68 The Decision Making Skills of Principals and The Teacher Turnover A Qualitative Systematic Review

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)
Volume 7 Issue 1, January-February 2023 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470
The Decision Making Skills of Principals and the

Teacher Turnover: A Qualitative Systematic Review
Cherrie N. Paniamogan
University of the Immaculate Conception, Bonifacio St., Davao City, Philippines
ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Cherrie N.

The study dealt on the decision making skills of the principals and Paniamogan "The Decision Making
their related behaviors as perceived by the teachers pertaining to Skills of Principals and the Teacher
teacher turnover as documented in the qualitative or mixed methods Turnover: A Qualitative Systematic
studies. This study used qualitative analysis implementing the Review" Published
in International
SPIDER framework. The goal of this framework was to locate related Journal of Trend in
research articles that reported empirical findings on the principal Scientific Research
leadership and decision making skills to the teachers‘ turnover. It was and Development
heavily dependent on the researcher‘s analytic and integrative skills (ijtsrd), ISSN:
and personal knowledge of the social context where the data was 2456-6470, IJTSRD52727
collected. Through a systematic review, the heterogeneity between Volume-7 | Issue-1,
the studies was minimized which included study regions, authorship February 2023, pp.523-609, URL:
collaboration, databases and their uniform resource locator (URL), www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52727.pdf
design, and participants and sample size. The examined studies
suggested that principals need to understand, that in order to retain Copyright © 2023 by author (s) and
qualified teachers, they need to appreciate, respect, empower, and International Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research and Development
support them in a positive school culture. It was noted that principals Journal. This is an
have to focus well on creating a positive, supportive environment in Open Access article
their schools as people-oriented leaders. The study highlighted distributed under the
teachers‘ perceptions of the principals based on their leadership terms of the Creative Commons
behavior and decision making skills that impacted their position to Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
remain or leave the institution. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
KEYWORDS: Educational leadership, decision making, leadership

behavior, teacher turnover, SPIDER framework, systematic review,
Philippines
1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Retaining teachers continues to be an ongoing (Benner, 2000; Rowan et al., 2002). Teachers cite
challenge for administrators since there are many family or personal reasons or health problems for
factors that influence teacher turnover. Teacher leaving the profession. Often times external
turnover continues to concern K-12 educators who motivators, such as salary bonuses, student
see teachers leave every year. Based from the achievement, teacher empowerment, great working
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 8% conditions, and school leadership impact whether a
of teachers leave the profession yearly and another teacher stays at their current school (Tye & O'Brien,
8% move to other schools, bringing the total annual 2002). Research indicated that there is not a teacher
turnover rate to 16%. That means that on average, a shortage, but a retention problem related to teacher
school will lose 3 out of every 20 teachers. Teacher working conditions (Ingersoll, 2003).
turnover is costly, as new teachers must be recruited Further, being an effective leader means having the
and trained and higher retention means less financial ability to look beyond daily happenings and visualize
strain and more investment in the tools children need a brighter future. Successful leaders work closely
to learn (Black, 2010). High turnover rates create with those they lead and through this collaboration,
constant flux, making it significantly more difficult to
they are able to influence others to pursue common
institute changes in education policies. Research has goals and achievements for the good of the group
shown that approximately one-quarter of all (Fullan, 2007). By establishing trustworthy
beginning teachers leave teaching within five years
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD52727 | Volume – 7 | Issue – 1 | January-February 2023 Page 523
International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
relationships, effective leaders are successful at these topics; in Elsevier there were 8,000 studies
convincing others to follow and pursue a shared accumulated; in ERIC 4,500 accumulated studies
mission and vision (Marzano, Waters, & were found; and in Research Gate, there were around
McNulty,2005). In this regard, school principals are 1,700 studies compiled. Having these number of
expected to show leadership behaviors, such as references mean that this study was appropriate for
providing guidance, supporting, assigning a the systematic review.
measurable responsibility and being a source of Likewise, these journals showed that teacher turnover
inspiration to all school employees and students in is strongly correlated with the individual
order to achieve the aims of the school (Hersch, characteristics of the principals. Among the most
2005). In addition, school leaders form the ground important findings, teacher turnover is related to the
that provides in–class reform and development, in decision making skills of the school principal
order to create a positive learning environment in the (Johnson et al., 2014). Although the data have been
school (Nichols, 2015). Effective principals find a inconsistent at times, there are several factors
way to balance their obligations while simultaneously affecting teachers‘ turnover such as school climate
setting the focus, culture, and direction of the school (Sahin, 2011), organizational health
(Sigford, 2005). (Recepoglu&Ozdemir, 2013), organizational
Numerous studies which have questioned what makes dependence (Buluc, 2009), teachers‘ job satisfaction,
teachers stay, has a significant positive correlation teachers‘ self-efficacy (Duyar et al., 2013), collective
with the decision making of the principals (Chiong et efficacy (Calık et al., 2012), and collaboration
al., 2017). In 2002, according to the Educational (Gumus et al., 2013).
Research Service (ERS), there is evidence that points Considering the number of studies included in the
to a direct connection between principal‘s behavior systematic review about leadership style and decision
and high retention rate of teachers that is so making skills of principals, more correlational
compelling that schools should be putting more and researches may have to be conducted about the effect
more effort into making sure they find and keep the of their decisions in the teacher turnover. Moreover,
highest quality teachers. The decision making skills researches are mandatorily carried out in limited
of the principals has been one of the reasons that areas, for reasons such as cost, time, and place;
triggered the emergence of the teacher turn-over; one therefore, it is quite difficult to ensure consistency
aspect that creates toxicity within an organization is between different studies. In order to show the big
arguments between an administrator and his or her picture of the decision making skills of the principal
subordinate (Janssen, 2004). Principal‘s decision affecting teachers turnover, the synthesis and
making has led many teachers to leave their interpretation of the studies that attempt to explain
profession that affect their lives (Somech, 2002). Not similar problems are sorely needed (Akgöz et al.,
only can this cause the employees to lose respect for 2017).
their superior, it can also cause a loss of trust and
respect for the organization, less empowerment and On the contrary, though many articles dealing with
buy-in, and less motivation on behalf of the the decision making skills of the principals, there was
employee. All of these situations caused a higher an inconsistency in their claims and conclusions,
turnover rate and less than impressive efficiency hence, there is an urgent need for a synthesis. In order
within a job field (Janssen, 2004). Added on, to interpret this pile of information and to open the
principal behaviors directly impact teacher job way for new researches, top quality inclusive and
satisfaction and commitment (Davis & Wilson, 2000). reliable studies had to be conducted. In social
When principals include staff in decision-making, sciences, a single study or a single experiment cannot
planning and problem-solving, they promote better be expected to produce sufficiently accurate results.
communication, greater mutual trust and The studies examining the effect of the decision
collaboration (Griffith, 2004). In fact, teachers who making skills of the principals resulting to teachers‘
felt encouraged by their principals demonstrated turnover varied from one another (Scheerens, 2012;
significant and positive effects on their commitment Schyns&Schillng, 2013). Therefore, the conduct of
to the school (Cerit, 2010). qualitative analysis was deemed essential, which
Meanwhile, the researcher had encountered many implied that this shortcoming has to be fulfilled.
qualitative or mixed methods studies available in the The dissemination of the findings of these studies are
internet that are published in the following journals in public forums through different fora and platforms.
which deal with the decision making skills of the The researcher will share the findings of the study
school leaders affecting the teacher turnover of their through the private schools in Region XI, Davao City.
institution. In Scopus, 13,000 studies were indexed on Also, the study will be presented to the various
national or international research congresses. Lastly, fall under one of the following three perspectives:
this research will be submitted to online refereed leadership as a process or relationship, leadership as a
journal publication for a broader scope dissemination. combination of traits or personality characteristics, or
Review Question leadership as certain behaviors.
What are the decision making skills of the principals Decision Making Skills
and their related behaviors as perceived by the Decision making is a broad topic providing many
teachers pertaining to teacher turnover as documented possible angles from which to view any one situation.
in the qualitative or mixed methods studies? Decision making is a critical cognitive process that is
required in every area of human life. Commonly, the
Review of Related Literature
researchers have defined decision making as a
This study explores the principals‘ decision- making
process of choosing one potential possibility among
skills influence teacher turnover in the academic
others (Miller & Byrnes, 2001; Rehman & Khan,
institutions. A review of literature investigating
2015). Decision-making skills can be the difference in
current issues impacting high attrition rates will be
making a choice that improves your organization.
studied. The findings of empirical research regarding
Decision-making skills had been previously
the factors that impact and influence teachers‘
considered to be unteachable. It was thought that this
decisions to leave or stay in a school will be explored.
skill was acquired over the course of time, and
Further exploration of the research related to the
dependent on age (Klaczynski et al., 2001). However,
principal‘s decision-making skills impact a teacher‘s
several studies have shown that decision-making
decision to leave the school.
skills can be taught (Cenkseven-Onder, 2012). The
Leadership Skills aptitude to make decisions is a leadership trait, which
As mentioned by Jenkins (2013), leaders are born and portrays your ability to think objectively and relates
not made. It is increasingly accepted, however, that in concepts to the goals you're trying to reach. Your
order to be a good leader, one must have the capacity to make a quick decision can help establish a
experience, knowledge, commitment, patience, and strong bond with all employees that strengthens your
most importantly the skill to negotiate and work with company's culture.
others to achieve goals. Good leaders are thus made,
Likewise, many research papers that make reference
not born. Added to that, Bass and Bass (2008) opined
to decision-making come from the area of cognitive
that good leadership is developed through a never
development (Baron, 2000) or operational research,
ending process of self-study, education, training, and
economics and management (Bazerman, 2005). In the
the accumulation of relevant experience. Jenkins
field of educational research, decision-making
(2013) stated that the basis of a good leadership is
strategies have only recently gained significant
strong character and selfless devotion to an
attention, with most of the studies related to science
organization. As mentioned by Abbasialiya (2010),
education (Kolstø, 2001; Papadouris & Constantinou,
from the perspective of employees, leadership is
2005). In design and technology education, there exist
comprised of everything a leader does that affects the
only few studies concerning decision-making
achievement of objectives and the well-being of
(Davies, 2004; Coles & Norman, 2005).
employees and the organization. Ololube (2013) also
added that leadership involves a type of responsibility A growing body of literature indicates organizational
aimed at achieving particular ends by applying the causes such as teacher working conditions impact a
available resources (human and material) and teacher‘s decision to transfer to a different school or
ensuring a cohesive and coherent organization in the leave the teaching field (Alliance for Education,
process. 2008; Darling Hammond, 2003; Hirsch 2006a;
Ingersoll, 2003a; NCES, 2006). When analyzing
On one hand, Northouse and Rowe (2007) described
teacher turnover, the data indicates turnover can be
leadership as a process whereby an individual
linked to job dissatisfaction as the result of poor
influences a group of individuals to achieve a
decision making of principals (Alliance for
common goal. Naylor (1999) stated that effective
Education, 2008; Darling Hammond, 2003; Hirsch,
leadership is a product of the heart and an effective
2006; Ingersoll, 2003; NCES, 2006). Research
leader must be visionary, passionate, creative,
indicates there is not a teacher shortage, but a
flexible, inspiring, innovative, courageous,
retention problem related to teacher decision making
imaginative, and experimental and initiates change.
of principal (Ingersoll, 2003a). It is imperative that
On the other hand, there are many different views of educational leaders fully understand the underlying
leadership as there are characteristics that distinguish impact of decision making to the working conditions
leaders from non-leaders. According to Wolinski of the teacher to alleviate turnover.
(2010), all contemporary theories of leadership can
Problem Solving Skills their undergraduate degrees for the field of teaching
Principals can employ their problem-solving skills to but opt never to begin a career in education after
make critical decisions for the school. They need to running through the student teaching experience
factor in different viewpoints to consider the (Riggs, 2013).
numerous variables required to make a thoughtful
Causes of Turnover
decision. It's a necessity that they separate the Teacher turnover is a problem that does not end with
emotions from the conversations you have with solely new teachers. Experienced teachers
people that will influence their decision-making. The occasionally feel that they are unable to meet the
essence of having adept problem-solving skills is that demands of their jobs while raising their own
one can formulate decisions quickly and effectively. children, feel the desire to retire early, feel the need to
Problem-Solving is explained as a complex process climb the ladder toward administration, or feel no
that requires many skills to be used together (Olkun connection to their own school, and wind up leaving
and Toluk, 2004). Problem-solving skills help you it for a different work experience (Dee et al., 2006;
determine the source of a problem and find an Gaikhorst et al., 2015; Pesavento-Conway, 2010;
effective solution. Problem-solving skills are Riggs, 2013). Other researchers disagree with this
important in every career at every level. As a result, notion, however, and argue that the best predictor if
effective problem solving may also require industry someone will stay in the profession is years of service
or job-specific technical skills. (Hughes, 2012). Either way, this causes huge gaps
Reasoning Skills within education. Teachers are seen as one of the
Reasoning is an essential component in an intelligent most influential pieces of the classroom when it
system. It acts as a ―brain‖ behind the decision- comes to student achievement, but there are problems
making process of the system (Guo, 2007). Reasoning retaining teachers within a single school regardless of
describes the processes that occur between the point experience or mastery (Shaw & Newton, 2014).
when reasoners attend to salient, meaningful There are several cited reasons for this ongoing
information (linguistic or perceptual) and when they dilemma.
draw one or more conclusions based on that
Accountability systems
information. Reasoning is the ability to think logically In a study regarding why teachers leave the
to formulate fair judgements and justify a position. In profession, the pressures of increased accountability,
other words, it is about identifying, analyzing and such as high stakes testing, test preparation, and
evaluating arguments (Hinnells, 2009). standards, was ranked by respondents who had
Teacher Turnover already left teaching as the number one reason for
Teacher turnover is the movement of teachers away leaving. The researchers drew conclusions that a
from the teaching profession or teachers who transfer single salary pay rate is likely to apply to all teachers
to teaching jobs in other schools (Ingersoll, 2001). with a specific level of experience and educational
Teacher turnover is particulary high among new certifications in a district regardless of the school
teachers, those most dependent upon leadership and (Dee et al., 2017). Although some teachers gravitate
support ("The principal effect", 2004). Teacher towards teaching students with educational, social, or
retention, while more heavily impacting newer emotional challenges, the majority are likely to prefer
teachers, impacts teachers with all years of experience assignments with a lower proportion of disadvantaged
(Dee, Henkin, &Singleton, 2006; Gaikhorst et al., students. Advantaged students often come to school
2015; Hughes, 2012; Pesaven & Conway, 2010; prepared and are motivated to achieve at high levels.
