ≤ 2
Again as (1,1,2) and (0,1,1) are L.I we nd
dim Range T = 2 = Rank T

Problem. Give an example of two distinct linear maps T and U such that Ker T = Ker
U and Range T= Range U.

Solution: Let T:R2 → R2 and U:R2 → R2 such that

T(1,0)=(0,0), U(1,0)=(0,0)
T(0,1)=(1,1), U(0,1) = (-1,-1)
be two distinct linear maps.
Then (x,y)∈ Ker T ⇒ T(x,y)=(0,0)
⇒ xT(1,0)+yT(0,1)=(0,0)
⇒ (y,y )=(0,0)
⇒ y=0
⇒ Ker T ={(x,0)x∈ R}

(x,y)∈ Ker U ⇒ U(x,y)=(0,0)

⇒ xU(1,0)+yU(0,1)=(0,0)
⇒ (-y,-y) =(0,0)

39
3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

⇒ y=0
⇒ Ker U = {(x,0) x∈ R}
so Ker T = Ker U
Also, (x,y)∈ Range T ⇒ (x,y)=T(α, β) = (β, β, )
⇒ x=y
⇒ Range T ={(x,x) x∈ R}

(x,y)∈ Range U ⇒ (x,y)=U(α, β)=(−β, −β)

⇒ x=y
⇒ Range U ={(x,x)x∈R}
So, Range T=Range U.

3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

Invertible linear transformation.

Denition 3.4.1. Let V and W be two vector spaces over a same eld F . A linear
transformation T : V → W is called invertible if T is one-one and onto.

Theorem 3.4.2. Let V and W be two vector spaces over a same eld F . Let T : V → W
be an invertible linear transformation, then T −1 : W → V is a linear transformation.

Proof. Since a map T:V→W is invertible i it is 1-1 and onto, and inverse of T is the
map T −1 : W→ V such that
T −1 (y) = x ⇔ T (x) = y .
we show that inverse of a L.T. is also a L.T.
Let T: V→W be a 1-1, onto L.T. and T −1 :W→V be its inverse.

40
 3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

We have to prove
T −1 (αw1 + βw2 ) = αT −1 (w1 ) + βT −1 (w2 ) α, β ∈ F, w1 , w2 ∈ W
since T is onto, for w1 , w2 ∈ W, ∃v1 , v2 ∈ V such that T (v1 ) = w1 , T (v2 ) = w2
⇔ v1 = T −1 (w1 ), v2 = T −1 (w2 )
Now, T −1 (αw1 + βw2 ) = T −1 (αT (v1 ) + βT (v2 ))
=T −1 (T (αv1 ) + T (βv2 ))
=T −1 (T (αv1 ) + βv2 ))
=αv1 + βv2
=αT −1 (w1 ) + βT −1 (w2 ).

Denition 3.4.3. A linear transformation T : V → W is called non-singular if ker

(T ) = {0} i.e. if T is 1-1. And a linear transformation T : V → W is called singular if
null space of T consists of atleast one non-zero vector i.e. if ker (T ) ̸= {0}.

Theorem 3.4.4. A linear transformation T:V→W is non-singular i T carries each of

L.I. subset of V onto a L.I subset of W.

Proof. Let T be non-singular and {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } be a L.I. subset of V. we show

{T (v1 ), T (v2 ), ..., T (vn )} is L.I. subset of W.
Now α1 T (v1 ) + α2 T (v2 ) + .... + αn T (vn ) = 0 ai ∈ F
⇒ T (α1 v1 + .... + αn vn ) = 0
⇒ α1 v1 + ....αn vn ∈ KerT = {0}
⇒ α1 v1 + ....αn vn = 0
⇒ αi = 0 for all i as vi , v2 ....vn are L.I.

conversely , let v∈ Ker T be any element

Then T(v)=0
⇒ {T(v)} is not L.I. in W

41
3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

⇒ v is not L.I. in V. (by hypothesis)

⇒ v=0⇒ Ker T={0}
T is non singular.

Theorem 3.4.5. Let T : V → W be a L.T., where V and W are two nite dimensional
vector spaces over a eld F with same dimensions, then the following are equivalent

(i) T is invertible

(ii) T is non singular (i.e., T is 1-1)

(iii) T is onto (i.e., Range T = W)

(iv) If v1 , v2 , ..., vn is basis of V then T(v1 ),T(v2 ),...,T(vn ) is a basis of W.

Proof. (i)⇒(ii) follows by denition.

