Everyone, qf course, reflects OHlife events irz 017 cf@ut to learn from expeuieme.

Nezu research suggests that guiding the process can enrich the learning.

Learningfrom Experien.ce
Through Reflection
MARILYN WOOD DAUDELIN

he forces affecting business environ- Recent studies have shown that the day-
T ments change rapidly, frequently, and
unpredictably. Gone are the days when man-
to-day experiences of managers as they con-
front challenges and problems on the job are
agers could predict the future and prepare rich sources of learning-perhaps more ap-
themselves to meet its demands with rela- propriate “classrooms” than the traditional
tively stable, five-year plans. Instead, they venues described above. Consider, for exam-
find themselves imagining three or four pos- ple, recent research conducted by the Center
sible future scenarios, then developing action for Creative Leadership in Greensboro, North
plans that can be modified in response to im- Carolina. By studying 616 descriptions of ex-
possible-to-predict technological or social periences that 191 successful executives
changes. claimed made a lasting developmental differ-
How do managers prepare themselves to ence, researchers were able to identify 16
survive, let alone be successful, in such an en- types of experiences or “key events” that are
vironment? critical to the development of specific man-
The more traditional avenues of develop- agerial competencies.
ment-MBA degrees, executive education
programs, and management workshops and
seminars-face the same turbulence. The de-
UNCOVERING HIDDEN LEARNING
signers of these educational experiences do
POTENTIAL
their best to predict the kinds of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that will be most helpful. The Center for Creative Leadership study rec-
Yet there is an inherent game of “catch up” ognizes the immense learning potential hid-
within this system. By the time these design- den in everyday experience. But such recog-
ers understand existing issues and trends, de- nition is not enough. Managers need support
velop cases, write texts, and create workshop in these efforts to make sense out of their de-
designs, a new wave of business challenges velopmental experiences. The word “experi-
appears. ence” derives from the Latin word cxpcrientia,
Without question, we need a more adapt- meaning trial, proof, or experiment. Thus
able, responsive system of helping managers challenging work experiences may be de-
learn. scribed as trial-and-error experiments that
36
produce learning. Viewed this way, what is
needed is a process of analysis that explores
causes, develops and tests hypotheses, and
eventually produces new knowledge.
Rather than creating a new system-with
the danger of adding one more fad to those
that surface repeatedly in management prac-
tice-we turn to a process that has roots as
deep as the ancient Greek philosophers: the
process of reflection.

Using Reflection to Learn

From Experience
Reflection is a natural and familiar process. In Dr. Marilyn W. Daudelin has had over
school, we wrote papers, answered questions, twenty years of experience as an in-house
engaged in classroom discussions, and ana- trainer, consultant, and program manager for
lyzed cases, all as ways to develop new in- Polaroid Corporation in Cambridge, Mas-
sights. In the business world, we analyze ex- sachusetts. She has spent much of that time
periences and summarize our learning in designing and implementing unique internal
reports, performance review sessions, and development programs. Her consulting, writ-
problem-solving processes. In our personal ing, and speaking engagements have fo-
lives, we discuss troubling situations with cused on programs she developed for hu-
friends, spouses, counselors, or support man resources professionals, executives
groups. Reflection occurs in less formal ways and secretaries.
as well. We may have experienced break- Marilyn now provides consultation to a va-
throughs while jogging, showering, or mow- riety of organizations in the greater Boston
ing the lawn. area. Her current interests include helping
Reflection as a way of learning has ancient managers in corporations learn from their
roots. Socrates may have been one of the first challenging work experiences by using re-
to use this process as he tried to discover the flection tools and practices.
nature of goodness by asking questions of oth- Marilyn received her Ed.D. in human re-
ers. He constantly challenged the statements sources education from Boston University,
and beliefs of his students, including Plato, her Me.D. in human resources development
whose work developed as a consequence of from Northeastern University, and her under-
Socrates’ training in how to reflect. Other ear- graduate degree in English from Boston Uni-
ly proponents of reflection as a way of learn- versity. She has served on several universi-
ing include Sophocles, who declared that one ty executive education advisory boards and
learns by observing what one does time and has been the recipient of a variety of aca-
time again, and John Locke, who believed that demic and professional awards.
knowing is purely a function of thoughtful re-
action to experience.
If the process of reflection is so natural
and familiar, what keeps organizations from
embracing formal reflective practices as a way
to encourage learning? One explanation is
that managers have always placed a higher
value on action than reflection. Twenty years
ago, Henry Minztberg wrote in the Harvard
Business Review, “Study after study has shown
37
that managers work at an unrelenting pace, questions from a position of mutual discov-
that their activities are characterized by brevi- ery; when they provide the time and the
ty, variety, and discontinuity, and that they structure to reflect upon challenging work sit-
are strongly oriented to action and dislike re- uations, both individually and collectively;
flective activities.” More recently, Rosabeth and when they are open to and supportive of
Moss Kanter identified short-term manageri- ideas that emerge from these processes.
al incentives and demands as forces working Finally, the trend toward greater ac-
against managers’ ability to pause and reflect. countability to external shareholders, to
boards of directors, and, most recently, to em-
ployee-owners for corporate performance has
Recognizing Existing Reflection Practices
led to a new examination of the age-old
In spite of these tendencies to resist reflection, method of planning and evaluating individu-
evidence exists that it is becoming a part of al performance: the performance appraisal
the lifeblood of organizations today. Many of process.