Riggs, 2013; Segovia, 2015; Shaw & Newton, 2014). To offset some of the adverse effects of the
accountability systems on teachers and to encourage
In addition, teacher turnover has developed into an
teachers to select low performing schools, this study
epidemic within the profession (Dee et al., 2006;
suggested raising base salary levels in those schools
Engelhart, 2012; Hughes, 2012; Riggs, 2013; Shaw &
(Tye & O‘Brien, 2002)
Newton, 2014). Studies have been conducted both on
why teachers leave, and why long-standing teachers Inadequate compensation
opt to remain in the profession. Researchers have In response to the dilemma of teacher turnover,
extrapolated and then later confirmed that anywhere educators have offered a variety of compensation
between 40 and 50 percent of teachers will leave the policies created to attract more teachers into the
classroom within the first five years, and almost ten profession and retain those currently teaching. Higher
percent leave by the end of their first year (Riggs, pay, forgiveness of student loans in exchange of a
2013; Shaw & Newton, 2014). All of this is not even commitment to teach in hard-to-staff schools, and
accounting for the 40 percent of staff who pursues alternative certification programs are just a
feWexamples of recent compensation practices. Additionally, in the study of Strunk and Robinson
Several urban school districts across the United States (2006) researched factors that influence a teacher‘s
have piloted teacher bonus programs to compensate decision to leave the profession. One theory they
for some of the challenges that teachers face in high- discuss is the ―opportunity wage theory‖, which
poverty, inner-city schools. suggests that teachers who have greater opportunities
outside the public school systems, especially in the
Moreover, several researchers find that salary is a key
math and science, are more likely to leave their
factor for teachers opting out of the profession
teaching jobs for higher wages outside of the teaching
(Hughes, 2012; Riggs, 2013). Other researchers found
profession. Their findings support the cultural
extrinsic motivators such as salary to be an
competence theory that teachers are more likely to
unconvincing motivator to remain in education rather
leave schools with high-minority populations.
than a key reason on why teachers should leave
(Chiong et al., 2017; Pedota, 2015). The difference is Similarly, noted that this finding has less to do with
subtle, but important, as in the former example, racial bias and more to do with teachers being
teachers choose to leave because they do not feel the comfortable around others of similar races and ethnic
pay is worth it. In the latter, teachers are seen on the backgrounds. Several studies have reported that
breaking point of leaving already due to other issues, promising teachers leave high-poverty schools to
and salary becomes the factor that pushes the teacher work in wealthier, White communities. These studies
over the edge. Most teachers, though, know the limits have discovered that teachers of color, particularly
of these extrinsic motivators as they enter the Black and Latino teachers, are more likely to stay in
profession, meaning that they usually choose to teaching and at schools that serve students with
involve themselves in education for intrinsic or similar socio- economic and racial backgrounds
altruistic reasons (Chiong et al., 2017; Pedota, 2015). (Boyd et al., 2008; Hanushek et al., 2004; Ingersoll,
2001).
While compensation could play an important role in a
teacher‘s decision to remain in a school or in the Student characteristics
profession, studies have discovered that monetary A review of research on teacher turnover in urban
incentives are insufficient to compensate for low- schools connects teacher attrition to student
performing students, and high-poverty rates characteristics (Boyd et al., 2008; Hanushek et al.,
(Hanushek & Rivkin, 2007). In an earlier study, it 2004; Tye& O‘Brien, 2002). In their study, Strunk
was concluded that significant salary adjustments that and Robinson (2006) researched factors that influence
many school districts cannot afford would need to be a teacher‘s decision to leave the profession. Their
made to have an impact on urban schools‘ teacher findings support the theory that the reason teachers
retention rates (Hanushek, et al., (2004). The are more likely to leave schools with high-minority
researchers noted that a ―school with 10% more Black populations has less to do with racial bias and more to
students would require about 10% higher salaries in do with teachers being comfortable around others of
order to neutralize the increased probability of similar races and ethnic backgrounds. They noted that
leaving and 10-15% higher salaries to hold exit rates in some cases, teachers from a racial/ethnic
constant‖. In an analysis of the 2003-04 Schools and background different from that of their students may
Staffing Survey data, Tickle et al., (2011) found that experience a ―cultural shock‖, resulting in lower
there was not a significant relationship between levels of job satisfaction. These feelings of mistrust,
teachers‘ satisfaction with their salary and teaching social identity differences, or cultural shock may all
experience. Survey data from over 190 public school lead to job dissatisfaction, lessened commitment to
teachers in their study revealed that administrative the school, and increased turnover (Strunk &
support was identified as the most significant Robinson, 2002).
predictor of teachers‘ job satisfaction (Tickle et al, Further, many teachers enter the classroom
2011). unprepared to work with high-needs students. In the
Teacher characteristics study ―The Schools Teachers Leave‖ (2009)
Some studies have indicated that teacher turnover in conducted in Chicago Public Schools district, teacher
urban schools is a result of teacher characteristics stability rates were 10% higher in schools with low
(Guarino, et al., 2011). Despite this great need, low- rates of crime compared to schools in areas with high
income, low-achieving, and minority students mostly rates of crimes. This study found that while most
in urban areas are taught by the newest or least skilled teachers are equipped with the required teacher
teachers who lack these characteristics (Lankford et credentials and desire to make a positive impact on
al., 2002). student achievement, they may not have the
knowledge of the community and of the culturally rates. These researchers also surveyed teachers and
relevant pedagogy that will enable them to teach students about the school‘s learning climate,
effectively and work well with students in urban instructional leadership, and parental involvement.
schools. The findings of this study reveal that Allensworth, et al., (2009) found that working
students in high-needs schools often lack basic needs conditions such as the presence of positive working
such as food, shelter, or clothing and have limited relationships, a strong sense of collective
resources that impact home-school communication, responsibility, strong instructional principal
such as computer access. Frequent incidents of leadership, and support for novice teachers were
community violence and fears regarding student among factors that retained teachers. Poor working
safety often create challenges for teachers in high conditions explained over 75% of the difference in
poverty schools (Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, teachers‘ stability rates among elementary schools
2009). and nearly all the variation among secondary schools
in this study.
The students‘ characteristics are often associated with
parental involvement in the schools. Teachers place Moreover, a number of studies point towards the
great importance on parental involvement to elevate school principal as the driving force behind the
educational outcomes, particularly among students working conditions of a school (Borman & Dowling,
who face disadvantages (Jeynes, 2007). Parents are 2008; Boyd, et al., 2011; Loeb, et al., 2005).
more involved in schools during the elementary years. Although investments must be made in teachers‘
By the time they enter middle school and high school, working conditions such as teachers‘ salaries, class
parents are more aware of their academic and size, teaching load and the availability of materials, of
physical strengths and weaknesses and therefore equal importance is strong, administrative support,
become less involved in schools (Jeynes, 2007). In (Darling Hammond, 2003). Administrative support is
urban areas, the lack of parental involvement may defined as ―the school‘s effectiveness in assisting
seem more prevalent due to high rates of single parent teachers with issues such as student discipline,
working families and a disconnect between the school instructional methods, curriculum, and adjusting to
and the community. Noguera (2001) noted in his the school environment‖ (Borman& Dowling, 2008,
research of urban schools that the key factor in p.380).
determining the impact of social conditions on a
Adverse Consequences of Teacher Turnover
school is the relationship between the school and the Research has consistently demonstrated that
community, including the parents of the children classroom teachers have the strongest influence on
enrolled. It is typically true that teachers at most students‘ educational outcomes (Coleman et al., 1966;
urban public schools do not reside within the Hanushek & Rivken, 2006), including both short- and
communities they serve, and that social barriers long-term academic (Chetty et al., 2018) and non-
related to differences in race, culture, and class cognitive outcomes such as motivation and self-
contribute to tremendous barriers between school and efficacy (Jackson, 2018). Teachers become more
community. effective as they accumulate years of teaching
Working conditions experience (Kini & Podolsky, 2016); when teachers
School working conditions are reported by teachers as leave a school, they take along their knowledge and
a key factor their decisions to leave schools (Simon & expertise in instructional strategies, collaborative
Johnson, 2015). Ingersoll and Smith (2003) used the relationships with colleagues, professional
results of the 2000-2001 Teacher Follow-Up Survey development training, and understanding of students‘
and the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey to learning needs at the school, all of which may harm
determine the cause of teacher attrition to other student learning and school operations and climate
careers. They found that more than three-fourths of (Bryk, et al., 2010; Ingersoll, 2001; Simon &
the departing new teachers left due to inadequate Johnson, 2015).
salaries, but a higher percentage of teachers revealed Teacher turnover, defined as change in teachers from
that various working conditions such as student one year to the next in a particular school setting
discipline problems, poor student motivation, lack of (Sorenson & Ladd, 2018), has been a persistent
administrative support, and the lack of teacher input problem often described as a revolving door in the
decision making. teaching profession (Ingersoll, 2003). Turnover
Additionally, the researchers investigated the factors contributes to teacher shortages (Sutcher, et al., 2019)
that drove teachers away through analysis of teachers‘ and frequently leads to the inequitable distribution of
personnel data linked with students‘ racial and socio- high-quality teachers and poor student outcomes for
economic status, test scores, and student mobility those most in need of high-quality instruction
(Goldhaber, et al., 2011; Goldhaber, et al., 2015; equating teaching effectiveness with conventional
Hanushek, et al., 2004). certification is far from settled (Dee & Goldhaber,
2017), with several studies finding no differences
Teacher Shortages and Inequitable
(Constantine et al., 2009) or even finding advantages
Access to High-Quality Teachers
in having an alternatively certified teacher (Clark et
While current teacher shortages are not occurring
al., 2013). However, alternatively certified teachers
nationwide and, in fact, the teaching force overall has
are less likely to be retained than traditionally
ballooned (Ingersoll, et al., 2018) with only half of
certified ones (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond,
education graduates hired in a given year (Cowan, et
2019; Redding & Smith, 2016). Carver-Thomas and
al., 2016; Dee &Goldhaber, 2017), significant
Darling-Hammond (2019) found that, all other
shortages of certified teachers in certain areas are
teacher characteristics being constant, alternatively
consistently documented. Shortages are often
certified teachers were 25% more likely to turn over
concentrated in schools educating high numbers of
than traditionally certified teachers. High rates of
economically disadvantaged and minority students, in
workplace churn can contribute to negative impacts
rural schools, and in special education as well as
on student achievement, as the research documented
science, technology, engineering, and math [STEM]
later in this report discusses.
courses (Dee & Goldhaber, 2017). Sutcher et al.,
2019; Cowan et al., 2016; Ingersoll, 2001, 2003; The research literature on the impact of turnover on
Ingersoll & May, 2012; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; teacher quality is mixed, with studies showing both
Ingersoll et al., 2018) have argued that teacher positive and negative impacts depending on the type
turnover is a highly significant factor in producing of proxy measure for teacher quality used (Hendricks,
these staffing shortages. Carver-Thomas and Darling- 2016). Value-added measures (VAMs), which aim to
Hammond (2019) found that turnover rates were 50% determine how much of a student‘s academic
greater in Title I than non-Title I schools, and 70% progress from one year to the next is attributable to
greater in schools serving higher percentages of his or her teacher, as opposed to factors outside of the
students of color than those serving lower teacher‘s control (Center for Education Policy
percentages. Research further demonstrates that math Research, 2011), have been used in some studies as
and science teachers are significantly more likely to proxy measures for teacher effectiveness. These
leave high-minority, high-poverty, and Title I schools studies have generally found that teachers who exited
than their counterparts teaching math and science in were less able than those who stayed (e.g., Boyd, et
other types of schools (Carver-Thomas & Darling- al., 2010), even in high-need schools (Hanushek &
Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll & May, 2012). These Rivken, 2010), suggesting that workforce
relatively high turnover rates in high-needs schools composition in some cases may improve as a result of
contribute to shortages in these schools in both urban turnover. For example, Hanushek et al. (2016) found
and rural areas (Goldhaber et al., 2015; Player, 2015). in a study of disadvantaged/lower-achieving Texas
schools that teachers who exited were less effective
Furthermore, shortages and turnover also often
than those who remained. However, Feng and Sass
translate into schools needing to hire more
(2017) found that both top and bottom quartile
alternatively certified teachers (those holding a
teachers left their schools at higher rates than teachers
teaching certificate or license earned outside of a
rated average, and that the likelihood of teachers
traditional college preparation program), and fewer
moving to other district schools decreased as the
qualified and experienced teachers (Dee &Goldhaber,
share of experienced and highly qualified teachers
2017). One study found that as many as 30% of math
increased within a school. Furthermore, teachers in
and science teachers in schools with large numbers of
the study tended to move to schools where the
students of color were alternatively certified,
average teacher quality was similar to their own,
compared with just 12% in schools with mostly White
resulting in a ―rich got richer‖ effect, and likely
students (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond,
exacerbated achievement gaps between
2017). Working conditions in these schools are often
disadvantaged/minority and affluent/white students.
less than optimal (Cohen-Vogle& Smith, 2007), and
alternatively certified teachers often have less Also, Hendricks (2016) highlighted several problems
preparation like less coursework and student teaching with using value-added measures as proxies for
opportunities and on-the-job support than effectiveness within teacher retention research,
traditionally certified teachers (Redding & Smith, including that they may confound the fixed element
2016). Lack of access to a traditionally certified of teacher quality which is the ability with
teacher may place students at a learning disadvantage unobservable school factors or evolving aspects of
(Kini&Podolsky, 2016), although the case for teacher productivity which is the experience i.e.,
teachers with more experience tend to have higher demonstrated across all kinds of schools, including
value-added measures. This may make it seem as high- and low-minority and high- and low-poverty
though the best teachers are more likely to remain in schools; however, turnover was most detrimental to
schools when in reality it may simply signal that more lower achieving schools and schools serving large
experienced teachers are less likely to exit. Indeed, populations of Black students. Hanushek et al., (2016)
value-added research that holds teacher experience similarly found reduced student achievement as a
constant has shown that the best teachers are actually result of teacher turnover in low-achieving but not
more likely to leave schools (Harris & Sass, 2011; higher achieving schools in Texas, despite the
Ladd & Sorenson, 2015). tendency for less effective teachers to leave low-
achieving schools. The researchers further determined
Other studies using licensure scores (Clotfelter, et al.,
that replacement teachers were even less effective
2011; Hendricks, 2016), SAT scores (Goldhaber et
than those who left, due to loss of experience and
al., 2011), or measures of college selectivity
frequent grade switching among staff, as well as the
(Podgursky, et al., 2004) as proxies for teaching
ineffectiveness of newly hired teachers and
ability have shown that the most able teachers are
organizational disruptions. Sorenson and Ladd (2018)
more likely to leave the profession or move to other
studied turnover in North Carolina middle schools
schools, potentially lowering the instructional quality
and found that 3-year turnover rates adversely
in schools. For example, Hendricks (2016) used
impacted students‘ math and ELA performance; for
certification scores as an ability proxy in tracking exit
example, a turnover increase of 100% led to
patterns of approximately 500,000 Texas teachers
significant performance reductions, particularly in
from 1996 to 2014. Low-ability teacher attrition was
math.