(ii)⇒(iii) T is non-singular

⇒ Ker T = 0

⇒ dim Ker T = 0

Since dim Range T + dim Ker T = dim V, we get

dim Range T = dim V

⇒ dim Range T = dim W (given conditon)

But Range T being a subspace of W, we nd

Range T = W

(iii)⇒(i) T onto means Range T = W

42
 3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

dim Range T = dim W = dim V

and as dim Range T + dim Ker T = dim V, we get

dim Ker T = 0

⇒ Ker T = 0

or that T is 1-1 and as it is onto T will be invertible.

(i)⇒(iv) T is invertible ⇒ T is 1-1 onto

i.e., T is an isomorphism

(iv)⇒(i)

Let T(v1 ),...,T(vn ) be basis of W where v1 , ..., vn is basis of V. Any w ϵ W can be put
as

w = α1 T(v1 )+...+αn T(vn )

= T(α1 v1 +...+ αn vn ) = T(v) for some v ϵ V

∴ T is onto. Thus (iii) holds.

Hence (i) holds.

Theorem 3.4.6. Let T : V → W and S : W → U be two linear transformations, then

(i) If S and T are one-one onto then ST is one-one

(ii) If ST is one-one then T is onto

(iii) If ST is onto then S is onto.

43
3.4 Singular and Non-Singular Transformations

44
Chapter 4

Modules

4.1 Modules

Denition 4.1.1. Let R be a ring with unity and let (M, +) be an abelian group, then
M together with a mapping
f :R×M →M

such that f (a, x) = ax for all a ∈ R and x ∈ M is said to be a left R-module if the
following properties hold.

(i) a(x + y) = ax + ay ∀ a ∈ R and x, y ∈ M

(ii)(a + b)x = ax + bx ∀ a, b ∈ R and x ∈ M

(iii) (ab)x = a(bx) ∀ a, b ∈ R and x ∈ M

(iv) 1.x = x ∀ x ∈ M and 1 ∈ R

Denition 4.1.2. Let R be a ring with unity and let (M, +) be an abelian group, then
M together with a mapping
f :M ×R→M

45
4.1 Modules

such that f (x, a) = xa ∀ x ∈ M and a ∈ R is said to be a right R-module if the following

properties hold.

(i) (x + y)a = xa + ya ∀ x, y ∈ M and a ∈ R

(ii) x(a + b) = xa + xb ∀ x ∈ M and a, b ∈ R

(iii) x(ab) = (xa)b ∀ x ∈ M and a, b ∈ R

(iv) x.1 = x ∀ x ∈ M and 1 ∈ R

Note.(1.) If M is both left R-module and right R-module, then we call M is an

R-module or a module over ring R.
(2.) The mapping f : R × M → M dened as

f(a,x) = ax ∀ a ∈ R and x ∈ M
or
the mapping f : M × R → M dened as

f(x,a) = xa ∀ x ∈ M and a ∈ R
is known as scalar multiplication (or external composition).

Example 4.1.3. 1. Every vector space over a eld F is a F-module or a module over
eld F.
2. Every abelian group G is a Z-module.

Exercise. Let R be a ring with unity and let S be a non-empty set. Suppose M =
{f | f : S → R} be the set of all mappings from S to R. We dene addition on M as
(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ∀ x ∈ S and we dene scalar multiplication on M as
(α f)(x) = α f(x) ∀ x ∈ S and α ∈ R, then show that M is a left R-module.

Proof. We rst show that (M,+) is an abelian group.

46
 4.1 Modules

(i) closure property : Let f,g ∈ M and let x ∈ S, then

(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ∈ R. Therefore, f+g ∈ M.
(ii) Associative property : Let f,g,h ∈ M and let x ∈ S,

then [f + (g+h)](x) = f(x) + (g+h)(x)

=f(x) + [g(x) + h(x)]

=[f(x) + g(x)] + h(x) (∵ f (x), g(x), h(x) ∈ R and R is a ring)

= (f+g)(x) + h(x)

= [(f+g) + h](x). Thus,

[f + (g+h)](x) = [(f+g) + h](x) ∀ x ϵ S, we have

f + (g+h) = (f+g) + h
(iii) Existence of identity : Let O : S −→ R dened by O(x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ S be the zero
map, then
O ∈ M. Let x ∈ S, then (0 + f)(x) = 0(x) + f(x)