Reflection as a way of learning has ancient

roots. Socrates may have been one of thefirst to
use this process.. . by asking questions of others.

the tools taught and practiced in total quality This examination has, in turn, led to new
management programs, for example, are ac- techniques such as 360 degree feedback (so-
tually processes of reflection. They allow indi- liciting data on strengths and weaknesses
viduals to call a halt, at least briefly, to the from immediate managers, peers, and direct
frantic pace of action and engage in processes reports) and customer input processes (col-
that permit individuals to reflect upon impor- lecting performance feedback from internal
tant areas such as customer needs, root caus- and external customers). These new practices
es of problems, and dysfunctional work-flow place more emphasis on the need to reflect on
patterns. In many companies, the improve- prior performance over the course of a year,
ments and innovations resulting from these or longer. The skills applied in that reflection
processes have had a direct and powerful ef- may then be used to plan for improvements
fect on both company profits and employee in the following year’s performance.
satisfaction. These two key elements of performance
Also, the trend toward greater employee management-evaluation and planning-
involvement in corporate decision making represent two important conditions for learn-
has changed the relationship between leaders ing from experience: developing insights
and followers in corporations. As the values from past events and applying them to future
of empowerment and participation increas- actions.
ingly appear in corporate vision and mission Thus, as managers use quality improve-
statements, the manager’s role has shifted ment tools, as they empower others to partic-
from that of charismatic leader (a person who ipate in decision making, and as they develop
has all the answers) to that of coach-a per- procedures to measure performance, they
son who works with employees to help them have the opportunity to engage more active-
discover the answers. This shift occurs when ly in reflection. Taking the time to formally re-
managers use reflective approaches to run- flect during these processes is the key to
ning the business: When they ask challenging whether the processes become mechanisms
38
to unearth new and important meaning or questions, or offering advice, the reflection oc-
simply the latest in a series of new manage- curs within the mental self.
ment gimmicks. Reflection and learning may therefore be
defined in this context as follows: Reflection
is the process of stepping back from an expe-
The Need for More Formal Reflective rience to ponder, carefully and persistently,
Practices its meaning to the self through the develop-
Even though reflection has been an impor- ment of inferences; learning is the creation of
tant part of traditional educational experi- meaning from past or current events that
ences since ancient times, its power is just be- serves as a guide for future behavior.
ginning to be harnessed as a deliberate tool of Like many other cognitive activities, re-
managerial learning. A recent Fortune article flection is often spontaneous, and, at times,
titled “Leaders Learn to Heed the Voice outside an individual’s awareness. In fact, the
Within” reports that companies such as “sorting through” nature of the reflection pro-
AT&T, PepsiCo, and Aetna are developing cess is most efficient while we sleep. In his
ways to introduce more introspection into book Sleep,J. Allan Hobson, professor of psy-
their management development programs. chiatry at Harvard Medical School and the di-
In addition, Exxon, Motorola, General Mo- rector of the Laboratory of Neurophysiology
tors, and Hewlett-Packard are just a few of at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center,
the companies that are using a system called explains that sleep reduces the level of in-
Action-Reflection Learning (ARL) to explore coming sensory data and allows for the reor-
and find answers to important business prob- ganization and efficient storage of informa-
lems. tion already in the brain, thus better
These efforts signal an increased interest preparing us to handle the demands of our
in using this powerful tool in corporate deci- waking hours.