highest after the first year of teaching, but the pattern
reversed after the first year, with attrition patterns In addition, turnover that occurs within the school
highest among teachers of higher ability. This finding year has recently been shown to be of particular
is consistent with other research showing higher concern for the disruption of student learning,
turnover rates for the least effective early-career accounting for approximately one quarter of all
teachers (Boyd, et al., 2008; Goldhaber et al., 2011). turnover (Redding & Henry, 2018). This type of
These findings suggest that encouraging low- turnover can result in classroom disruption, staff
performing early-career teachers to exit may be an instability, and changes to teacher quality, all of
effective strategy, as long as higher quality which can combine to negatively impact student
replacements are available (Hendricks, 2016). In learning and achievement, particularly when it occurs
studying the long-term impacts of teacher turnover on after the first semester and closer to the end of the
the composition of teachers in North Carolina middle school year. Schools with higher proportions of
schools, Sorensen and Ladd (2018) found that minority and economically disadvantaged students
turnover from the 1990s to 2016 increased a school‘s are more likely to experience within-year turnover,
portion of teachers lacking full licensure and teachers making a collaborative work environment difficult
with fewer years of experience, with the strongest and resulting in insufficient resources to mentor the
effects found for economically disadvantaged large numbers of new teachers who enter during the
schools. Such schools frequently have difficulty school year (Simon & Johnson, 2015).
recruiting high-quality teachers (Dee &Goldhaber,
Poorer School Organizational Functioning
2017), and improvements to retention will likely High rates of teacher turnover can exact
require improved recruiting tools and practices organizational costs that destabilize school
(Wronowski, 2018). communities (Simon & Johnson, 2015). For example,
Reduced Student Learning and Achievement high turnover necessitates the hiring of large numbers
High turnover rates can serve as a barrier to the of beginning teachers who typically are less effective
teacher collaboration that is essential for instructional than those with more experience (Grissom, 2011),
improvement (Guin, 2004). Correlational research has resulting in negative student learning impacts.
demonstrated that schools with higher teacher Turnover also can produce disruptions in instructional
turnover have lower student achievement (Boyd, et continuity, as schools must reconfigure teaching
al., 2005; Guin, 2004). In a causal study of teacher assignments annually and sometimes during the
turnover in New York City elementary schools, school year in response to ongoing staffing changes,
Ronfeldt, et al., (2013) found that turnover reduced resulting in less unified and less comprehensive
math and English Language Arts (ELA) performance instructional programs (Guin, 2004).
in students whose teachers left as well as in students Likewise, sustained collegial and trustful
whose teachers stayed at the school. This impact was relationships among teachers, students, and families
are also difficult in schools with high turnover, million, with the higher costs in urban districts, which
making it challenging to unify the school community frequently have higher turnover rates (Synar&
around common goals and school improvement Maiden, 2012). A study conducted in 37 of 54
strategies (Simon & Johnson, 2015). The lack of districts in Alaska found that districts cumulatively
strong collegial relationships among teachers can spent approximately $20 million each year to address
further translate into a reluctance to assume high rates of turnover, particularly in rural areas
leadership roles or participate in professional learning (DeFeo, et al., 2017). Not easily calculated are the
communities, impeding teachers‘ capacity to enhance costs resulting from a loss in productivity when a
instruction collaboratively over time (Simon & more experienced teacher is replaced by a less
Johnson, 2015). In analyzing case study and staff experienced or less qualified one (Milanowski &
climate survey data, Guin (2004) demonstrated that Odden, 2007; Watlington, et al., 2010). Milanowski
schools with high turnover faced significant and Odden (2007) found that the largest contributions
organizational challenges including difficulties to the costs of turnover were training, lost
planning and implementing a coherent curriculum and productivity, and salary savings when senior teachers
maintaining positive relationships among teachers. departed and newer teachers were hired as
Ronfeldt and colleagues‘ (2013) found that the replacements. Results further suggested that the
broader negative impact of turnover on student costliest turnover occurred for experienced, but not
achievement in the classrooms of remaining teachers highly senior teachers. The researchers concluded that
may have included harm to faculty relational trust and the lost human capital and associated loss of
collegiality or the loss of institutional knowledge productivity were the most important concerns for
necessary to effectively support student learning. policymakers.
On one hand, chronic staff instability through high Potential Benefits of Teacher Turnover
rates of teacher turnover can result in a significant It is important to note that not all teacher turnover is
loss of social and human capital and create a barrier created equal (Grissom &Bartanen, 2019); in some
to school improvement (Holme, et al., 2017). cases, it may result in benefits for students, schools,
Principals in these situations are faced with weighty and districts. For example, some within-year turnover
managerial burdens, as they are forced to continually is due to supportive parental and medical leave
focus on hiring and training new teachers rather than policies that make it possible for teachers to
address systemic and sustained instructional temporarily exit for family considerations and return
improvements (Loeb, et al., 2010). A cyclical effect to the school, thus defraying the costs of recruiting
can occur, as a lack of instructional support from new teachers (Papay, et al., 2017). It is also possible
school leaders creates even more teacher turnover that teacher exits due to extremely poor performance
(Allensworth, et al., 2009; Boyd, et al., 2011; Kraft, et can benefit the composition of the teaching workforce
al., 2016). and student learning, if low-performing teachers are
replaced with more effective ones (Hanushek, 2009).
Higher Financial Costs
Teacher turnover is quite costly, with more than $7 In a study of the District of Columbia Public School
billion spent annually on separation, recruitment, (DCPS) system, Adnot, et al., (2017) found that using
hiring, and induction, and training—an amount that a teacher evaluation and compensation system that
otherwise could be used for academic programs and moved ineffective teachers out of schools and
services (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014; provided financial and nonfinancial rewards to highly
Barnes, et al., 2007; Darling-Hammond & Sykes, effective teachers who remained was beneficial both
2003; Sorenson & Ladd, 2018). Resources may be to the overall effectiveness of the teaching workforce
diverted from classrooms, leading to even larger gaps and to student achievement. Cullen, et al., (2016)
between disadvantaged and wealthier schools found that a teacher evaluation system increased the
(Grissom, 2011). Lack of standardization, exit rate for low-performing teachers, but the changes
inconsistencies, and missing data make cross-district to workforce composition were not large enough to
comparisons of turnover costs very challenging improve student achievement, a finding the authors
(Levy, et al., 2012), but research has found that it is attributed in part to the lack of a financial reward
quite costly for districts and schools. system for high-performing teachers like the one used
in the DCPS system.
Statistically, teacher replacement costs range from
$9,000 per teacher in rural districts to more than On the other hand, research has demonstrated that
$20,000 per teacher in urban districts (Barnes et al., more effective schools have higher turnover rates for
2007). Another study found that district costs per year low-performing teachers and higher retention rates of
for teacher turnover ranged from $3.2 million to $5.6 high-performing ones (Loeb, et al., 2012). More
recently, this concept has been labeled strategic Participation in school decision-making is a
retention, to refer to the retention of effective teachers collaborative process in which there is shared
combined with the exit of ineffective ones (Grissom decision-making on educational issues at the school
& Bartanen, 2019). Principal leadership is a key level as a way of involving teachers (Darling-
determinant of teacher retention (Grissom, 2011; Hammond & Bransford, 2005). The main purpose in
Kraft et al., 2016; Ladd, 2011), and effective sharing decisions is to improve school effectiveness
principals have lower overall average teacher and student learning. When principals, teachers, and
turnover in their schools (Boyd, et al., 2008). Grissom staff members work as a team and collaboratively
and Bartanen (2019) found that effective principals, decide what is in the best interest of the school, the
when equipped with accurate teacher evaluation institution is responsive to the needs of their students
information, engaged in selective retention of and community. Liontos, (2007), further suggests that
teachers in their schools by retaining effective ones those closest to the children should decide their
and administratively removing or, more often, education. Teachers, parents, and school staff should
―counseling out‖ ineffective ones. The researchers have more control of policies and programs affecting
also found that suburban schools were better able to their schools and children. Accordingly, the persons
engage in strategic retention than were urban and responsible for carrying out the decisions should have
particularly rural schools, which had fewer applicants a clear voice in determining those decisions that,
for open positions. The benefits of turnover through when implemented, would subject the participants to
strategic retention in hard-to-staff schools, therefore, responsibility for the process as well as the outcomes.
may necessitate the use of targeted incentives as Furthermore, teacher participation in decision-making
described in the Adnot et al, (2017) study. is one of the many reforms in education that
Decision Making Skills and Teacher Turnover attempted to increase student achievement, create a
Organizations, generally speaking, tend to have sense of community, and increase teacher morale, as
bureaucratic decision-making structural dimensions well as to help schools meet increasing academic
(Stevenson, 2001). One of the major focuses of standards. Wyman (2000) supports shared decision-
school reform has been the decentralization of power making and adds that, if used correctly, it can bring
at the school level. Since the 1980‘s school systems together teachers, parents, administrators, and
have been moving towards decentralization of the community members. A major reason for the
decision making authority at the school level popularity of this reform is that it tends toward
(Stevenson, 2001). The literature further suggests that decentralization of school decision-making, and
there are three different dimensions of organizational consequently improves student performance (Latham,
decision-making: formalization, which was 1998). Involving teachers in decision-making changes
characterized as the extent to which roles and the manner that schools are governed by removing the
behaviors were described and documented; power from the hands of the central office or
complexity, which was defined as the number of administration and sharing it among teachers,
specialists whose functions were unique from other principals, and sometimes parents.
employees; and centralization, which was a function Hoy and Miskel (2012) supported the concept of the
of locus of decision making, degree of information- participation in decision making, and advocated that
sharing between levels, and the degree of the process become more relevant, especially in
participation in long-range planning (Somech, 2002). addressing the question of whether the teachers can
Moreover, teacher participation in decision-making be trusted to make decisions that are in the best
within these complex, centralized, and formalized interest of the organization. They believed that the
organizational structures was identified as an involvement of teachers in this process should occur
important consideration in efforts to restructure and when the teachers have a personal stake in the
reform public schools (Desimone, 2002). outcome, have expertise to contribute to the solution,
Accordingly, decentralized, site-based management and can be trusted to decide what is in the best
was found to be significantly related to perceptions of interest of the organization. Participation in decision-
effectiveness at the school level, and that making in the workplace is, therefore, important
organizational decentralization of authority was also because the effectiveness of the decision is
significantly related to participation in decision- determined by both the quality of the decision being
making (Bauer, 2001). The decision-making process made and the acceptance and commitment of
within the structure of the organization as a subordinates to implement the decision.
workplace is critical in engaging teachers so as to In addition, there are three categories of motivation
collaborate as a committed team. surrounding the dilemma of teacher retention rates:
extrinsic, intrinsic, and altruistic. Extrinsic early as the 1960s, teachers shared accounts of being
motivations are factors provided from outside of the overwhelmed by the needs of students and the school
teacher‘s control such as payment and vacation hours. system‘s inability to meet those needs (Tye &
Teaching has the benefit of weekends and summers O‘Brien, 2002). Approximately 30% of public school
off; however, long hours and a heavy workload still teachers leave within the first five years of teaching,
wear on the day-today of education throughout the and the turnover rate is about 50% higher in high-
school year. There is research that shows that the poverty, urban schools (Ingersoll, 2001). Teacher
vacation matters less to educators than how the turnover increased by 28% since the early 1990s, but
vacation best suited the teacher‘s lifestyle (Chiong, et the turnover is not equally distributed among districts
al., 2017). and schools (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2010). The data
from the Schools and Staffing Survey showed that
Intrinsically and altruistically, there are several
teachers are moving from poor to wealthier schools,
factors that result in issues with teacher retention.
from high-minority to low-minority schools, and from
Intrinsic motivators are reasons the teacher desires to
urban to suburban schools (Ingersoll & Merrill,
pursue the field, which comes from within
2010). There is a large body of literature that
themselves; whereas, altruistic motivators center on
addresses why teachers may leave the profession.
affecting the community and/or world for the better.