= 0 + f(x) = f(x)

and (f + 0)(x) = f(x) + 0(x) = f(x) + 0 = f(x)

i.e. (f + 0)(x) = f(x) = (0 + f)(x) ∀ x ∈ S

⇒f+0=f=0+f

∴ O is the identiy of M.
(iv) Existence of inverse : Let f ϵ M and dene f : S −→ R by (-f)(x)= -f(x) ∀ x ∈ S,

then [f +(-f)](x) = f(x)+(-f)(x)

= f(x)-f(x) = 0 = 0(x)

47
4.1 Modules

Similarly, [(−f ) + f ](x) = (−f )(x) + f (x) = 0(x)

∴ [f + (−f )](x) = 0(x) = [(−f ) + f ](x) ∀ x ∈ S

⇒ f+(-f) = 0 = (-f)+f

⇒ -f is the inverse of f in M.
(v) Commutative property : Let f,g ∈ M and let x ϵ S, then

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) (∵ f (x), g(x) ∈ R and R is a ring)

= (g + f )(x)

= (f + g)(x) = (g + f )(x) ∀ x S

= f+g = g+f

Hence, (M,+) is an abelian group.

Now, we have to show that M is an left R-module.
(i) α(f+g) = αf + αg ∀ α ϵ R and f,g ϵ M.
Let x ∈ S be arbitary, then
[α(f + g)](x) = α(f + g)(x)
⇒ α[f (x) + g(x)] = αf (x) + αg(x)
=(αf + αg)(x)
i.e. [α(f + g)](x) = (αf + αg)(x) ∀ x ϵ S
⇒ α(f + g) = αf + αg
(ii) Let α, β ∈ R and f∈ M. We have to show that
(α + β )f = αf + βf .
Let x ∈ S be arbitary, then
[(α + β)f ](x) = (α + β)f (x) = αf (x) + βf (x)
=(α + β )f(x)
i.e. [(α + β )](x)=[αf + βf ](x) ∀xϵS
⇒(α + β )f=αf + βf.

48
 4.2 Submodules

(iii) Let α, β ∈ R and f∈ M and we have to show (αβ )f=α(βf ).

Let x ∈ S be arbitrary, then
[(αβ)f ](x) = (αβ)f (x) = α[βf (x)] (∵ α, β, f (x) ∈ R and R is a ring)
= [α(βf )(x)] = [α(βf )](x)
i.e. [(αβ )f](x) = [α(βf )](x) ∀ x ϵ S
=(αβ )f = α (β f)
(iv) Let f ∈ M and 1 ∈ R, then we show that 1.f = f. Let x ∈ S be arbitrary,
then (1.f)(x) = 1.f(x)
i.e. (1.f)(x) = f(x) ∀ x ϵ S
⇒ 1.f = f
Hence, M is an left R-module.

4.2 Submodules

Denition 4.2.1. Let M be an R-module, where R is a ring, then a non-empty subset

N of M is said to be a submodule if N itself is an R-module under the operations of M.

Theorem 4.2.2. Let M be an R-module, then a non-empty subset N of M is a submodule

of M i
(i) N is a subgroup of M i.e. x-y ∈ N ∀ x,y ∈ N
(ii) For each α ∈ R and x ∈ N, we have α x ∈ N i.e. N is closed under scalar multipli-
cation.

Proof. First assume that N is a submodule of an R-module M.

Let x,y ∈ N, then since (N,+) is an abelian group, we have
x-y ∈ N.
Therefore, N is a subgroup of M.

49
4.2 Submodules

Next, let α ϵ R and let x ϵ N, then since N is a submodule of an R-module M,

we have N is also an R-module and so N is closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, we have α x ϵ N.
Thus, N is a subgroup of M and is closed under scalar multiplication.
Next, we assume that N is a non-empty subset of M such that the following two conditions
hold :
(i) N is a subgroup of M and
(ii) α x ϵ N for any α ϵ R, x ϵ N,
then we claim that N is a submodule of M.
Clearly,(N,+) is an abelian group and it is closed under multiplication
By (i) and (ii) now we have to show the following properties :
(a) Let x,y ϵ N and let α ϵ R.
Now, x,y ϵ N ⇒ x+y ϵ N [∵ of (i)]
∴ α(x+y) = α x + α y (∵ N ⊂ M)
(b) Let α, β ϵ R and x ϵ N. Now x ϵ N ⇒ x ϵ M
therefore, (α + β ) x = α x + β x (∵ M is an R-module)
(c) Let α, β ϵ R and x ϵ N,
then (α β ) x = α(β x) as x ϵ M also.
(d)Let x ϵ N be arbitrary, then 1.x = x as x ϵ M and M is a module over R.
Hence, N is a submodule of M.