sion making. What is now needed is (a) an The same sort of spontaneous sorting
understanding of the core processes that through of existing information occurs during
make up reflection, (b) an understanding of certain mindless, rhythmic physical activities
which of these processes are most likely to like jogging, swimming laps, or mowing the
promote learning from work experiences, and lawn; or during habitual routines that no
(c) a set of tools to help managers use reflec- longer need the conscious brain’s full atten-
tion as a way of learning. The rest of this arti- tion, such as showering or commuting on the
cle addresses itself to these three needs. same route each day. Just as it does during
sleep, this spontaneous process of reflection
allows one to momentarily suspend the in-
tense flow of new information to the brain.
THE NATURE OF REFLECTION This enhances the processing of existing in-
Reflection is a highly personal cognitive pro- formation, thereby better preparing the per-
cess. When a person engages in reflection, he son to handle the demands of the rapidly
or she takes an experience from the outside changing environment.
world, brings it inside the mind, turns it over,
makes connections to other experiences, and
The Stagesin the Reflection Process
filters it through personal biases. If this pro-
cess results in learning, the individual then Spontaneous reflection is often stimulated by
develops inferences to approach the external the nagging, unresolved problems or chal-
world in a way that is different from the ap- lenges that are a normal part of any manag-
proach that would have been used, had re- er’s job. Reflection then progresses through
flection not occurred. While the catalyst for four distinct stages: (a) articulation of a prob-
the reflection is external, and while others lem, (b) analysis of that problem, (c) formula-
may help in the process by listening, asking tion and testing of a tentative theory to ex-
39
 Jogging for Answers
n Joe lifts his foot onto the concrete wall border- was fair, as evidenced by Hector’s willing-
ing the stairs leading from his office building. As ness to sign the acknowledgment at the bot-
he reties the lace on one of his new Nikes, he tom of the form.
thinks again how glad he is that the renovation of
this building included a shower and locker room in n Suddenly he remembers comments made at
the basement. It was just the incentive he needed h’IS own performance review last year. Joe’s boss,
to introduce some much-needed exercise into the Sally, was trying to express a concern she had re-
frantic pace of his work week. garding the way he managed his people. She felt
He crosses the busy two-lane highway, he did not include them in the decisions that af-
turns left onto the jogging path he discov- fected them. Maybe this is an example of what
ered along the river, and settles in to a com- Sally meant.
fortable pace and rhythm. The first person he As Joe thinks about what transpired
passes raises a hand in hello, and Joe thinks from the time Hector entered his office to the
how much this fellow jogger looks like one of time he signed the bottom of the form, he
his employees, Hector. His mind turns to the doesn’t remember Hector saying very much.
performance review discussion he had with Joe suddenly realizes that his desire to do a
Hector earlier this week. good job led him to such a thorough and
carefully presented analysis of Hector’s
H Although the review resulted in a fairly positive strengths and weaknesses that there was lit-
description of how Hector performed against the tle time or opportunity left for Hector’s con-
defined goals and objectives, it was an uncom- tribution
fortable session. Joe has been perplexed about
the source of the discomfort ever since. He re- m Joe catches sight of the big steeple clock
solves to get at the heart of this before his next across the river, and realizes he must head back
three reviews-all with employees who have not or he will be late for his project review meeting
been performing as well as Hector. with Sally. While showering and changing, he re-
“What exactly is the problem here?” Joe solves to take a few minutes of his upcoming
wonders. It isn’t the result: Joe completed the meeting to tell Sally about this insight and enlist
task in a timely manner, and the evaluation her help in working on the issue.