Reasons include a lack of administrative support, low
Primarily, teachers desire to make a difference in the
salaries, poor facilities and the increased focus on
lives of their students and can feel major stress and
assessment and accountability (Ingersoll, 2001;
anxiety when they fall short of creating the impact
Kersaint, et al., 2005; Strunk & Robinson, 2006;
that they intend (Chiong et al., 2017; Engelhart, 2012
Tye& O‘Brien, 2002). As a result, school districts are
Pedota, 2015; Riggs, 2013). In fact, the educational
left with the difficult task of retaining highly qualified
field has become much more pressurized with top
teachers in classrooms.
down change, so there is more direct pressure on
educators to deliver (Riggs, 2013). If teachers feel Ingersoll (2001), a leader in research on the topic of
like they are not meeting the needs of their students, teacher retention, conducted his study, ―Teacher
or if they feel like they are not performing well in Turnover, Teacher Shortages, and the Organization of
their jobs, they are much more likely to leave the Schools‖ in 2001. He used the School Staffing Survey
profession as failures (Pesavento-Conway, 2010). and Teacher Follow up Survey which is the largest
and most comprehensive data source available on the
New teachers need support and development in order
staffing, and to examine the occupational and
to not fall intro this trap, be it from an administrator
organizational aspects of schools. This study analyzed
or from a teacher leader (Segovia, 2015). In fact, a
teacher turnover and its role in teacher demand and
little professional development provides new teachers
school staffing problems. A multiple regression
insight into the profession, and links to retaining
teachers in the profession for longer than those that analysis was conducted to determine the effects of
teacher and school characteristics and organizational
receive none (Gaikhorst, et al., 2015). Several studies
conditions on turnover. Lastly, Ingersoll reviewed the
that research teacher attrition find the intrinsic or
reasons teachers give for their departures. He found
altruistic reasons to revolve around workload, stress,
that staffing problems were a result of the demand for
pressures from top-down authority, personal failures,
teachers caused by a revolving door of teachers
and/or lack of support (Chiong et al., 2017; Dee et al.,
leaving their jobs for reasons other than retirement
2006; Engelhart, 2012; Gaikhorst, et al., 2015;
such as dissatisfaction with their jobs or in order to
Hughes, 2012; Shaw & Newton, 2014). If teachers
seek better jobs or career opportunities (Ingersoll,
receive proper support, they could perform better at
2001).
their jobs, and a lot of these negative factors dissipate
(Chiong et al., 2017; Dee, 2006; Gaikhorst et al., While research indicates teacher beliefs, practices,
2015; Hughes, 2012). With major intrinsic motivators and characteristics directly impact teacher retention,
to enter the profession, teachers will feel heavily another factor to be considered is school leadership.
rewarded by seeing personal successes within their Kersaint, et al., 2007) found that administrative
students (Pedota, 2015). support was of more importance to leavers than
stayers. Similarly, a large body of research links
Issues on Teacher Turnover
teacher job satisfaction and retention to principal
Despite the overwhelming research on the impact of
leadership (Boyd, et al., 2011; Grissom, 2011; Tickle,
quality teachers on student achievement, schools are
Chang, & Kim, 2011). In a qualitative study of the
facing increasing teacher attrition problems. The
sources and impact of stress among urban teachers,
challenge of schools retaining effective, enthusiastic,
teachers reported ―human and material resources as
and committed teachers is not a new problem. As
most important to reducing work-related stress‖ become teachers, Turner (2010) believes that
(Shernoff, et al., 2011). School principals have the administrators can better recruit and retain teachers
authority to provide resources to teachers and create without breaking the bank. Most teachers choose
opportunities for teachers to work and learn in education because it gives them the opportunity to
collaborative school communities. The positive make a real, lasting difference in children‘s lives. For
correlation between teacher support and low turnover many educators, teaching represents not only a career,
rates is evident in an empirical inquiry of leadership but also an important life mission. By nature,
styles of principals with low attrition rates conducted educators are intrinsically motivated, therefore, a
by Brown (2009). In this qualitative study they successful principal enables and encourages her
interviewed 12 principals with high retention rates in teachers to do that which they‘re already driven to
urban schools to investigate the principal‘s role in doing, thus, making a real, lasting difference in the
teacher retention. This study revealed several classroom and thus, keeps teachers satisfied in their
common characteristics of principals with low jobs (Brinn, 2014). An article sited a 2006 analysis of
attrition rates in urban schools that relate to the data teacher retention studies which suggests that non-
suggesting that teachers crave support and resources. monetary rewards such as strong mentoring programs
According to Dawley, et al (2008), the principals in and staff development matter more than higher
the study agreed that spending more time, providing salaries and signing bonuse to new teachers (Black,
resources and building capacity are critical 2008). Thanking teachers for what they do, can go a
components in retaining good teachers (Glenn, 2008). long way for principals and district leaders.
Materials for teaching, technology supplies, or Added on, Morgan and Kritsonis (2008) examine the
financial support were consistently provided to alarming statistics of teacher turnover and take a
teachers consistently as a means of concrete support. deeper look at the retention of new teachers in urban
A common mantra was that they had an ―ask and ye schools. The authors emphasize the importance of
shall receive‖ mentality as they were committed to principals making new teacher development a top
providing resources and materials so that teachers priority. Teacher stability, they suggest, is the key to
could focus on the important demands of meeting the long-term improvement within the school. They
students‘ academic needs (Jacob, 2007). Human recommend several techniques for principals to use in
support was provided through visibility and
the training and support of new teachers. They stress
accessibility of all of principals surveyed. All noted the importance of new teacher support and
that ―being available, spending time talking to people, development and say that funding for this purpose
and really listening‖ created an ―open door, literally should be a priority. Just as student achievement is a
and figuratively,‖ which developed a positive school priority, so should the success of new teacher.
culture and climate (Kopkpwski, 2009).
Online Visibilities of Correlational Studies on
In addition, good principals impact teacher retention
Decision Making Skills or Behaviors of the
by increasing intangible rewards such as staff
Principals and the Teacher Tenure
recognition or a positive school vision (Grissom, Throughout the country schools are continuously
2011). Orderly work environments through high restructuring to improve student learning and the
expectations for student behavior and established process of teaching (Johnson & Pajares, 1996). One
routines and procedures were several other factors of the major focuses of school reform has been the
that teachers rated principals as effective in decentralization of power at the school level. Since
disadvantaged schools. This research concluded that the 1980‘s school systems have been moving towards
effective principals impact teacher retention in the decentralization of the decision making authority at
same indirect manner in which they influence student the school level (Stevenson, 2001). Shared decision
learning. The research suggests that ―effective making has led many schools to involve their teachers
principals promote student achievement not by in the decisions that affect their lives (Somech, 2002).
influencing students directly but by helping to create Stevenson defines shared decision making as ―a
school environments that are conducive to student horizontal devolution of authority within the school
learning‖ (Roby, 2011). Essentially, Trafford (2016) from the principal to a collective of members of the
concluded that an effective principal completely school community‖ (p. 1). Furthermore, Johnson and
mitigates teacher attrition in high-poverty schools Pajares (1996) describe shared decision making as
A critical piece in teacher retention by principals and ―the process of extending the base of the decision
administration is understanding the psychology making through a governance structure to include
behind who becomes a teacher and why (Carr, 2009). groups traditionally omitted from the decision making
By understanding the motivation behind those who process‖. Decisions at the school level may
encompass the following areas: instructional rated the benefits at the high end of the scale while
coordination, curriculum development, staff rating the costs of shared decision making at the
development, evaluation, general school loWend of the scale. Duke, Showers and Imber‘s
administration, personnel, rules and discipline, school findings indicated that teachers are more likely to
improvement, and policymaking (Duke, et al., 1980). comply with decisions if they are involved in the
Although the term shared decision making is most decision making process. Furthermore, 40% of the
often used when involving teachers in the decision teachers felt that involvement in school decision
making process, other terms that are synonymous making could enhance their school careers. Finally,
with shared decision making are teacher input, being involved helped teachers gain an appreciation
participatory decision management, and participatory of the running of a school.
decision making. Moreover, Johnson and Pajres (1996) study found
In addition, Somech (2002) has defined dimensions of evidence that changes in attitudes and patterns of
shared decision making. He has examined five behavior are benefits of shared decision making.
specific dimensions of decision making: decision, Shared decision making can change attitudes and
degree of participation, structure, target of patterns of behavior within a school. Shared decision
participation and rationale. The decision domain making allows more teachers the ability to participate
involves teachers dealing with students, instruction, causing power shifts within a school to occur.
managerial issues, school operations, and Barriers of authority and isolation are broken down
administration. The decision domain is known as the when shared decision making is the norm permitting
technical domain. Hardman (2001) second domain, teachers to collaborate and discuss school issues with
degree of participation, is described by the degree of each other. Faculty and administration gain a better
involvement teachers have in the decision making understanding of each other (Özoğlu, 2010)
process. The third domain, participatory management Participation in decision making encourages teacher
structure, establishes a participatory structure for involvement and teacher commitment to the
decision making with in a school. Some principals organization. Teacher participation in decision
prefer a participatory structure that is informal in making promotes commitment to the decisions being
which there are very few rules determining who made and increases a teacher‘s willingness to carry
participates and how participation occurs. While other out the decision. Teachers begin to take ownership of
principals establish a more formal participatory their decisions by initiating their own ideas (Somech,
management structure in which teachers are more 2005). Somech suggests principals need to influence
directly involved in making decisions. The fourth their teachers to be skillful in the pursuit of the
dimension, participation target, suggests that when a organization‘s objectives. He describes organizational
principal has developed a level of trust and loyalty, commitment as having three components:a strong
teachers are provided more responsibility. Within this belief in and acceptance of the organization‘s goals
dimension, the author described the degree to which and values which is identification; a willingness to
the principal involves his or her staff members in exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization
decision making. The principal‘s participation target which is involvement; and a strong intent or desire to
may depend on the relationship the principal has with remain with the organization.
certain teachers. The fifth dimension, rationale,
justifies why a school has embraced participatory In addition, shared decision making is a process of
management. This dimension suggests that the teacher empowerment (Perry, et al., 1994). It is
rationale for participatory management represents the through shared decision making that teachers are
principal‘s leadership philosophy and his or her empowered (Lampe, 1997). This process enhances
rationale for employing participatory management. the teachers‘ autonomy and validates their
Principals may vary their level of involving professionalism. Somech‘s (2005) research findings
subordinates in the decision making (Leithwood, indicated that principals need to invest in the
2008). enhancing of the motivational factors of
organizational commitment and teacher
The Benefits of Shared Decision Making empowerment. His study suggests that school
The benefits of shared decision making are related to effectiveness could be managed by fostering intrinsic
intrinsic factors more than student achievement task motivation among teachers, as well as, by
(Duke, et al., 1980). The benefits of teachers involved promoting teacher‘s organizational commitment.
in the decision making at their school include: (a) Teacher empowerment permits teachers to work
teachers feeling of self-efficacy, (b) ownership, and together to meet the organization‘s goals. Principals
(c) workplace democracy. In their study, teachers are encouraged to empower teachers to be decision
makers. If schools are to be successful in of evidence in making decisions has been studied
transforming education, teachers must be involved in extensively in education, but the vast majority of that
making decisions (Reep& Greer, 1992). Lampe‘s work has been at the school or classroom level
(1997) meta-analysis of significant studies implies (Coburn & Talbert, 2006). Studies at the central
that teachers‘ beliefs and attitudes regarding their role office level reveal ―evidence‖ informed decisions rely
in the decision making process play a key role in the heavily on local knowledge, including context and
restructuring of schools. prior knowledge, and less on research, which is often
ignored or used only for political purposes to sway a
Similarly, while challenging schools come with an
stakeholder to support an already-made decision.
array of difficulties for teachers, many educators truly
Studies have also found evidence inclusion is usually
want to work in such places if there is well-rounded
skewed toward what is already known or easily
principal leadership. Such desired leadership by these
accessed. Decision making is often impacted equally
teachers includes principals that will: build
by evidence excluded and included in the process
relationships, advocate for teachers, include teachers
(Coburn & Talbert, 2006; Honig & Coburn).
in their decision-making process, empower the staff,
build leadership capacity within their school, allow Furthermore, evidence use in decision making is not
opportunities for teachers to grow, be accessible to discrete and most often, the evidence joins a mire of
teachers, provide individual and team planning time, prior knowledge among individuals and the
and ensure a mix of both new and expert teachers contextual cauldron of the situation and those
within each team (Greenlee & Brown, 2009). A involved in making decisions. From all of this, sense
principal that provides some or all of these must be made of information to inform a decision
opportunities to their teachers is preferred by (Honig & Coburn, 2008). Research in decision
educators, even over added bonuses to get them to making illustrates the tendency to revert back to prior
stay. Of the teachers surveyed, the majority did not constructs. Spillane and his colleagues conducted
place emphasis on bonuses or increased salaries as research on school district decisions about
determining factors behind their retention. Rather, implementation of research-based standards in core
most teachers feel that the leadership within the subject areas. They found decisions gravitated toward
school is most important in deciding whether or not to prior practice (Spillane & Callahan, 2000).
stay at a challenging school.
Decision Making and Teacher Retention
Teachers as Leaders Administrators need to consider the factors in
In the book, The Moral Imperative of School teaching which motivate teachers to stay in their job.
Leadership, Fullan (2003) stated that schools needed When considering why teachers stay, move, or leave
principals who develop leadership in others, thereby the profession one would have to determine the type
strengthening school leadership beyond themselves. of a school that attracts teachers. In choosing schools
While some teachers struggle to survive the teachers look for the basic conditions that allow them
challenges faced in urban schools, others actively to teach appropriate course assignments, sufficient
seek opportunities to truly make a difference. To find curriculum guidelines, efficient systems for
fulfillment in teaching and remain in the profession, discipline, accessible leadership opportunities to learn
they seek meaningful roles outside their classrooms. and grow, and communication with parents (Johnson
A common reason of high attrition rates cited by & Birkeland, 2003). Teachers are satisfied at schools
many teachers is a lack of involvement in the where they can feel like a professional and are treated
decision-making process in a school (Brown & like a professional. Teachers remain at schools that
Wynn, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2003; Tye, & have staff members that share ideas and resources
O‘Brien, 2002). with colleagues, as well as, have administrators that
respect teachers (Johnson and Birkeland, 2003).
Further, when principals include staff in decision-
Teachers afforded the time to meet with other staff
making, planning and problem-solving, they promote
members to problem solve and make decisions
better communication, greater mutual trust and
experience greater work satisfaction (Goodlad, 1984).
collaboration (Griffith, 2004). Principal behaviors
Bogler‘s research findings indicated teachers reported
directly impact teacher job satisfaction and
feeling satisfied when their work gave them a sense
commitment (Davis & Wilson, 2000).
of self-esteem, and provided them with opportunities
Evidence-Based Decision Making for self-development, provided a feeling of success,
Evidence based decision making is highly social, and allowed them to participate in determining school
complex, and political. The process involves discrete practices (Bogler, 2001, p. 676).
sub-activities that may be obscured by the singular
term evidence use (Honig & Coburn, 2008). The use
Moreover, teachers participating in the decisions organization is related to teacher job satisfaction
made at the school are more satisfied with their jobs (Bogler, 2001). An organization that promotes
than teachers that had less autonomy. The degree of opportunities for participation in decision making will
staff cohesiveness and the nature of the problem- have teachers commit to their teaching career.
solving and decision-making climates at schools were Teacher participation in decision-making is one of the
factors related to teachers‘ satisfaction (Goodlad, many reforms in education that attempted to increase
1984, p. 179). The more the teacher is involved in the student achievement, create a sense of community,
decision making process at the school level the more and increase teacher morale, as well as to help
satisfied the teacher is with her job (Bogler, 2001). schools meet increasing academic standards. Wyman
Teachers that view their job as a source of self-esteem (2000) supports shared decision-making and adds
will consider their job as a central part of their life that, if used correctly, it can bring together teachers,
and gain satisfaction. Teachers‘ feelings and thoughts parents, administrators, and community members. A
about their working conditions determine their major reason for the popularity of this reform is that it
decisions about whether to continue working in their tends toward decentralization of school decision-
current school, move to another school, or leave the making, and consequently improves student
profession (Leithwood, 2006). Principals need to be performance. Involving teachers in decision-making
cognizant of how they can develop and foster positive changes the manner that schools are governed by
feelings of teachers toward their jobs. removing the power from the hands of the central
office or administration and sharing it among
Furthermore, principals perceive teachers being more
teachers, principals, and sometimes parents.
involved in making decisions than the teachers
perceived themselves to be (Goodlad, 1984). Teacher Furthermore, Hoy and Miskel (2012) supported the
job satisfaction can be associated with the principal‘s concept of the participation in decision making, and
decision making style. Teachers working with a advocated that the process become more relevant,
principal who involves teachers in decision making especially in addressing the question of whether the
feel more involved and are more committed to their teachers can be trusted to make decisions that are in
jobs (Bogler, 2001). Teachers are more satisfied with the best interest of the organization. They believed
their jobs when they work with a principal that shares that the involvement of teachers in this process should
information, delegates, and communicates with occur when the teachers have a personal stake in the
teachers (Bogler, 2001). Teachers attribute everything outcome, have expertise to contribute to the solution,
to the leadership of a school. Goodlad (1984) states, and can be trusted to decide what is in the best
our data in fact show that the degree for staff interest of the organization. Participation in decision-
cohesiveness and the nature of the problem-solving making in the workplace is, therefore, important
and decision making climates at schools were factors because the effectiveness of the decision is
also highly related to teachers‘ satisfaction. In determined by both the quality of the decision being
addition, Goodlad suggests that teachers consider a made and the acceptance and commitment of
principal that treats the staff as professionally subordinates to implement the decision.
independent is a good principal.