Exercise. Let M = {f | f : S → R} be an R-module, where R is a ring with unity and

S is a non-empty set, then for any subset S ′ of S, N = {f ∈ M | f (x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ S ′ } is a
submodule of M .

Proof. To show that N is a submodule of M, we have to show that N is a subgroup of M

and N is closed under multiplication.

50
 4.2 Submodules

(i) Let f,g ϵ N, then we have

f(x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 ∀ x ϵ S.

Let x ϵ S be arbitrary, then (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) = 0 - 0 = 0

i.e. (f - g)(x) = 0 ∀ c ϵ S

⇒f-gϵN

∴ N is a subgroup of M.

(ii) Let α ϵ R and ler f ϵ N, then for any arbitrary x ϵ S,

(α f)(x) = α.f(x) = α.0 = 0 (∵ f ϵ N ⇒ f(x) = 0, ∀ x ϵ S)

i.e. (α f)(x) = 0 ∀ x ϵ S

⇒αfϵN

∴ N is closed under scalar multiplication.

Hence, N is a submodule of M.

Exercise. The intersection of two submodules of an R-module is also a submodule.

Proof. Assume N1 ∩ N2 be the two submodules of an R-module M.

We claim that N1 ∩ N2 is also a submodule of M.
Since 0 ∈ N1 and 0 N2 as N1 ∩ N2 are submodules of M.
We have 0 ∈ N1 ∩ N2 and therefore, N1 ∩ N2 ̸= Φ.
Let x,y ∈ N1 ∩ N2 , then x,y ∈ N1 and x,y ∈ N2 .
Clearly, x − y ∈ N1 as N1 is a submodule.
Also, N2 is a submodule, we have x - y ∈ N2 .

51
4.2 Submodules

Thus, x - y ∈ N1 ∩ N2 and so N1 ∩ N2 is a subgroup.

Now, we only have to show that N1 ∩ N2 is closed under scalar multiplication.
Let α ∈ R and let x ∈ N1 ∩ N2 .
Since α ∈ R and x ∈ N1 , we have
α x ∈ N1 , as N1 is a submodule.
Also α ∈ R and x ∈ N2 , we have
α x ∈ N2 as N2 is a submodule.
Now, α x ∈ N1 and α x ∈ N2 , We have
α x ∈ N1 ∩ N2 .
Therefore, N1 ∩ N2 is closed under scalar multiplication.
Hence, N1 ∩ N2 is a submodule.

Remark 4.2.3. Any arbitrary intersection of submodules of an R-module is also a sub-

module.

Exercise. Show that the union of two submodules of an R-module need not be a sub-
module.

Proof. Let M = Z, then M is a Z-module. Let N1 = 2Z and let N2 = 3Z, then

N1 and N2 are submodules of M.

Since N1 N2 = 2Z 3Z, we have

S S

2,3 ∈ N1 N2 but 2 - 3 = -1 ∈
S S
/ N1 N2

N2 is not a subgroup of M.
S
∴ N1

Hence, union of two submodules of a module need not be a submodule.

Exercise. If M is an R-module and ∈ M , then N = {αx | α ∈ R} is a submodule of M .

52
 4.2 Submodules

Proof. To show that N = {αx | α ∈ R} is a submodule of an R-module M, we show the

following properties :
(i) N ̸= ϕ

Since 1 ∈ R, then 1.x = x ∈ N

i.e. x ∈ N

∴ N ̸= ϕ
(ii) N is a subgroup of M

Let y,z ∈ N, then y = α1 x and z = α2 x for some α1 ,α2 ∈ R.

Now, y - z = α1 x - α2 x = (α1 - α2 )x ϵ N

i.e. y - z ϵ N ∀ y,z ϵ N. (∵ α1 , α2 ϵ R ⇒ α1 - α2 ϵ R as R is a ring)

∴ N is a subgroup of M.

(iii) N is closed under scalar multiplication

Let β ϵ R and let y ϵ N.

Since y ϵ N, we have y = αx for some α ϵ R.

Now, β y = β (αx) = (βα)x ϵ N. (∵ α, β ϵ R and R is a ring, so βα ϵ R)

i.e. β y ϵ N ∀ y ϵ N, β ϵ R

∴ N is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence, N is a submodule of M.

53
4.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

4.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

Denition 4.3.1. Cyclic module. An R-module M is said to be a cyclic module if

M = Rx for some x ∈ M .