plain the problem, and (c) action (or deciding the completion of the task, which was timely.
whether to act). It is, in this case, some still-to-be-discovered el-
Let’s explore these four stages by consid- ement of the performance review process that
ering the hypothetical example in the box, caused a less-than-satisfactory feeling. Joe’s
above. process of problem articulation is a result of
The first stage of reflection, articulation of discarding possibilities and is based on what
a problem, defines the issue that the mind will he defines as a negative situation. Others may
work on during the process of reflection. It is find themselves in situations where they must
often preceded by what John Dewey calls “a discover what went right during a very posi-
state of doubt, hesitancy, perplexity, or men- tive experience, perhaps for the purpose of
tal difficulty.” The clear articulation of a prob- summarizing their learning in a report, coach-
lem is often an insight in itself, and rewarding ing others, or relating past successes to similar
to the manager who has struggled to identify but more challenging experiences. In either
a vague sense of discomfort or dissatisfaction. cases, clarifying the problem or challenge sets
In our hypothetical example, Joe enters the stage for the next step in the process.
this first stage as he realizes what the problem The second step, analysis of the problem,
is not. It is not the product of the review, which consists of a search for possibilities: in Joe’s
both he and Hector judged to be fair. It is not case, possible reasons for the problem as he
40
has defined it. To quote Dewey once again, We leave him at the end of stage three.
analysis is “an act of searching, hunting, or in- Hopefully, as a result of his discussion with
quiring to find material that will resolve the Sally, he will be able to develop an action plan
doubt, and settle or dispose of the perplexity.” that will guide his future behavior in perfor-
It may involve asking and answering a series mance reviews. This four-stage reflection pro-
of questions about the situation, put forth by cess can be applied repeatedly to the many
oneself or others. It may consist of searching problems or challenges that arise in challeng-
the memory for similar situations or imagin- ing work situations.
ing how someone else might handle the same
issue. It involves reviewing past behavior
The Power of Questions
with intensity, as though under a microscope.
When Joe decided to review the hour- One of the techniques for increasing the learn-
long performance discussion from the mo- ing power of reflection is the posing and an-
ment Hector entered the room, he was search- swering of questions. School systems have
ing for important clues-ideas that were long recognized the power of questioning as a
perhaps stored in the mind but still out of his tool for reflection and learning. Questions
conscious reach. During this stage, it is impor- form the basis of class discussions; they be-
tant to be ready to grasp elusive but potential- come topics for papers; they stimulate de-
ly relevant thoughts that may enter the con- bates; they guide case analyses; and, when
sciousness. In Joe’s case, Sally’s words from his used in quizzes and tests, reinforce learning.
own performance review came to mind. Counselors and therapists use provocative
When he applied them to the current situa- questions to guide clients through the discov-
tion, he came up with a tentative hypothesis. ery process. And the best managers in corpo-
This generation of a hypothesis that ad- rations realize that posing thoughtful ques-
dresses the problem is the first part of stage tions is often a better way to gain commitment
three of the reflection process: formulation than providing concise answers.
and testing of a tentative theory to solve the The types of questions that are most ef-
problem. The tentative theory that Joe devel- fective in enhancing reflection vary depend-
oped in stage three is the following: his desire ing on the stage of reflection.
to do a good job led him to such a thorough During problem articulation, “what”
and well-presented analysis of Hector’s questions allow one to fully describe the situ-
strengths and weaknesses that there was little ation: “What occurred?” “What did you see,
time or opportunity left for Hector’s contribu- think, feel?” “What was the most important
tion. After testing this possibility against the thing?” These questions are useful in arriving
comments he had received from Sally in the at a thorough understanding of the problem
past, it seemed to be a sound theory. to be solved or the challenge to be addressed.
Stage four, action (or deciding whether to In the problem analysis stage, “why”
act) brings closure to the cycle and is the final questions are most helpful: “Why was that
“test” of the hypothesis. It is only through this important?” “Why do you think it hap-
last stage that true learning occurs. Learning, as pened?” “Why were you feeling that way?”
defined earlier, is the creation of meaning from During hypothesis generation, “how”
past or current events that serves as a guide for questions allow an individual to begin to for-
future behavior. Thus, this final stage involves mulate a tentative theory to explain or ad-
the articulation of a new way of acting in the fu- dress the problem: “How is this situation sim-
ture. Even though Joe has been engaged in the ilar and different from other problems?”
process of reflection (stepping back from an ex- “How might you do things differently?”
perience to carefully and persistently ponder its Finally, during the action stage, “what”
meaning to the self through the development questions become important once again:
of inferences) since the beginning of his run, he “What are the implications of all this for fu-
has not yet truly learned. ture action?” “What should you do now?”
41
 Examples of solitary reflection Examples of reflection with
n Spontaneous thinking during rhythmic, repeti- helper or small group
tive, mindfess physical exercise (jogging, n Performance appraisal discussions
swimming laps, mowing the lawn) or routine n Counseling sessions
habits (driving an established route, shower-
ing, shaving) n Individual or group therapy
a Meditation n Problem-solving meetings
m Prayer n Project review sessions
n Journal writing n Informal discussions with friends/colleagues
m Business writing (project reports, professional n Interviews
papers, evaluations) n Mentoring
n Assessment instruments n Feedback discussions