The SPIDER Framework for Qualitative Analysis
In addition, teachers are satisfied with the schools in On embarking on this review topic the researcher
which the principal considers the staff as competent faced many of the difficulties commonly discussed in
professionals and involves them in making school identifying qualitative literature on a given topic, and
decisions (Goodlad, 1984). The Center for identified SPIDER as a potential way of overcoming
Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement some of these difficulties.
(2007) has suggested the following strategies for Sample. For the sample, it aims to review and
involving teachers in the decision making process analyze of the decision-making skills of the principals
such as development differentiated instructional roles and their related behaviors as perceived by the
in schools, such as assistants, mentors, coaches, and teachers. An examination of current issues confirmed
supervisors; establishing formal and informal that teacher turnover continues to be a rising dilemma
opportunities to garner teacher input on the design in schools (Barnes et al., 2007). Current educational
and implementation of school and district policies and researchers have found that the exodus of teachers has
procedures; and engaging school improvement teams had an adverse effect to the school performance due
in substantive and collaborative decision making. to the decision making skills of the principals
Teachers that are included in the school decision (Hanushek et al., 2004).
making processes feel involved and committed to Phenomenon of Interest. The phenomenon of
their jobs. Furthermore, teacher commitment to the interest is answered thru teacher turnover as caused
by principals‘ decision-making skills. This paper To effectively lead, administrators understand that
employs systematic review with the design of teacher development is a process that spans a
qualitative and mixed method studies and the results teacher's entire career. As teachers' needs change so
of this would be based on the findings with the data does the level of support principal provide. In the past
gathered. A review of literature on factors that teacher education has traditional been viewed as a
influence teachers‘ decisions to leave is highly two-step process. In recognizing the specific needs of
correlated tourrent accountability demands, beginning teachers, researchers have begun to
inadequate compensation, student characteristics, examine a complex view of teacher education. With
adverse working conditions and decision-making all of the responsibilities and special needs of new
skills of the principals (Allens worth et al., 2009; teachers, steps are being taken to replace the
Guarino et al., 2011; Shernoff et al., 2011). traditional view with a career cycle model that
distinguishes among the stages teachers experience
Design. The design is the study design influences and
along with differentiation of the other components
the robustness of the study analysis and findings. It
that affect a teacher‘s career development.
answered the question what theoretical framework or
research method employed in the study. A recurring Theoretical Framework
theme when reviewing influences of both teacher This study examined the views of educational
retention and attrition is principal‘s leadership and leadership in their articulation and response to
support (Grissom, 2011; Boyd et al., 2011; Brown important topics in the organizational variables. To do
and Wynn, 2009). A variety of studies link principal so, these distinct theoretical frameworks are used as
leadership decision making skill and practices to reference: Synthesis Theory (Turner, 1980); Theory
teacher retention in disadvantaged schools; such of Pragmatism (Dewey, 1920); Theory-based
practices include providing professional development, Systematic Review (Harden, 2010); Mixed Methods
increasing teacher input in decision making, creating Framework (Creswell, 2006); Decision-making
a positive culture, and climate and modeling Theory (Simon, 1950); Motivator-Hygiene Theory
instructional leadership (Simon & Johnson, 2015; (Herzberg, 1959); and Situational Leadership Theory
Walker &Slear 2011; Yonezawa et al., 2011). (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977).
Evaluation. The evaluation is the evaluation Many leadership theories have guided school leaders.
outcomes which may include more subjective Although there is no one best leadership style that has
outcomes such as views, attitudes, and etc. More proven to be most effective, a combination of styles
recently, an emerging line of research has focused on depending on the situation has been found to be more
leadership characteristics. This research has placed a appropriate. In order to understand the role of a
laser focus on specific personality traits of a leader principal, sometime should be spent on understanding
that indicate success (Murphy 2008). Principal the evolution of leadership-theory. Leadership can be
personality traits that may positively impact the defined by personality traits, but also by the
retention of quality teachers needs further development of certain characteristics that influence a
investigation. This information could provide schools group to achieve the goals of an organization (Sousa,
to identify school leaders who are prone to retain 2003).
effective teachers and close the achievement gap. The trait theory suggested that leaders and their
Research Type. The research type is the qualitative, success are determined by personality traits, social
quantitative and mixed-methods research could be traits, and physical characteristics (Palestini, 1999).
searched for. Although leadership theory can prove to Skills and ability to implement a vision are necessary
be an inconclusive study, one resounding conclusion to transform traits into leadership behavior. The trait
reigns that no one leadership style is best. The theory was limited in its attempt to predict effective
evolution of the theory of leadership is indicative of leadership so researchers sought to look at a person's
the times in which society was experiencing change behavior rather than an individual's personal traits to
and growth. Yet, one can see how theories of increase leadership effectiveness, thus paving the way
leadership have influenced educational administration for later situational theories. The two types of
through the incorporation of distinct leadership styles. behavioral leadership were production oriented and
Hart (1993) explains that studies in educational employee oriented. The major difference between the
settings have begun to look at the relationships two types of leaders was the production-oriented
between leadership and teachers' satisfaction, leader wanted to get the job done (Palestini, 1999).
motivation, and morale and the climate and academic This type of administrator demonstrates an autocratic
achievement of schools. style and/or fails to involve workers in the decision-
making process. Employee-oriented leaders focus on
supporting the individual workers in their activities perhaps explains why his philosophical theories are
and involve them in the decision-making process. still discussed, criticized, adapted, and deployed in
many academic and practical arenas. Use of the
Another theory, the Synthesis Theory (Turner, 1990)
author‘s ideas continues apace in aesthetics and art
involves pulling together existing theories and
criticism, education, environmental policy,
extracting and synthesizing key aspects to produce
information theory, journalism, medicine, political
robust theory that has relevance to the world outside
theory, psychiatry, public administration, sociology,
sociology. Theory synthesis could refer to the more
and of course in the philosophical areas to which
tightly focused activity of comparing and weaving
Dewey contributed.
together specific, related theories of interest.
Although Turner has in the past referred to his Another theory is Theory-Based Systematic Reviews,
methodology as metatheorising and also as which is a funnel of attrition outlining how the reach
‗cumulative theorising‘, he now also describes it as and impact of an intervention can diminish from the
theory synthesis (Turner, 2013). intended pool of beneficiaries (White, 2018). Theory-
based systematic review to evaluation use an explicit
In addition, another theory is deemed relevant to the
theory of change to draw conclusions about whether
study. Dewey‘s (1920) Pragmatism or Cultural
and how an intervention contributed to observed
Naturalism – it is a philosophy should be seen as an
results. Theory-based approaches are a ―logic of
activity undertaken by interdependent organisms-in-
enquiry,‖ which complement and can be used in
environments. This standpoint, of active adaptation,
combination with most of the evaluation designs and
led Dewey to criticize the tendency of traditional
data collection techniques outlined.
philosophies to abstract and reify concepts derived
from living contexts. As did other classical Including diverse forms of evidence is one way to
pragmatists, Dewey focused criticism upon traditional increase the relevance of systematic reviews for
dualisms of metaphysics and epistemology such as decision makers. In the previous case, we had a
the mind/body, nature/culture, self/society, and number of trials that had looked at the question of
reason/emotion and then reconstructed their elements hoWeffective are interventions to promote fruit and
as parts of larger continuities. For example, human vegetable intake. The trials showed a huge
thinking is not a phenomenon which is radically heterogeneity, and the inclusion of qualitative
outside of or external to the world it seeks to know; research helped us to explain some of that
knowing is not a purely rational attempt to escape heterogeneity. Including qualitative research also
illusion in order to discover what is ultimately ―real‖ helped us to identify research gaps.
or ―true‖. Rather, human knowing is among the ways Rarely do decision makers have just one question to
organisms with evolved capacities for thought and answer; they are more likely to have a series of
language cope with problems. Minds, then, are not questions. The mixed-methods model enables us to
passively observing the world; rather, they are integrate quantitative estimates of benefit and harm
actively adapting, experimenting, and innovating; with more qualitative understanding from people's
ideas and theories are not rational fulcrums to get us lives. This integration helps determine not only the
beyond culture, but rather function experimentally effects of interventions but also their appropriateness.
within culture and are evaluated on situated, This concept is similar to that of social validity
pragmatic bases. Knowing is not the mortal‘s exercise
(Weiss, 2011).
of a ―divine spark‖, either; for while knowing or
inquiry, to use Dewey‘s term includes calculative or What is really important about mixed-methods design
rational elements, it is ultimately informed by the is that it facilitates this critical analysis of
body and emotions of the animal using it to cope. interventions from the point of view of the people the
interventions are targeting (Pasalo, 2012). This design
In addition to academic life, the author comfortably brings their experience to bear and draws on their
wore the mantle of public intellectual, infusing public different skills and expertise. Another feature of the
issues with lessons found through philosophy. He mixed-methods design is that it preserves the integrity
spoke on topics of broad moral significance, such as of the findings of the different types of studies
human freedom, economic alienation, race relations, (Creswell, 2014). We are not converting qualitative
women‘s suffrage, war and peace, human freedom, findings into numbers or quantitative findings into
and educational goals and methods. Typically, words. The technique uses complementary
discoveries made via public inquiries were integrated
frameworks for qualitative and quantitative research
back into his academic theories, and aided their to preserve each method. The fruit and vegetable
revision. This practice-theory-practice rhythm systematic review is only one example of a whole
powered every area of his intellectual enterprise, and
series of mixed-methods reviews using the same differently from the ones about their bad experiences.
approach (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) Based on this, he developed the theory that people‘s
job satisfaction depends on two kinds of factors:
On the other hand, mixed methods framework
factors for satisfaction, motivators or satisfiers and
(Creswell, 2006) is a research approach, popular in
factors for dissatisfaction, hygiene factors or
the social, behavioral, and health sciences, in which
dissatisfiers. Performance, recognition, job status,
researchers collect, analyze, and integrate both
responsibility and opportunities for growth all fall
quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or in
under motivators/ satisfiers. Hygiene
a sustained long‐term program of inquiry to address
factors/dissatisfiers are about salary, secondary
their research questions. The term ―mixed methods‖
working conditions, the relationship with colleagues,
refers to an emergent methodology of research that
physical work place and the relationship between
advances the systematic integration, or ―mixing,‖ of
supervisor and employee.
quantitative and qualitative data within a single
investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The In addition, Herzberg‘s Motivation Theory Model
basic premise of this methodology is that such (1959), or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are
integration permits a more complete and synergistic two factors that an organization can adjust to
utilization of data than do separate quantitative and influence motivation in the workplace. One of the
qualitative data collection and analysis. most interesting results of Herzberg‘s studies was the
implication that the opposite of satisfaction is not
Furthermore, mixed methods research originated in
dissatisfaction. Herzberg believed that proper
the social sciences and has recently expanded into the
management of hygiene factors could prevent
health and medical sciences including fields such as
employee dissatisfaction, but that these factors could
nursing, family medicine, social work, mental health,
not serve as a source of satisfaction or motivation.
pharmacy, allied health, and others. In the last decade,
Good working conditions, for instance, will keep
its procedures have been developed and refined to suit
employees at a job but won‘t make them work harder.
a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and
But poor working conditions, which are job
Plano Clark, 2011). These procedures include
dissatisfiers, may make employees quit. According to
advancing rigor, offering alternative mixed methods
Herzberg, a manager who wants to increase employee
designs, specifying a shorthand notation system for
satisfaction needs to focus on the motivating factors,
describing the designs to increase communication
or satisfiers. A job with many satisfiers will usually
across fields, visualizing procedures through
motivate workers, provide job satisfaction, and
diagrams, noting research questions that can
prompt effective performance. But a lack of job
particularly benefit from integration, and developing
satisfiers doesn‘t always lead to dissatisfaction and
rationales for conducting various forms of mixed
poor performance; instead, a lack of job satisfiers
methods studies. Mixed methods can be an ideal
may merely lead to workers doing an adequate job,
technique to assess complex interventions (Homer, et
rather than their best.
al., 2008; Nutting, et al., 2009).