Denition 4.3.2. Sum of submodules. Let M be an R-module and let N1 , N2 are the
two submodules of M , then the sum of N1 and N2 , denoted by N1 + N2 , is dened as

N1 + N2 = {x + y | x ∈ N1 and y ∈ N2 }

Exercise. Thehe sum of two submodules of an R-module M is again a submodule.

Proof. Assume M be an R-module and N1 , N2 be the two sub- modules of M,then

we claim that N1 + N2 is also a submodule of M .
Since N1 + N2 = {x + y | x ∈ N1 and y ∈ N2 }
we have 0 + 0 ∈ N1 + N2 as 0 ∈ N1 and 0 ∈ N2 (∵ N1 , N2 are submodules of M )
⇒ 0 ∈ N1 + N2
∴ N1 + N2 ̸= ϕ
Now, we show that N1 + N2 is a subgroup of M and is closed under scalar multiplication.
First, let x1 + y2 ∈ N1 + N2 , where x1 , x2 ∈ N1 and y1 , y2 ∈ N2 , then
(x1 + y2 ) − (x2 + y2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 ) ∈ N1 + N2
(∴ x1 , x2 ∈ N1 ⇒ x1 − x2 ∈ N1 as N1 is a submodule of M and
y1 , y2 ∈ N2 ∴ y1 − y2 as N2 is a sub- module of M )
∴ N1 + N2 is a subgroup of M
Now, let α ∈ R and x + y ∈ N1 + N2 , where x ∈ N1 and y ∈ N2 ,then
α(x + y) = αx + αy ∈ N1 + N2
(∴ N1 is a submodule of M so αx ∈ N1 for α ∈ R and x ∈ N1
Similarly,N2 is also a submodule of M so αy ∈ N2 for α ∈ R and y ∈ N2 )
∴ N1 + N2 is closed under scalar multiplication
Hence , N1 + N2 is a submodule of M.

54
 4.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

Denition 4.3.3. Linear combination. Let M be an R-module and let S be a non-

empty subset of M , then x ∈ M is said to be a linear combination of elements of S if
x = α1 x1 + α2 x2 + .... + αn xn , where αi ∈ R and xi ∈ S for i = 1, 2, ..., n.

Denition 4.3.4. Linear span. Let M be an R-module and let S be a non-empty

subset of M ,then the linear span of S, denoted by L(S) or Span (S), is dened as
( n )
αi xi | αi ∈ R and xi ∈ S, i = 1, 2, ..., n
X
L(S) =
i=1

i.e., the set of all linear combination of elements of S is called linear span or spanning set
of S.

Theorem 4.3.5. Let M be an R-module and let S be a non-empty subset of M , then

L(S) is the smallest submodule of M contaning S .

( n )
Proof. Since L(S) = αi xi | αi ∈ R and xi ∈ S .
X

i=1

To show L(S) is a submodule of M, we show the following properties:

(i)L(S) ̸= ϕ
Since S ̸= ϕ, we let x ∈ S .

Now 0 = 0.x ∈ L(S) (∵ 0 ∈ R)

i.e. 0 ∈ L(S)

∴ L(S) ̸= ϕ

(ii) L(S) is a subgroup of M

n n
Let y, z ∈ L(S), then y = αi xi and z =
X X
β i xi ,
i=1 i=1
where αi , βi ∈ R and xi ∈ S .

55
4.3 Linear Combination and Linear Span

n
X n
X
N ow y − z = α i xi − β i xi
i=n i=n
Xn
= (αi − βi )xi ∈ L(S) (∴ αi − βi ∈ R ∀ αi , βi ∈ R)
i=n

(iii) L(S) is closed under scalar multiplication

Let α ∈ R and let y ∈ L(S),then
n
αi xi , where αi ∈ R and xi ∈ S .
X
y=
n=1

n n
Now αy = α
X X
(αi xi ) = (ααi )xi ∈ L(S) (∴ α, αi ∈ R so α, αi ∈ R)
n=i i=n

Thus, L(S) is a submodule of M.

Now,we show that L(S) is the smallest submodule of M containing S .

Let x ∈ S ,then

x = 1.x ∈ L(S) (∴ 1 ∈ R)

i.e., x ∈ L(S).

Therefore ,S ⊆ L(S).Futher,let N be a submodule of M containing S i.e.,S ⊆ N .

We have to show that L(S) ⊆ N .For ,let y ∈ L(S),then

n
αi xi ,where αi ∈ R and xi ∈ S .
X
y=
i=n

Now, xi ∈ S

∴ xi ∈ N (∴ S ⊆ N )

Also, αi ∈ R, xi ∈ N and N is a submodule of M ,then we have

56
 4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules

αi xi ∈ N ∀ i = 1, 2, ..., n
n
X
⇒ α i xi ∈ N
n=i

⇒y∈N

∴ L(s) ⊆ N

Hence, L(S) is the smallest submodule of M containing S.