The most useful questions are rarely pro- In the case of reflecting alone, a major dis-
found yet often produce powerful results. A tinction is whether or not writing is involved.
simple “what else?” can open the mind to a The ability to write out reflections (and the
myriad of possibilities previously untapped. propensity to do so) varies greatly with indi-
The age-old one-word question “why?” has viduals. In those cases where one is comfort-
guided scientists and philosophers to discov- able with the tool, writing can be a powerful
eries and insights that have changed our vehicle to produce insights during the reflec-
world. Introducing an intervention with the tion process.
question “may I?” performs the powerful Reflection with others may be with one
functions of indicating respect, ascertaining other person or in small groups. When only
readiness, and lowering defensive barriers. one other person is involved, that person of-
Questions are thus one of the most basic ten takes on a helper role. In the world of
and powerful elements of the reflection expe- work, individuals often discuss challenging
rience. They are used in the process of learn- situations or problems with those who have
ing from challenging work situations in three greater experience (immediate managers,
ways: to open up possibilities, to clarify mean- mentors) or with those who are helpful facili-
ing, and to structure the progression through tators (career counselors, employee advocates,
the four stages. human resource professionals, organizational
development consultants). Outside of work,
people turn to clergy, therapists, astrologers,
Alone or with Others?
friends, parents, or spouses when they need to
Individuals differ in the way they think about think through challenging situations.
and make sense out of their challenges in life. When reflection takes place in a small
One of these individual differences is whether group, ideas are generated by the sharing of
one tends to reflect alone or with others. In the different perspectives. For example, self-help
hypothetical case presented earlier, Joe is an support groups that unite people who face
introverted thinker who tends to work out similar challenges assist participants in dis-
problems by thinking about them on his own. covering important information about them-
He eventually recognized the need to get help selves. Although the total discussion time
from his boss, but it was not the first and most each individual has in these settings is less
natural way for him to tackle a challenging sit- than in coaching discussions, the total reflec-
uation. Others may do their best thinking out tion time is no less. While one person is shar-
loud, bouncing ideas off trusted colleagues or ing his or her experience, the others are relat-
friends. The box, above, lists a variety of ex- ing the information to their own challenges.
amples of reflection in both categories. Thus, whether conducted alone or with oth-
42
ers, reflection occurs and learning results if who had good facilitation skills.) The man-
the four-stage process of problem articulation, agers assigned to the third group, known as
problem analysis, theory formulation, and ac- the “peer group,” joined three or four others
tion planning takes place. from the study with whom they had no hier-
archical relationship. The fourth group was
the control group, consisting of managers
who did not participate in a reflection session.
THE RESEARCH STUDY
At the beginning of the reflection session,
Which of these three ways of reflecting- participants in each group were asked to se-
alone, with a helper, or in a small group-is lect a current, challenging work experience
most effective in helping managers enhance that fit into one of the five types of experi-
learning from challenging work experiences? ences identified as highly developmental by
The experiment described here was designed the Center for Creative Leadership: (a) build-
to answer that question, and thus bridge the ing something from nothing; (b) fixing/stabi-
gap between our understanding of the nature lizing a failing operation; (c) leading a project
of reflection and our ability to recommend assignment; (d) managing a significant in-
tools to enhance managerial learning. crease in people, dollars, or functions; or (e)
The participants in the study were 48 moving from a line to a corporate role.
managers from a wide variety of functional In each group, participants spent the next
disciplines in a Forttlne 500 corporation. The hour reflecting on that situation. All groups
corporation is an international research, de- were asked to follow the same four-stage re-
sign, manufacturing, and sales organization flection process described here and to use re-
with approximately 10,000 employees. Head- flection questions similar to those explored in
quartered in the Northeast, it has been in this article. We provided each group with a
business since 1937 and has recently experi- set of guidelines for effective reflection.
enced a large-scale restructuring of its major After receiving general instructions with
product lines. others in their respective groups, the partici-
The experiment took place in corporate pants moved to comfortable, quiet, isolated
classrooms at two locations used for company parts of the training center-either alone, in
retreats and special meetings. Both locations pairs, or in their assigned small groups. The
have a combination of large, appropriately individual group members spent the hour
equipped classrooms as well as many small, thinking about and writing down answers to
comfortable break-out rooms. They are locat- the reflection questions. The “helper” groups
ed in areas bordering fields and woods, pro- engaged in a discussion of the situation cho-
viding a relaxed atmosphere that encourages sen with the helper guiding the conversation
reflective activity. using the reflection questions and the partici-
pant jotting down insights as they occurred.
The small groups began their reflection with a
The Intervention
statement from each member about their
The participants were randomly divided into challenging situation. They then engaged in
four groups and each group participated in a an unstructured group conversation begin-