One notable theory that is added to this study is the
Another theory is Decision Making Theory (Simon,
Hersey and Blanchard Leadership Theory (1977) that
1950). Simon‘s rejection of the formal models of
suggests that the most effective leadership style is
economic theory made him adopt the methods of an
affected by the circumstances leaders find themselves
experimental science: psychology. Not only did
in. They argue that a leader‘s ability to lead depends
Simon (1950) move to psychology to answer
upon certain situational factors. By understanding,
economic and organizational issues, but he also
recognizing and adapting to these factors, leaders will
revolutionized psychology by the introduction of the
be able to influence their surroundings and followers
information processing paradigm. This led to the so-
much more successfully than if these factors are
called cognitive revolution in the 1950‘s (see
ignored. More specifically, Hersey and Blanchard
Gardner, 1985, for description and discussion of the
focused a great part of their research on the
cognitive revolution). Added on, another theory is the
characteristics of followers in determining
Motivation-Hygiene Theory or the dual-factor theory,
appropriate leadership behaviors. They found that
was penned by Frederick Herzberg in 1959. This
leaders would have to modify their leadership style as
American psychologist, who was very interested in
their followers changed in terms of their ability: task
people‘s motivation and job satisfaction, came up
readiness and willingness and psychological readiness
with the theory. He conducted his research by asking
to perform the required task. A leader‘s relationship
a group of people about their good and bad
with followers is therefore likely to go through
experiences at work. He was surprised that the group
different stages as these abilities and willingness can
answered questions about their good experiences very
change over time. There are four leadership styles: that they can ultimately take on more responsibility
telling; selling; participating; and delegating. Hersey for their actions (Brinn, 2014). The author, however,
and Blanchard came up with in order to better deal believes this style is necessary for followers who used
with these different stages of followers. to be highly enthusiastic in the beginning but who lost
confidence because their competences are failing
Moreover, Situational Leadership Model (1977) puts
them. These disillusioned learners therefore need a
a high emphasis on directive behaviour and a
leader with a higher concern for supportive behavior
loWemphasis on supportive behavior, and that is
that helps them gain confidence and become
telling. A leader‘s primary concern lays with the task
motivated again (Goleman, 2016).
delivery and less with the personal needs of the
subordinates. According to Hersey (2020), this type This leadership style shows high supportive
of leadership is offering step-by-step instructions, behaviors, but low directive behaviors. This may
clear explanation of the consequences of non- involve listening, praise and a high level of
performance and close supervision. In such a interaction between leader and follower. In addition,
situation, it is important that the task is clearly the leader puts a high level of trust in the follower to
defined and the stages of the process are easy to achieve the day-to-day tasks as the follower‘s
follow. This is important because the leader believes competence has also grown over time. The leader will
that the follower either does not know what to do or is therefore only encourage and offer feedback when
unwilling and requires therefore a certain degree of needed to motivate and develop the subordinate, but
coercive power. Blanchard (2020), on the other hand, not as a comment on the task performance.
believes that this style is also used for followers who The final leadership style assumes a low supportive
are highly enthusiastic beginners. They already have
and a low directive behavior. This is very much a
the motivation to do the tasks required, which lowers hands-off approach as the subordinate is perfectly
the need for supportive behavior. But they still lack able and willing to perform the tasks independently
the competence, which increases their need for and with great responsibility. The leader can further
directive behavior. encourage autonomy, while keeping an eye on not
The next leadership style is the high directive and overloading the follower with responsibility and not
high supportive leadership style (Bogler, 2011). withdrawing completely from the follower‘s
Hersey argued that this style is needed for followers proximity. For these type of followers, it is thus
who are willing, but not able to perform a task. The important as a leader to keep observing and
leader‘s style should therefore be concerned with monitoring them albeit to a far lesser degree, in order
increasing the confidence and skills of followers so to provide the necessary support if needed.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Conceptual Framework Practice (EBP) often use a specialized framework,
With the references to the primary studies, the study called SPIDER, to form the question and facilitate the
reported here used a qualitative analysis of the literature search.
principals‘ decision making skills as basis to SPIDER stands for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest,
determine its effect to the teacher‘s turnover. The Design, Evaluation and Research Type. SPIDER
independent variable refers to principals‘ decision framework provides a mechanism for developing
making skills and the dependent variable is the answerable questions, which should make it easier to
teachers‘ turnover. pinpoint the relevant evidence necessary to answer
As shown in Figure 1, it reveals the process of the question. SPIDER provides a structure by which
synthesizing relevant studies to be included in the the staff who are being supported by research leads
analysis. Moreover, it deals with conducted studies are able to ask better questions for themselves.
that will show the principals‘ decision making skills SPIDER should reduce the time-pressure on research
to the teachers‘ turnover. This study also analyses and leads as it will lead to far more empowered
synthesizes systematically the researches that are colleagues.
included in the study. Without a well-focused
2. Methods
question, it can be very difficult and time consuming This chapter discusses the methods and procedures
to identify appropriate resources and search for used in this study. In addition, this chapter presents in
relevant evidence. Practitioners of Evidence-Based
detail the following: research design, place of study, searching for studies, collecting data from included
data sources and collection, inclusion and exclusion studies, and presenting findings (Cochrane
of criteria, data extraction, quality assessment, data Handbook, 1.1, 2017).
synthesis and analysis, and ethical considerations. In addition, the SPIDER search strategy was designed
Research Design following reflections by the authors on the difficulties
This study used qualitative systematic review analysis of using PICO when searching for qualitative and
implementing the SPIDER framework. Qualitative mixed-methods research for systematic review
analysis is the analysis of qualitative data such as text (Cooke, et al., 2010). The SPIDER tool, described
data from interview transcripts. Qualitative required adaptation of the PICO components to make
Systematic Review brings together research on a them more suitable for qualitative and mixed-methods
topic, systematically searching for research evidence research. Sample is the group of people being looked
from primary qualitative studies and drawing the at, because qualitative research is not easy to
findings together. Methods for qualitative systematic generalize. Sample size is typically smaller in
reviews have been developed more recently and are qualitative research with the data collected being
still evolving (Toye, et al., 2013).SPIDER is an richer and more detailed than quantitative data. In
alternative to PICO that has a special focus on contrast to those from epidemiological research,
qualitative research. Unlike quantitative analysis, findings from qualitative research are not always
which is statistics driven and largely independent of intended to be generalized beyond the study
the researcher, qualitative analysis is heavily population. Phenomenon of Interest looks at the
dependent on the researcher‘s analytic and integrative reasons for behavior and decisions, rather than an
skills and personal knowledge of the social context intervention. Therefore, Phenomenon of Interest was
where the data is collected. The emphasis in deemed more suitable for use with qualitative
qualitative analysis is sense making or understanding research encompassing behaviors, decisions and
a phenomenon, rather than predicting or explaining. individual experiences. Design is the form of research
A creative and investigative mindset is needed for used, such as interview or survey. Evaluation is the
qualitative analysis, based on an ethically enlightened outcome measures and is more suitable since
and participant-in-context attitude, and a set of qualitative outcomes might be unobservable and
analytic strategies. This chapter provides a brief subjective constructs. Research type is the method
overview of some of these qualitative analysis whether qualitative, quantitative and/or mixed
strategies (Miles & Huberman, 1984) methods (Smith & Lavender, 2011).
Furthermore, a systematic review is a high-level Place of Study
overview of primary research on a particular research The study was conducted at the University of
question that systematically identifies, selects, Immaculate Conception Library Hub, at the
evaluates, and synthesizes all high quality research workplace, Internet Cafes and public places where
evidence relevant to that question in order to answer computers and strong internet access may be
it. In other words, it provides an exhaustive summary available. The study was conducted in Davao Region.
of scholarly literature related to a particular research The researcher utilized electronic databases found in
topic or question. A systematic review is often written the available resources in the World Wide Web for
by a panel of experts after reviewing all the more references to limit the time used for looking
information from both published and unpublished through the theses and dissertations.
studies. The comprehensive nature of a systematic
Data Sources and Selection
review distinguishes it from traditional literature The researcher made use of available and accessible
reviews which typically examine a much smaller set literature, published and unpublished research studies,
of research evidence and present it from a single theses, or dissertations principals‘ decision making
author‘s perspective (Cochrane Stroke Group, 2017). skills to the teachers‘ turnover from the list of
A systematic review is based on a pre-defined researches of colleges and universities. The electronic
specific research question. The first step in a databases used for this study were ProQuest
systematic review is to determine its focus and the Educational Research Journal, Springer Link, Open
researcher should clearly frame the questions the Access Journal, Education Resources Information
review seeks to answer. It may take a while to Center (ERIC), Google Scholar, Education Journal,
develop a good review question since it is an Sage Journals, The Scholarship, Emerald Insight
important step in the review. Well-formulated Journals, Science Direct, Asia Pacific Institute of
questions will guide many aspects of the review Advanced Research, Education Policy Analysis
process, including determining eligibility criteria, Archives, University of Texas Library, East
Tennessee State University Library, Eurasian Journal, Conversely, the exclusion criteria were also set. A
Stats Library and etc. Hwang and Wu as cited by certain paper was excluded if its/has (a) studies does
Hussein, et al., (2019) posited that leadership style not deal with teacher retention or principal decision
and decision making are rare synthesis so that there making skills; (b) quantitative studies, (c) studies
was a stronger claim there is a need to come up with a published after 2013; (d) no full text articles/abstract
valid synthesis. All included studies were only and (e) studies does not reveal the relevant
independently retrieved and reviewed by the information fit for the study.
researcher to ascertain that the studies met the
Data Extraction
inclusion criteria. Subsequently, all the necessary data Data extraction is the process of retrieving data out of
gathered from the included studies were charted out data sources for further data processing. The process
in in the sample-phenomenon of interest-design- enables a more comprehensive analysis of data
evaluation-research type (SPIDER) framework table. through coding of studies. However, in this study
These online repositories were chosen because they doctoral theses, master‘s theses and papers published
are known to include high quality and high impact in refereed journals are included. Since this study
studies. utilized systematic review, the researcher only
Further, the following search terms and keywords considered the qualified existing secondary data.
were used (―principals‘ decision making skills‖,
―teacher turn-over‖ or ―qualitative or mixed method Quality Assessment
studies‖). The titles, abstracts and methods section There is no consensus on the best-standardized
were thoroughly reviewed to filter out unrelated method for assessing the quality of studies to be
studies. All included studies were independently reviewed, but a specific quality assessment for this
retrieved and reviewed by the researcher to ascertain systematic review will be used to examine the quality
that the studies met the inclusion criteria. of studies. These included the appropriateness of the
Subsequently, all the necessary data gathered from research question, meeting of eligibility criteria,
the included studies were charted out in sample- accessibility through online literature search, dual
phenomenon of interest-design-evaluation-research review for determining which studies to include and
type (SPIDER) framework table. The SPIDER tool exclude, and also quality appraisal for its internal
can be used when dealing with qualitative research validity. In particular, a study was considered to be of
questions, that is, when the research is about attitudes high quality if the study design was a qualitative or
and experiences rather than scientifically measurable mixed method with significant and compelling
data (Rice, 2008). results; the total sample sizes for both groups were
comparable or almost the same, the level of
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria significance employed was standard, the authors have
In a systematic review, a review question forges the peer-reviewed articles published in international
analysis of what made a certain study similar enough journals, which imply that the quality of the academic
to be included and what made them different enough paper is high, and therefore, possesses quality.
to be excluded (Norris & Ortega as cited by Kao,
2014). Setting a well-defined inclusion and exclusion Practitioners, researchers, and policymakers often use
criteria ascertain that the research question is focused inter-rater reliability as a generic term for rater
and prevents bias in the selection of studies before consistency. However, some measurement experts
performing the literature search. contend that inter-rater reliability has a more precise
The goal is to locate related research articles that definition. They defined it as the measurement of the
reported empirical findings on the principal consistency between evaluators in the ordering or
leadership and decision making skills to the teachers‘ relative standing of performance ratings, regardless of
turnover. Distinctively, the following conditions were the absolute value of each evaluator‘s rating. We
considered to assure aptness in the selection of adopt this use of the term in this paper. Inter-rater
papers. To be included in the review, papers had to reliability is more frequently of concern in research
(a) discuss behavior and decision making skills of studies or where the only interest is in consistency of
principal, (b) show significance of difference result, raters‘ judgments about the relative levels of
(c) a mixed-methods and qualitative study, which performance.
compare the effects decision making skills of Ethical Considerations
principal to teachers‘ turnover (d) show This study passed the critical evaluation and ethical
appropriateness of data analysis and presentation, (e) review done by the University of the Immaculate
be a published journal, and (f) include participants Conception Research Ethics Committee (UIC-REC)
from basic education who maybe teachers and which ensures that this study was compliant to ethical
principals. procedures, standards, and considerations globally
acceptable. As to the 2017 National Ethical been collected in the past. Sources of secondary data
Guidelines for Health and Health-related Research includes books, personal sources, journal, newspaper,
(NEGHHR) as assessed by the UIC-REC, this study website, government record etc.
belongs to the exempt category considering the fact The electronic databases that will be used for this
that the aim of this dissertation is to synthesize online study are ProQuest Educational Research Journal,
refereed journals. Thus, no human participants were Springer Link, Open Access Journal, Education
involved in the study. Resources Information Center (ERIC), Google
Social Value. The goal of this study was to facilitate Scholar, Education Journal, Sage Journals, The
learning through a better understanding of research Scholarship, Emerald Insight Journals, Science
and how it influences practice. However, in Direct, Asia Pacific Institute of Advanced Research,
undertaking this study, this frequently required to Education Policy Analysis Archives, University of
seek information from the papers available which are Texas Library, East Tennessee State University
part of the educational process. According to Skinner, Library, Eurasian Journal, Stats Library and etc.
Ferrell, and Dubinsky (1988), deontological Adequacy of Facilities. Adequacy of laboratory
philosophies focus on the factors or means used to
facilities extent with the aim of facilitating and
arrive at an ethical decision. These philosophies providing meaningful learning experiences in the
emphasize moral obligations or commitments that learners. Hager (1974), based on the instructional
should be binding or necessary for proper conduct. theory of learning interaction, hypothesized that the
On the other hand, ―teleological philosophies laboratory had a direct effect on both students‘
emphasize the consequences that result from an attitudes and academic performance. It is generally
action. In other words, they deal with the moral worth
believed that constant practice leads to proficiency in
of the behavior as determined totally by the what the learner learns during classroom instruction;
consequences of the behavior. hence, the dictum practice makes perfect. This has
Alternative ethical perspectives are also put forward given rise to the expectation that laboratory facilities
in the ethics literature. For example, Kantian ethics should be adequately provided to secondary schools
suggest that ―persons should be treated as ends and for effective teaching and learning.
never purely as means‖ (Beauchamp & Bowie, 1997).