4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules

Denition 4.4.1. An R-module M is said to be a nitely generated R-module if there

exists cyclic submodules M1 , M2 , . . . , Mn of M such that M = M1 + M2 + . . . + Mn .

Note. 1. The above submodule L(S) of M is a nitely generated R-module as it generated

by the nite subset S of M.
2. Every cyclic module is nitely generated.
3.Every nite dimensinonal vector space over a eld F is nitely generated F-module.

Denition 4.4.2. Direct Sum. Let M be an R-module and let M1 , M2 , ..., Mn are
submodules of M, then M is said to be a direct sum of M1 , M2 , .., Mn if
(i) M = M1 + M2!
+, .., +Mn ; and
n
(ii) Mi ∩
X
Mi = {0}
i=n

Note. If M is the direct sum of M1 , M2 , .., Mn , then we write it as

M = M1 ⊕ M2 ⊕ .... ⊕ Mn or M = ⊕ni=n Mi

57
4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules

n
Let M1 , M2 , .., Mn be submodules of an R-module M, then M =
M
Theorem 4.4.3. Mi
i=n
i every x ∈ M can be uniquely written as x = x1 + x2 +, .., +xn , where xi ∈ Mi for
i = 1, 2, .., n.

Proof. First assume that M = M1 Mn , that is,

L L L
M2 ...
n
!
M = M1 + M2 +, .., +Mn and Mi ∩ = {0} for i = 1, 2, .., n.
X
Mi
i=n
We claim that every x ∈ M can be uniquely written as x = x1 + x2 + ... + xn , xi ∈ Mi
for i = 1, 2, .., n.

For, suppose x = x1 + x2 +, .., +xn , xi ∈ Mi and x = y1 + y2 +, ..., +yn , where

x1 , yi ∈ Mn for i = 1, 2, .., n.

We have to show that xi = yi for all i = 1, 2, .., n.

Now, we have
x1 + x2 +, .., +xn = y1 + y2 +, ..., +yn

i.e. x1 + x2 +, .., +xi−1 + xn + xn+1 +, ..., +xn = y1 + y2 +, .., +yn−1 + yn + yn+1 +, ..., yn

⇒ xi − yi = (y1 − x1 ) + (y2 − x2 ) + .... + (yi−1 − xi−1 ) + (yi+1 − xi+1 ) + .... + (yn − xn )

⇒ xi − yi ∈ (M1 + M2 + .... + Mi−1 + Mi+1 + .... + Mn ) for all i = 1, 2, ..., n

Also, xi − yi ∈ Mi for all i = 1, 2, .., n.

Therefore, xi − yi ∈ Mi ∩ (M1 + M2 + ... + Mi−1 + Mi+1 + ... + Mn )

n
X
⇒ xi − yi ∈ Mi ∩ ( Mi ) = {0} ∀i = 1, 2, .., n
i=1

⇒ xi − yi = 0 ∀ i = 1, 2, ..., n

Thus, every x ∈ M can be uniquely written as

58
 4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules

x = x1 + x2 + ... + xn , xi ∈ Mi ∀ i = 1, 2, ..., n.

Next, we assume that every element x of M can be uniquely wriiten as

x = x1 + x2 + ... + xn ; xi ∈ Mi ∀ i = 1, 2, ..., n

Clearly by the given condition, we have

M = M1 + M2 + .... + Mn
n
To show that M = Mi , it is enough to show that
M

i=n

Xn
Mi ∩ ( Mi ) = {0} ∀ i = 1, 2, .., n
i=n

n
For, let x ∈ Mi ∩ (
X
Mi )
n=i

⇒ x ∈ Mi and x ∈ M1 + M2 + ... + Mi−n + Mi+n + ... + Mn

Therefore, x = 0 + 0 + .... + x + 0 + ... + 0 and

x = x1 + x2 + ... + xi−n + 0 + xi+n + ... + xn

By the uniqueness of representation of x, we have

x=0
n
!
X
∴ Mi ∩ Mi = {0}
i=n

n
Hence,
M
M= Mi
i=n

59
4.4 Direct Sum of Submodules

60
Chapter 5

Module Homomorphisms

5.1 Module Homomorphism

Denition 5.1.1. Let M and N be two R-modules, then the mapping f : M → N is

said to be a module homomorphism if

(i) f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) f orall x, y ∈ M

(ii) f (αx) = αf (x) f orall α ∈ R and x ∈ M .