one-hour reflection session. Those managers ning with one individual’s specific challenge.
assigned to the first group, labeled the “indi- The sessions were videotaped.
vidual” group, engaged in the reflection ac-
tivity by themselves. The managers in the sec-
The Questionnaires
ond group, labeled the “helper group,” were
asked to bring a coach with them to their re- At the conclusion of the one hour of reflection,
flection session. (We provided guidelines to each participant completed a questionnaire.
ensure that the helper was someone the indi- Part Three of the questionnaire asked partici-
viduals were comfortable with and someone pants to record the insights or lessons that oc-
43
 curred as a result of the process, and to indicate of learnings than the control group; howev-
the meaning that the lesson had for future ac- er, the peer group did not. An analysis of the
tion. They were directed to use any notes they videotapes and the descriptive comments
had taken during the reflection process to help from the questionnaires provide three expla-
with this task. The questionnaire also asked for nations for the lower number of learnings
responses about the challenging experience recorded by the peer-group members.
they selected, the learning statements they First, the members of the small groups
recorded, and the reflection process itself. tended to search for similarities among ex-
Members of the control group completed periences, placing less emphasis than the
the questionnaire over the telephone. They other groups on learning that was unique to
identified a challenging work experience and themselves. Many interactions were intro-
listed their learning from it without having duced by statements such these: “Listening
participated in the reflection session. to you, Paul, a similar thing happened to me.
A follow”up questionnaire was distribut- .” and “I ran into a similar situation. .‘I and
ed by mail ten days after the reflection inter- “There’s a common thread here. . .I’
vention to collect information on subsequent Second, the need to discuss several dif-
learning. ferent subjects’ experiences discouraged the
The primary emphasis of the study was group from detailed probing that may have
to discover the effect of the independent vari- elicited more learning. Efforts to ensure that
able: type of reflection (individual, helper, or all members had a chance to talk caused
peer-group) on the dependent variable: members to shift focus before developing
amount of learning. “Amount of learning” depth.
was measured by counting the number of in- Third, none of the participants in the
sights or lessons listed by participants. three separate small groups followed the in-
In addition, the questionnaire was de- struction to take notes or to use the reflection
signed to collect information about the effect questions in their discussion. This is in direct
of moderator variables (type of experience, contrast to the individual group, where each
length of the experience, importance of the person considered all reflection questions
experience, positive or negative nature of the and summarized their thoughts in writing;
experience) on the dependent variable: and to the helper group, where the questions
amount of learning. guided the entire discussion, and where par-
The following additional data were also ticipants made note of insights throughout
collected and analyzed: the hour.
n Subjects’ satisfaction with the learning This finding reinforces the need to use
recorded (amount, quality, impact) reflection questions and to capture learning
n Subjects’ satisfaction with the reflec- throughout a reflection experience. It also
tion process (amount of time, performance of suggests the need for future research into
researcher, performance of others in group) the nature of reflection in small groups. For
n Follow-up data (additional reflection instance, it would be interesting to know
time, discussions with others, additional whether the small group could be equally ef-
learning) fective with a facilitator and more time. Be-
n Written comments under each scale cause the research is inconclusive on this, it
n Descriptions of learning is important to withhold judgment about the
n Videotapes from the three peer-group value of reflection in small groups.
sessions When the learning statements of all
three treatment groups were analyzed, sta-
tistically significant differences emerged in
The Results
the type of learning recorded. The individu-
Both the individual and the helper groups al and helper groups recorded mostly in-
had a statistically significant greater number trapersonal learning, or learning about
44
themselves. Examples of insights recorded faction with the learnings recorded or in sat-
for these groups include “I’ve become even isfaction with the reflection experience. Most
more aware that I need details to function- participants indicated general satisfaction
I need to know how things work and why in with both the learnings that emerged and
order to be satisfied”; “I should spend more with the reflection process itself.
time coaching my staff members”; and “I No statistically significant differences be-
spend too much time ‘caretaking’ other peo- tween treatment groups were found in
ple’s problems, not enough on my own.” amount of time spent reflecting after the ses-
The peer-group participants recorded sion, nor in subjects’ tendency to discuss their
mostly interpersonal learning (learning results with others. Participants spent, on av-
about others) and contextual learning (learn- erage, one and one-half hours reflecting after
ing about the culture of the corporation). Ex- the session, and tended to talk most frequent-
amples of interpersonal learning statements ly about the experience with co-workers or
include “The strength of our team came from spouses.
a good balance of different talents” and Finally, there was no statistically signifi-
“Treat others as you wish to be treated.” Ex- cant increase in learning after the session;
amples of contextual learning include, “In rather, participants reported a reaffirmation
our culture, action is rewarded more than of previous learning. Many participants
planning” and “There is a tendency to resist spent the follow-up reflection time thinking