Since we are in the advent of pandemic, the internet is
Thus, any practice that a researcher might want to basically the main facility for this study wherein
undertake that does not consider how the situation journals are available for browsing, reading and
affects the individual would be unethical. Other downloading as references in the conceptualization of
ethical perspectives put forward include common this research.
morality theory, rights theory, virtue ethics, feminist
theories, and ethics of care, but these were discussed Qualifications of Researcher. The researcher is a
here, as they are less frequently applied in research bonafide student of the university with a master‘s
associated with business practices (Beauchamp & degree in Educational Management. The researcher
Bowie, 1997). has also finished with her academic requirements for
the doctoral degree in Educational Leadership, thus,
Potential benefits to the Society. The results of this this dissertation proposal is being conceptualized.
study may be used by principals who desire to learn Currently, she is the School Director of the
more about which leadership behaviors and decision Brokenshire College Toril, Davao City, Inc. since
making skills impacted and increased teachers' job 2017. The researcher has been exposed to different
satisfaction and reduced teachers' turnover rates. This trainings and conferences regarding leadership and
study is also beneficial to current principals management and educational leadership locally and
concerning different strategies they can employ in even abroad. Thus, the researcher is qualified to
order to support the different needs of teachers, conduct this research.
included the development of principal training
programs to foster the creation of a positive school 3. Results and Discussions
culture and the necessity of individualizing This chapter presents the results, analysis, and
professional development activities according to interpretation of the research findings based on the
teachers' needs. review question presented in Chapter 1. The section
begins with the study selection illustrated by a
Use of Publicly Available Data or Secondary Data. schematic diagram, followed by the description of the
Secondary data is the data that has already been features of the included studies and its qualitative
collected through primary sources and made readily summary. This chapter also reveals the decision
available for researchers to use for their own research making skills of the principals and their related
(Adkins, 2009). It is a type of data that has already
behavior as perceived by the teachers pertaining to study. Out of 69 remaining studies, 27 were excluded
teacher turnover, as shown in the Sample-Point of from the systematic review as they were published
Interest-Design-Evaluation-Research Type (SPIDER) after 2013. There were 42 studies remained, and out
table. of these, five studies were identified as no full text
articles or abstract only; thus, they were excluded as
Study Selection
well. After the text articles only or abstract only were
The flowchart for the selection of the studies is shown
removed, 31 further do not reveal the relevant
in Figure 2. The search of studies from different
information fit for the research; thus, they were there
electronic databases resulted in 507 primary
were only six studies that met the prescribed inclusion
researches. After the deliberation of the titles and the
criteria and these were subjected to a systematic also
abstracts, 319 were excluded from the selection since
discarded. Hence, there were only six studies that met
the studies were irrelevant. Only 189 studies
the prescribed inclusion criteria and these were
remained for the review, and out of it, 120 studies
subjected to a systematic review.
were further excluded since they quantitative type of
Figure 2 Flowchart of the Study Selection
Features of the Included Studies
Table 1 presents the six included studies in this systematic review. The data were gathered from different
electronic databases and were already published, generated, and retrieved by different authors worldwide. These
studies were sought from electronic databases and varieties of websites of colleges and universities and covered
three different continents, namely, North, America, East Asia, Asia and Africa.
Study Regions
America. Two studies were identified to have been conducted in America, specifically, in North Carolina and
District of Tennessee. Study 1, took place in a county located in western North Carolina. This county has
108,448 residents; and of these residents, 13,618 are students enrolled in the public school system. The student
population consists of 71.33% Caucasian, 18.76% Hispanic, 3.69% African-American, 3.72% multi-racial,
1.25% Asian, 0.26% Hawaiian Pacific, and 0.24% American Indian. The average family income in this county is
$47,371. Many of the families in this area are living at or below the poverty level reflected by 54.9% of the
county‘s students qualifying for free/reduced lunch status. There have been administrative turnovers in 12 of the
13 elementary schools in the last 5 years. In study 2, is a diverse school district in Middle Tennessee. Although
the number of schools in the district is small (12), the district serves over 8,000 students and is located in a fast-
growing area of the state and one of the top 25 fastest growing cities in America (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017).
All of the district‘s 12 schools serve a PreK-6 th grade population. The demographics can be described as both
suburban and urban, depending on the school. There are 8 urban schools receiving Title I funding, 3 schools that
are considered suburban, and 1 application-only school that admits students based on test scores and serves
gifted/high-achieving students from all across the city. And teachers in the United States leave their positions at
higher rates than teachers in any other country (Westervelt & Lonsdorf, 2016).
Asia. One study was identified to have been conducted in Asia, specifically, in United Arab Emirates in Near
East South Asia (NESA) schools. The passing of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001), the education
reform movement has affected everyone in the field of education, especially school leaders (Hallinger, 2009).
Schools are required to show progress and need to ensure that all students learn. One of the requirements of the
NCLB act is to hire and retain qualified teachers in order to reduce the achievement gap (NCLB, 2001);
however, the problem of teacher turnover has increased all over the world and created national crises both in the
United States and overseas.
East Asia. One study was identified to have been conducted in East Asia in the East Asia Regional Council of
Schools (EARCOS). It is an organization of 144 member schools in East Asia. International schools in the East
Asia Regional Council of Schools (EARCOS) offer curricula and programs that parallel other international
schools globally and employ qualified and competent teachers to serve the learning needs of their international
student bodies. EARCOS is similar in its cultural, political, and geographical diversity to its other global
counterparts, such as the Near East South Asia Council of Overseas Schools (NESA) and the European Council
of International Schools (ECIS). A critical element in EARCOS‘ and other global international schools‘
mandates are to retain and maintain elevated teaching standards while providing a high level of educational,
philosophical, and pedagogical platforms for their students (Mancuso, 2010). However, the increasing incidence
of teacher turnover and challenges of teacher retention have raised concerns about the numbers of EARCOS
teachers leaving their posts (Mancuso, Roberts, & White, 2010).
Africa. One study was identified to have been conducted in international schools in the sub-Saharan region of
East Africa. This study also considers a secondary stakeholder group, comprising expatriate teachers working in
the same group of AISA schools in the East Africa region who have extended their contract at least once in order
to provide data from the perspective of teachers on the role of divisional principals on teacher retention. Each of
the divisional principals in this study was based in an AISA member school. As such, the performance goal for
each principal in his or her respective school falls under the broader mission and identity of the AISA
organization
Authorship
All of the studies was written by one author in Table 1. Two authors were already Doctors in Education and the
chosen studies were additional to their researches, while the other four authors were candidates for the Doctorate
in Education upon writing.
Table 1 Features of the Included Studies
Author/S Research Point of
No Title Sample Outcomes URL
Region Type Interest
Desirable interpersonal
skills possessed by
principals will result in a
positive climate, teacher
The retention, and increased
Relationsh student learning. This
ip Teachers‘ study revealed that
between retention principal interpersonal
Administr and skills impact school
ator teachers administra climate. The two soft https://eric.e
Justice,
Interperso from 13 tors or skills that were found d.gov/?q=tea
Marsha
nal Skills elementar principals most significant as chers%27+re
1 (2018) Mixed
and y schools ‘ measured by their tention&pg=
North
School in a North leadership relationship to climate 4&id=ED58
Carolina
Climate, Carolina skills and were trustworthiness and 7725
Student decision problem-solving. While
Learning, making principal interpersonal
and skills. skills were not found to
Teacher statistically predict student
Retention learning and teacher
retention, teacher
interviews imply that
these skills are important
as perceived by teachers
Faculty
job Teacher retention
satisfactio decisions can be
https://learni
n and influenced by needs met
Effects of ngpolicyinsti
Alexandra retention within Maslow‘s
Principal tute.org/prod
L. Juneau Five based on Hierarchy of Needs
Leadershi uct/role-
(2019) Qualitativ principals the theory. Responses from
2 p on principals-
District in e and five administra principals in this study
Teacher addressing-
Middle teachers tor‘s or identified safety needs as
Retention teacher-
Tennessee principals a priority, as well as needs
Decisions shortages-
‘ within the 76
brief
leadership Belongingness and Love
skills and tiers.
behavior
Principals
‘
leadership
Leadershi
behaviour Teachers‘ commitment
p's Role in
Gordon, as has significant impact on https://pqdto
Teachers'
Shelby perceived retention. Teacher‘s pen.proquest
Commitm Comparati
Denise, 3 model by commitment is product of .com/doc/20
3 ent and ve Case
Ed.D cases teachers leadership influence and 51818993.ht
Retention: Study
(2018) in their decision making skills in ml?FMT=A
A Case
USA decision dealing with institutional BS
Study
to stay in problems.
Analysis
the
teaching
field
Perception
Principals
s of Poor turnover is a
‘
Internatio potential impact of the
8 leadership
nal Leon lack of effective
participati behavior
Teacher Michael mentorship, lack of https://eric.e
Qualitativ ng and
4 Turnover Tkachyk administrative leadership d.gov/?id=E
e internatio decision
in East (2017) support, and ineffective D580721
nal making
Asia East Asia systems as the result of
teachers skills and
Regional poor decision making
teachers‘
Council of skills.
retention
Schools
Administr
The Role
ators/
of The knowledge,
Principals
Divisional 17 motivational, and
‘ https://pqdto
Principals Winnard, Mixed divisional organizational factors
leadership pen.proquest
in Teacher Nigel J., methodolo principals necessary for principals to
skills and .com/doc/19
5 Retention Ed.D gy and 135 be successful in their
behavior 52896941.ht
in East (2017) research expatriate efforts to retain expatriate
and their ml?FMT=A
African East Africa design teachers teachers in international
impact to BS
Internatio schools in the sub-Saharan
the
nal region of East Africa
teachers‘
Schools
turnover
Qualitativ
e
Investigati
15
on of Retention is a product of
instructio
Principal Leadershi having a principal who is
nal
Behaviors p skills a resource provider,
teachers at https://pqdto
that Dajani, and supportive, professional,
an pen.proquest
Impact Abeer E., Qualitativ decision good communicator, good
American .com/doc/15
6 Teacher Ed.D. e single making of evaluator, approachable,
internatio 02081602.ht
Turnover (2014) case study principals developer of instructional
nal school ml?FMT=A
Intention UAE and staff, and promoter of
in the BS
and Job teachers collaborative and positive
United
Satisfactio turnover. school culture.
Arab
n in an
Emirates.
American
Internatio
nal School
Research Design
Qualitative and mixed methods were the research designs used in the included studies in Table 1. The qualitative
design was employed in the three studies, and three studies using mixed methods. A qualitative design study was
conducted to explore teachers' perceptions of principal's behaviors that impact job satisfaction and job turnover
intention decisions.
Qualitative Design. Studies 2, 3, 4, and 6 used qualitative design. In this research plan, a pre-test and a post-test
were administered to obtain the data needed. According to the researcher, it is not realistic to randomize students
into experimental and control groups.
Mixed Methods. Moreover, study 1 & 5 used mixed method research designs. A mixed method design involves
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting qualitative and quantitative data that guide the assessment and assist in
answering research questions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
Databases and their Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, refers to a web resource that specifies
its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. In this meta-analysis, the eight databases
of the included studies are ERIC, E. Journals, Research Gate, ProQuest, and Learning Policy Institute. The
above-mentioned databases are increasingly acknowledged as academic, social network sites for scholarly
communication. Thus, only verified researches could be included.
Sample
The sample size in Table 1 is one of the inter-related features of a study design that can influence the detection
of significant differences, relationships, or interactions. Since this study talks about the decision making skills of
principal and the teacher turnover, most of the target samples in the included studies were principals and
teachers.
In response to this, the different authors of the chosen primary studies described how they selected the
participants and sample sizes to be included in their study. The least number of participants in the included
studies is five principals (study 2), eight international teachers (study 4), 15 teachers (study 6) and 22 teachers in
the experimental group (study 3).
The largest number of participants in the included studies is 300 teachers (study 1), and 17 divisional principals
and 135 expatriate teachers in an international school in the sub-Saharan region of East Africa (study 5). A larger
sample size gives more reliable results with greater precision and power in many studies, but they also cost more
time and money. Larger sample size allows the researcher to increase the significance level of the findings since
the confidence of the result is likely to increase with higher sample size. This pattern is expected because the
larger the sample size, the more accurately it is expected to mirror the whole group's behavior.
Point of Interest
This study was focused on the knowledge of the factors and influences the principals‘ leadership styles and
decision making that impacted teacher‘s turnover. One advantage is that it explored the effect of principals‘
interpersonal skills on the success of schools (Cochran, 2004). It is also an attempt to identify the primary
aspects of administrative leadership that correlate to principals‘ decision making to in the perception of the
teacher to stay or leave their position. Furthermore, the investigation will provide empirical data which will
contribute to educational research on the teacher shortage phenomenon. Moreover, this study will add to the
body of knowledge on teacher attrition, to provide principals with a model for retaining educators and
motivating teacher commitment.
Outcomes Table 1 presents the outcome of the six included studies that are the expected result or what the
researcher would like to measure or achieve. Outcome represents what result you plan on measuring to examine
the effectiveness of the intervention.
Databases and their Uniform Resource Locator (URL) A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially
termed a web address, refers to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a
mechanism for retrieving it. In this meta-analysis, the eight databases of the included studies are ERIC, E.
Journals, Research Gate, ProQuest, and Learning Policy Institute. The above-mentioned databases are
increasingly acknowledged as academic, social network sites for scholarly communication. Thus, only verified
researches could be included.
Excerpts from Abstracts The following are excerpts of abstracts from the 6 selected studies. Abstracts are
designed to highlight key points from major sections of the paper and to explain what the paper includes.
Effective abstracts provide sufficient details to expedite classifying the paper as relevant (or not) to readers'
research interests (Feng, 2009).
Study 1:
The purpose of this mixed-method study was to determine if specific interpersonal skills (trustworthiness,
communication, empathy, and problem-solving) possessed by principals, as perceived by teachers, are
important characteristics in creating and maintaining a positive school climate, increasing student learning,
and retaining teachers in the elementary school setting. The participants in the study were teachers from 13
elementary schools in a North Carolina county. This study used both quantitative and qualitative data from a
combined principal soft skill and climate survey … Based on the data from this research, principal
interpersonal skills do impact school climate. The two interpersonal skills that showed significance as
measured by their relationship to climate were trust and problem-solving…
Study 1, Marsha Justice, 2018, indicated that principal interpersonal skills, specifically trustworthiness and
problem-solving, do positively impact school climate and teacher retention. Through the identification of these
interpersonal skills, educators can begin to explore the effect of principal interpersonal skills on the success of
schools. By studying the perceptions of selected elementary teachers on principal interpersonal skills in North
Carolina, data from this study explored information about principal interpersonal skills necessary for effective
school leadership in all schools. This study could potentially aid district leaders in hiring new school
administrators based on interpersonal skills that are linked to positive school climate and student academic
success. Results of the study can be used for 12 administrative professional development and self-reflective
purposes to positively affect the school climate by increasing teacher morale and student learning not only in the
county studied but in all schools. This study will contribute to the limited literature and body of knowledge
regarding principal interpersonal skills and how these skills affect school leadership and climate.