Denition 5.1.2. Monomorphism. Let M and N be two R-modules, then the mapping

f : M → N is said to be a monomorphism if

(i) f is homomorphism

(ii) f is one - one .

Denition 5.1.3. Epimorphism. Let M and N be two R - Modules , then the mapping

f : M → N is said to be an epimorphism if

(i) f is homomorphism

61
5.1 Module Homomorphism

(ii) f is onto .

Denition 5.1.4. Isomorphism. Let M and N be two R - Modules, then the mapping

f : M → N is said to be an isomorphism if

(i) f is homomorphism

(ii) f is one - one

(iii) f is onto

Note. Let M and N be two R - Modules , then we say that M is isomorphic to N if there
exists an isomorphism f : M → N. We write M ≈ N if M is isomorphic to N.

Exerxise. The composition of two module homomorphisms is a module homomorphism.

Proof. Assume M ,N and L be three R - Modules and let f : M → N, g : N → L be the

two module homomorphisms, then we have to show that

gof : M → L is homomorphism.

For, let x,y ∈ M, then

( gof ) ( x + y ) = g [ f ( x + y ) ] = g [ f (x ) + f ( y ) ] [ ∵ f is homomorphism ]

= g [ f (x) ] + g [ f ( y ) ]

= ( gof ) ( x ) + ( gof ) y .

Now, let x ∈ M and α ∈ R, then

( gof ) ( α x ) = g [ f ( α x ) ]

= g [ α f ( x ) ] as f is homomorphism

62
 5.1 Module Homomorphism

= α [ g ( f (x ) ) ] as g is homomorphism

= α ( gof ) ( x )

Hence , gof is a homomorphism .

Exercise. Let M be an R - module and x ∈ M, then a mapping ϕx : R → M dened by

ϕx ( a ) = a x ∀ a ∈ R is a module homomorphism.

Proof. To show that ϕx is a module homomorphism,

let a,b ∈ R, then a + b ∈ R also. [ ∵ R is a ring ]

∴ ϕx ( a + b ) = ( a + b ) x = a x + b x = ϕx ( a ) + ϕx ( b ).

Futher , let α ∈ R and let a ∈ R ,then α a ∈ R .

∴ ϕx ( α a ) = ( α a ) x = α ( a x ) = α ϕx ( a )

Hence , ϕx is a module homomorphism .

Kernel of a module homomorphism.

Denition 5.1.5. Let M and N be two R-modules and let f : M → N be a module

homomorphism, then the kernel of f, denoted by ker f, is dened as

ker f = {x ∈ M | f (x) = ON },

where ON denotes the zero element of an R-module N.

Theorem 5.1.6. If f : M → N be a R-module homomorphism, then ker f is a submodule

of M.

Proof. Since ker f = {x ∈ M | f (x) = ON }, where ON denotes the zero element of an

R-module N.

63
5.2 Quotient Modules

Note that OM ∈ ker f as f ( OM ) = ON .

This implies OM ∈ ker f and therefore , ker f ̸= ϕ

Now, we shall show that ker f is a submodule of M.

For let x1 , x2 ∈ ker f and let α ∈ R, then

f ( x1 - x2 ) = f ( x1 ) - f ( x 2 ) [ ∵ f is a module homomorphism ]

= ON - ON

= ON

⇒ x1 - x2 ∈ ker f

Also , f ( α x1 ) = α f ( x1 ) = α . ON

= ON [ ∵ f is a module ]

i.e, f ( α x1 ) = ON

∴ α x1 ∈ ker f

Hence , ker f is a submodule of M .

Remark 5.1.7. If f : M → N is an R-module homomorphism, then f is monomorphism

i ker f = {OM }.

5.2 Quotient Modules

Denition 5.2.1. Let N be a submodule of an R-module M. Consider the quotient set

M
N
= {x + N | x ∈ M }. Dene addition and scalar multiplication on M
N
as :

64
 5.2 Quotient Modules

(x + N ) + (y + N ) = (x + y) + N and

α(x + N ) = αx + N ∀ α ∈ R and x + N, y + N ∈ M
N
,

then the quotient set M

N
together with above addition and scalar multiplication is an
R-module known as quotient module.

Denition 5.2.2. Project map or Quotient map or Natural map. Let M be

an R-module and N be a submodule of M, then a mapping p : M → M
N
dened as
p(x) = x + N ∀ x ∈ M is called as projection map or quotient map or natural map.