the results tell us.. . that just one hour

spent reflecting.. . can significantly
increase learning.

change and enhance fadishness-the chal- about the process of reflection rather than
lenge is to identify what is fad and when the original work experience or the learning
change is needed.” from it.
None of the moderator independent
variables (type of experience, length of expe-
rience, importance of experience, negative or
IMPLICATIONS
positive nature of the experience) affected
the amount of learning recorded. Four im- What do these results tell us about the role of
plications arise from this: first, all five cate- reflection in learning from managers’ chal-
gories of challenging work experiences are lenging work experiences? They tell us that
equally effective as a focus for the reflection just one hour spent reflecting on one aspect of
experience; second, just as much can be a challenging situation, using some general
learned in the beginning of an experience as questions and guidelines, either alone or with
in the middle or end; third, the relative im- a helper, can significantly increase the learn-
portance of the experience to one’s career in ing from that situation. If corporations spent a
the corporation does not affect the amount portion of their training and development
of learning derived from it; and fourth, one budgets on introducing formal reflection
may learn just as much from negative expe- practices, they could provide support to man-
riences as from positive ones. agers like our fictional character Joe as they
No statistically significant differences be- try to make sense out of these learning op-
tween treatment groups were found in satis- portunities.
45
 Management development organiza- ing logs used to explore and record the ran-
tions are in a unique position to provide this dom thoughts and summary learning state-
support. Reflection processes could be built ments that occur throughout a work experi-
into classroom training by adding one hour ence.
of reflection at the conclusion of each experi- While the Workbook was designed to be
ence. However, as the research described used independently or with one other per-
here shows, it is important that the goal of son who acts as a learning coach, an interac-
the process chosen matches the outcome de- tive, small-group process was also developed
sired. If the goal is to reinforce as much indi- to help users get used to writing in the
vidual learning as possible (perhaps for fu- Workbook and to share their learning with
ture personal goal setting), reflection should others. The exercise, called “Community Re-
take place individually or with a helper. If flection,” takes approximately 90 minutes.
the goal is to develop an understanding of Participants are introduced to the process,
the learning of the entire group (perhaps for agree to a set of ground rules, then spend 20
future curriculum design or group impact minutes reflecting by themselves (using the
studies), peer-group reflection strategies learning journal, the learning log, or both).
may be more appropriate. During this individual reflection time, they
In addition, non-classroom reflection ac- are asked to think and write about their
tivities could be added to the products and learning in four specific categories using a
services currently provided by management set of reflection questions as prompts. For
development organizations. These might in- the next 50 minutes, a facilitator leads the
clude personal learning guides developed group through a process that allows partici-
and widely distributed for use by managers pants to share their individual learning. The
in two ways: (a) to help them uncover learn- exercise ends with a brief discussion of addi-
ing from their own challenging work experi- tional learning that surfaced as a result of the
ences, and (b) to help them assist others in process.
surfacing learning from their experiences. As one might predict from the research
Structured reflection sessions could be estab- described earlier, Polaroid managers who
lished for all managers following challenging are using these tools report surfacing a large
experiences such as job rotations, on-the-job amount of personal learning that would oth-
training exercises, or external executive de- erwise have gone unrecognized. However,