Theorem 5.2.3. If M
N
is a quotient module of an R- module M , then the natural map
p:M → M
N
is an R-module epimorphism.

Proof. Since the projection map p : M → M

N
is dened as

p(x) = x + N ∀ x ∈ M .

we claim that p is an R - module epimorphism .

For this we show the following properties:

p is homomorphism
Let α ∈ R and let x , y ∈ M, then

p ( x + y ) = ( x + y ) + N = ( x + N ) + ( y + N ) = p ( x ) + p ( y )and

p(αx)=αx+N=α(x+N)

=αp(x)

∴ p is an R - module homomorphism

p is onto
Let Z ∈ M
N
, then

65
5.2 Quotient Modules

Z = x + N for some x ∈ M

and p ( x ) = x + N = Z

i.e, for any Z ∈ M

N
, there exist some x ∈ M such that

p(x)=Z

∴ p is onto

Hence, p is an R - module epimorphism.

Fundamental theorems of module homomorphism.

Theorem 5.2.4. (First fundamental theorem of module homomorphism) Let M

and N be two R-modules and f : M → N be an epimorphism, then M
Ker(f )
≈ N.

Theorem 5.2.5. (Second fundamental theorem of module homomorphism) Let

N and K be two submodules of an R-module M , then M
N ∩K
≈ N +K
K
.

Theorem 5.2.6. If KN is a submodule of M

N
i K is a submodule of M containing N,
where N is a submodule of M.

Proof. First suppose that K

N
is a submodule of M
K
.

we have to show that K is a submodule of M.

For, let x,y ∈ K and let α ∈R.

⇒ x+N,y+N ∈ K
N
and since K
N
is a submodule of M
N
, we have

(x+N)-(y+N)∈ K
N
and α(x + N ) ∈ K
N

⇒ (x-y)+N∈ K
N
and αx+K ∈ K
N

⇒ x-y∈K and αx ∈ K

66
 5.2 Quotient Modules

∴ K is a submodule of M.

Also, let x∈N,

⇒ x+N=N, zero element of K

N
so x+N∈K

⇒ x∈K, so N is contained in K.

Thus, K is a submodule of M containing N.

Conversely, suppose, K is a submodule of M and N⊆K.

we have to show that K

N
is a submodule of M
N
.

Let x+N, y+N ∈ K

N
and α ∈R.

Since, K is a submodule of M

⇒ x-K∈K and αx ∈ R

⇒ (x-y)+N∈ K
N
and αx + N ∈ K
N

⇒ (x+N)-(y+N)∈ K and α(x + N ) ∈ K

N

∴ K
N
is a submodule of M
N

Hence the proof.

Theorem 5.2.7. (Third fundamental theorem of module homomorphism) Let

N and K be two submodules of an R-module M such that N ⊆ K , then M/N
K/N
≈ M
K
.

References

1. Brown, William A. Matrices and vector spaces, New York M, 1991. Dekker, ISBN
978-0-8247-8419-5

2. Lang, Serge. Linear algebra, Berlin, New York:Springer-Verlag, 1987. ISBN 978-0-

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5.2 Quotient Modules

387-96412-6

3. Roman, Steven. Advanced Linear Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 135

(2nd ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2005. ISBN 978-0-387-24766-3.

4. Anderson FW, Fuller KR. Rings and categories of modules, graduate texts in math-
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3-540-97845-3

5. Nathan Jacobson. Structure of rings. Colloquium publications, 2nd Ed., AMS

Bookstore, 1964, 37. ISBN 978-0-8218-1037-8.

6. Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. Module encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, 2001.

ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4.

7. Meyer, Carl D. Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, Society for Industrial
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8. Poole, David. Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction(2nd ed.), Brooks/Cole,

2006. ISBN 0-534-99845-3

9. Anton, Howard. Elementary Linear Algebra(Applications Version) (9th ed.), Wiley

International, 2005.

10. Leon, Steven J. Linear Algebra with Applications (7th ed.), Pearson Prentice Hall,
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11. Anderson FW, Fuller KR. Rings and categories of modules, graduate texts in math-
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3-540-97845-3

12. Nathan Jacobson. Structure of rings. Colloquium publications, 2nd Ed., AMS
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 5.2 Quotient Modules

13. Vijay K. Khanna, S. K. Bhambri. A Course in Abstract Algebra. ISBN:

070698675X, 9780706986754 Edition:2, reprint.

69
5.2 Quotient Modules

70