velopment activities. Finally, formal individ- one group of managers involved in a partic-
ual and helper-based reflection processes ularly challenging new role reported three
could become a standard element of corpo- additional unforeseen benefits of the Com-
rate succession planning activities. Succes- munity Reflection exercise. First, they found
sion planning candidates could use formal that both the individual and the group re-
reflection sessions to become aware of the flection time created a sense of fellowship, of
learning attained from each job rotation, “we’re in this together.” The act of revealing
thus contributing their own assessment of learning from both positive and negative ex-
readiness to that of upper management. periences created a sense of trust and friend-
A tool called The Reflection Workbook, ship that had not previously existed. Second,
developed by the author and used in her they indicated that the session provided a
work with managers at Polaroid Corpora- much needed opportunity to slow down and
tion, combines many of these suggestions. It reflect quietly and spontaneously on what
has two major sections. The first section de- had already been learned. This proved to be
scribes the three tools used in the Work- a relief from the rapid and continuous as-
book-the learning journal, the learning log, sault of new learning that is a regular part of
and the learning conversation-and pro- their particular developmental experience.
vides guidelines for their use. The second Finally, in addition to the personal in-
section contains the journal pages and learn- sights and lessons that were shared, dilem-
46
mas and questions emerged that were cap- an amazingly small amount of time and struc-
tured for exploration during future develop- ture for it to take place. With this process,
mental activities. managers take responsibility for their own
learning-a responsibility that is, in some cas-
es, too quickly turned over to workshop lead-
ers, university professors, or consultants. No
SUMMARY
matter how qualified these educational
Given the fast pace of change confronting providers may be, it is unlikely that any of
managers today, it is critical that they develop them could create case studies with greater
capacities to learn from current work situa- relevance or challenge than a manager’s own
tions and adapt this learning to new situa- work experiences.
tions. This need is driven by elaborate tech-
niques and new processes that emerge
regularly-initiatives that often require cor-
If you wish to obtain reprints
porate-wide behavioral changes beginning at
of this or other articles in
the top of the organization. In the midst of
ORGANIZATTONM DE~VIAMICS,please
these time-consuming and expensive initia-
tives lies the simple and time-tested tool of re- refer to the reprint instructions on
page 80 or call (800) 644-2464.
flection. To use it effectively, managers need
only recognize that it has value, then create

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

For more information on learning from expe- 1992;) D. Schon, The Reflective Practitioner (Ba-
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riences,” Human ResourcesPlanning, 1988, Vol. ciety for Research into Higher Education &
11, No. 1, pp. 1-11; M. McCall, Jr., M. Lombar- Open University Press, 1993); K. Watkins and
do, and A. Morrison, The Lessonsof Experience V. Marsick, Sculpting the Learning Organization
(Lexington Books, 1988); G. Robinson and C. (Jossey-Bass, 1993); V. Marsick, “Action Learn-
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Business Difference,” Human Resource Plan- Mezirow, Fostering Critical Reflection in Adult-
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Dechant, “Making the Most of Job Assign- Cederholm, E. Turner, and T. Pearson, “Ac-
ments: An Exercise in Planning for Learning,” tion-Reflection Learning,” Training and Devel-
Journal ofManagement Education, 1994, Vol. 18, opment, August 1992, pp.63-66.
No. 2, pp. 198-211; S. Hoberman and S. Mail- Readers interested in the ways that re-
ick, Experiential Management Development: flection has been used to enhance learning in
From Learning to Practice (Quorum Books, traditional education settings should read
47
J. Calderhead, “Reflective Teaching and Bandura, Social Foundations of Thought and Ac-
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