Study 2:
Research shows that teachers have a larger impact on student success than any other in school influence
(SCORE, 2016). School districts have found an increasing problem recruiting and retaining effective teachers
in recent years…This study sought to identify leadership factors that influenced teachers’ decisions to remain
in their current schools. Data were collected via individual, semi-structured interviews with five principals and
five teachers who work for them. Through these interviews and a teacher focus group, participants identified
collaborative relationships between teachers and administrators, transparent communication... Findings also
showed that principals who implement effective mentor programs and provide leadership opportunities for
teachers tend to have faculty who report higher job satisfaction and who are more likely to return. The
intended outcome of this study is to provide principals with information and ideas to increase teacher retention.
Study 2, Alexandra L. Juneau, 2019, stemmed from her perception of teacher retention in her own district, as
well as extensive research focused on reasons teachers are choosing to leave the profession. Although districts
recognize that teachers are not being retained at rates they have been in the past, many of the efforts to keep
effective teachers have come up short. In addition to monetary incentives, attention needs to be paid to job
satisfaction. The growing research surrounding principal impact on school climate, culture, and teacher and
student success has shown that administrators have a huge opportunity to contribute to a teacher‘s decision to
stay. This research study seeks to better understand specific ways that principals can increase teacher retention
rates by improving teacher job satisfaction within their school.
Study 3:
The purpose of this study is to explore three models to provide an in-depth understanding of the precise
leadership practices that enhance the commitment and retention of teachers. The research grounded in the
Path-goal theory utilized a comparative case study method to explore the teacher attrition
phenomenon…Holistic coding and a cross-case analysis revealed that leadership directly influenced teachers’
commitment, and teachers’ commitment had a significant impact on retention. Specifically, supportive
leadership practices with a focus on emotional support positively affected teachers' commitment and retention.
An aggregation of the identified codes prompted the formation of seven themes for supportive leadership
practices that contribute to teacher commitment and retention…
Study 3, Dover, Delaware, 2018 this comparative case study analysis is to explore three models to provide an in-
depth understanding of the precise leadership practices that enhance the commitment and retention of teachers.
This study, grounded in the Path-Goal Theory, will qualitatively explore the influence leadership behavior has
on teacher retention. The inquiry will also compare results from the three targeted case studies to explain the
leadership behaviors that promote teacher turnover. Furthermore, the investigation will provide empirical data
which will contribute to educational research on the teacher shortage phenomenon. Moreover, this inquiry will
add to the body of knowledge on teacher attrition, to provide principals with a model for retaining educators and
motivating teacher commitment. The three targeted cases utilized in this study provide wide-ranging data to
explore the specific leadership practices that push teacher turnover and reduce teacher commitment. The study
also provided relevant information to determine the specific leadership behaviors that support teachers‘
commitment and retention The results from this study will contribute to the literature on teacher retention by
providing an understanding of the specific leadership behaviors that foster teacher organizational commitment
and retention. This study could also prepare educational leaders for the dilemmas faced by teachers educating
under the current policies and constraints.
Study 4:
High teacher turnover has become a serious problem globally, in many international schools, and is a growing
concern in segments of the East Asia Regional Council of Schools (EARCOS)... Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene
theory served as the framework for this qualitative case study research that examined the perceptions of
EARCOS international overseas-hire teachers, to determine their beliefs regarding high teacher turnover in
international schools…Purposeful homogenous sampling was used to identify 8 focus group interview
participants from the entire pre-K-12 international overseas-hire teacher population from the 149 EARCOS
member schools…
Study 4, Leon Michael Tkachyk, 2017, investigate the perceptions that international overseas-hired teachers
have regarding high international overseas-hire teacher turnover in EARCOS member schools and determine
what these teachers believe is the result of high teacher turnover in these schools. The researcher tried to elicit
steps that these teachers believe should be taken to reduce high teacher turnover and develop a plan that
EARCOS member schools can potentially use to combat high international overseas-hire teacher turnover. This
study is important because international schools, such as those in EARCOS, are highly independent educational
institutions that spend substantial sums of money recruiting new teachers to replace those who leave 10
(Mancuso et al., 2010; Pitsoe, 2013). Furthermore, this type of study can further contribute to the body of
knowledge on teacher turnover, with the goal of improving student learning.
Study 5:
This study seeks to identify the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors necessary for principals to
be successful in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers in international schools in the sub-Saharan region of
East Africa. Assumed causes were generated from a review of the research literature in this area and validated
with data collected through interviews with principals, teacher surveys and principal surveys. This study
suggests that, although principals possess understanding of the knowledge and motivation factors that
contribute to teacher retention… Furthermore, though principals are motivated to invest time and effort in the
retention of teachers, this study suggests that organizational policy gaps exist in how the principals approach
teacher retention in a strategic manner…
Study 5, Nigel J. Winnard, 2017, set out to explore the role of divisional principals in teacher retention in East
African international schools. The analysis focused on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational issues that
inform the ability of a school‘s divisional principals to retain teachers. This study has taken as its primary
stakeholder group divisional principals working in international schools in what is a perceived hardship location.
In terms of motivation, the validated causes indicate that principals are aware of a range of factors that influence
teacher motivation. Furthermore, they are themselves motivated to invest time and effort in leadership behaviors
designed to leverage this awareness. However, it would also appear that principals may lack depth of
understanding of the relative importance of the different typologies of motivation as they pertain specifically to
teacher retention. In terms of organizational factors the validated causes indicate an alignment between the
values and philosophical orientation of the principals interviewed with regard to teacher retention (cultural
model) and the individual actions of the principals in their leadership of, and interactions with, the teachers
whom they lead (cultural setting). It is clear from the data that principals understand, and act upon, the
importance of choice and autonomy, teacher self-efficacy, leadership style, and positive affect as factors
influencing teacher motivation. It is also clear that the principals and teachers are in agreement that school
mission is of limited influence as a motivating factor for teachers considering remaining in post.
Study 6:
The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore teachers' perceptions of principal's behaviors
that impact job satisfaction and job turnover intention decisions in an international school setting. Open-ended
interview questions were used to gamer information from 15 instructional teachers at an American
international school in the United Arab Emirates... Data collected from the interviews and archival documents
were coded and analyzed using Dedoose. Results related to teacher turnover intention demonstrated that
numerous principal behaviors impacted teacher turnover…From the data, the following themes were identified
as important in teacher turnover decisions: supportive leadership, school culture (the environment, values, and
practices of the school), inclusive leadership, and salary package. The results of the study related to teachers'
job satisfaction also demonstrated that numerous principal behaviors did indeed impact teacher job
satisfaction…Recommendations for practice included the facilitation of principal behaviors that teachers
viewed as essential to support them..
Study 6, Abeer E. Dajani, 2014, explore teachers' perceptions of principal behaviors that impact job satisfaction
and job turnover intention decisions in an international school setting. Interview data were gathered from teacher
participants in this case study in order to provide principals in this and similar settings with information that may
ultimately improve teacher retention in their schools. A total of 15 instructional staff members (teachers) from an
American international school in the United Arab Emirates were interviewed. Following the line of inquiry
reflected in the case study protocol, surveys with open-ended questions and face-to-face interviews were
conducted (Yin, 2009). Additional sources of data included archival documents such as students' achievement
scores and teachers' absentee The records. The data collected were used to identify principal behaviors that
influenced teachers' job satisfaction and turnover intention decisions from a teacher‘s perspective. Data collected
from the interviews and archival documents were coded and analyzed using Dedoose in order to identify
common themes in principal behaviors that influence teachers' job satisfaction and turnover from a teacher‘s
perspective. Results from the study may provide current and aspiring principals information that may be helpful
in future applications in American international schools.
Cross-Case Analysis by SPIDER Framework
Sample The sample in the SPIDER Framework aims to answer the question which groups of participants are of
interest. The sample in the study is relevant in the review and analysis of the decision-making skills of the
principals and their related behaviors as perceived by the teachers. Smaller samples are used in qualitative
research, where findings are not intended to be generalized to the general population.
Table 2 Cross-case Analysis of the Selected Studies in terms of Sample (S)
Dimensions Studies Reviewed

Analyzed 1 2 3 4 5 6
Size There were There were Case Study 1: There There There were 17 There were
six (6) five (5) were 12 school were eight divisional a total of 15
principals for principals and administrators as (8) principals for instructional
qualitative five (5) sample size; Case participati qualitative staff
interview and teachers as Study 2: There were ng interview and members
68 teachers sample size 16 Veterans teachers; internation 135 expatriate (teachers)
for used in this Case Study 3: There al teachers for from an
quantitative study. were 21 administrators represente quantitative American
questionnaire and 59 teachers as d by 149 questionnaire international
as sample size sample size used in teachers in as sample size school in
used in this this study. internation used in this the United
study. al study. Arab
education Emirates
represente interviewed
d the East in this
Asia study.
Regional
Council of
Schools
(EARCOS
).
Participants The For the Case 1: The The primary The sample
participants in purposes of 12 schools within the participant participating used in
the study were this study, the district with the lowest s selected stakeholders order to
teachers from participants teacher attrition and were from for this study achieve
13 elementary discussed their transfer rates were a are current representati
schools in a perceptions of selected to participate purposeful divisional on and
North experiences in the study. The homogeno principals at saturation
Carolina with principal purposefully selected us AISA member included 15
county. This leadership that schools included eight sampling schools in the selected
study used operated as elementary, two that was Sub-Saharan participants
both encouraging middle schools and used to East Africa who were
quantitative factors when two high schools. identify 8 region. The the
and qualitative deciding to Case 2: focus divisional instructional
data from a stay in the The participants for group principals were teachers that
combined classroom. the study included 16 interview invited to worked at
principal soft Principal veteran public school participant participate in an
skill and participant teachers from s from the an anonymous American
climate questions elementary, middle entire pre- survey, with international
survey, 2015- focused and high schools that K-12 the option to school in
2016 North primarily on have all indicated that internation volunteer in a the United
Carolina support they transferred to al follow-up Arab
report card on structures in their current school overseas- interview. The Emirates,
teacher place for because of their hire teacher survey which was
retention, teachers as perceptions of the teacher was designed consistent
2015-2016 well as the previous leader‘s population to provide with case
EOG development of leadership qualities. from the additional data study
math/reading school culture. Case 3: 149 to help protocol.
scores, and Teacher The participants EARCOS understand
results from participant selected from a member teacher
teacher questions stratified random schools. motivations for
interviews to focused on sample population remaining at
examine the supports sample from 21 the school and
relationship received from special purpose to provide
between their schools in Montana. comparative
administrator administrators, The principals at each data to inform
interpersonal level of input school provided a list the analysis of
skills on in the decision- of teachers that the the survey and
school making specified criteria for interview data
climate, process, and the investigation. A gathered from
student school culture. total of 80 subjects the divisional
learning, and consisting of 21 principals.
teacher administrators and 59
retention. teachers participated
in the study.
Inclusion The sample The sample Case 1: This study This study was This study
Criteria included included in the 12 Principals in the 12 involved conducted in involved
certified study were schools within the selected the region instructional
teachers at the from a diverse district with the lowest schools where AISA teachers
elementary school district teacher attrition and from the operates. who worked
schools within in Middle transfer rates were 149 Divisional at an
the study. Tennessee selected to participate EARCOS principals and American
Instructional wherein all of in the study. member all teachers international
support, the district‘s 12 schools. were involved school in
administrators schools serve a Case 2: All the in the study. the United
, and other PreK-6th grade The study included 16 teachers Arab
support staff population veteran public school from the Emirates,
were omitted teachers from chosen which has
from the elementary, middle eight (8) kindergarten
sample. and high schools that internation through 12th
Administrator have all indicated that al schools grade
s were they transferred to in educational
excluded from their current school EARCOS. institution
the research because of their and had
due to their perceptions of the approximate
different previous leader‘s ly 1,300
perceptions of leadership qualities. students,
leader Case 3: one
interactions A total of 80 subjects superintend
and the impact consisting of 21 ent, three
on culture administrators and 59 divisional
(van Horn, teachers participated principals,
2003). in the study. and 150
instructional
teachers.
Limitations The study The data Two of the three cases The first A key As the study
focused on collected for utilized in the study methodolo limitation to was
elementary this study are are limited by the size gical this study is the qualitative,
schools in an limited to one of the focus group. limitation positionality of results were
area that may school district Conducting the studies is related the researcher. not
be influenced in Middle using a larger to the lack This offers the necessarily
by Tennessee, population would of relevant limitation of generalizabl
perspectives which may increase the prior researcher bias e beyond
that are not make the generalizability of the research as well as this school
present in findings cases. Additionally, conducted possible in the
other difficult to each case identified in on the reactivity on United Arab
locations. This generalize to a the study used a cross- topic. the part of the Emirates.
may limit the larger sectional design, and Another interview Another
ability to draw population. was conducted within related subjects. limitation
conclusions. The schools a ten-year period, limitation Specific care may be that
In addition, involved are which limits the is that of was taken in this study
the results of primarily Title researcher‘s ability to the sample order to guard was
this study may I schools with show fluctuating size and against conducted
not be the majority of patterns. Conducting the personal and within a
generalizable students the study using a connection holistic bias in specific
to middle or receiving free longitudinal analysis to the this study. time period,
high school as or reduced or historical cases scope of and it only
the data meals based on would identify the provided a
reflect household changes in teachers‘ analysis. snapshot
information income. perceptions over time. dependent
from Teachers in The study is limited on school
elementary schools located by its inability to conditions
schools. in high poverty provide personal first- occurring
Another neighbourhood hand accounts of during this
limitation s often teachers‘ perceptions particular
includes experience of leadership time.
changes to the different types behaviors‘ influence
administrative of job-related on their commitment
and teacher stress than and retention.
staff within teachers in
these 13 affluent
elementary schools, so a
schools. Data limitation of
collected from the study could
this study be its
were teacher application to
responses teachers in
based on their affluent school
own environments.
perceptions of
principal
interpersonal
skills and
climate.
Similarities. All studies chose the participants based on expertise as educators plus their considerable experience
in their field. All respondents were engaged in an interview and focus group discussion. Common to all these
participants was their ability to respond to the goal of the study because of their exposure to their specific field,
especially in basic education.
For the participants, studies 1, 2 and 5 have principals and teachers, while study 3 has administrators and
teachers, and study 6 all have teachers as respondents or participants. All studies chose the participants based on
expertise as educators in the Basic Education (Elementary to High School) plus their considerable experience in
their field. All respondents were engaged in an interview and focus group discussion. Common to all these
participants was their ability to respond to the goal of the study because of their exposure to their specific field,
especially in basic education.
In study 1, 300 teachers were given survey questionnaires and there were 10 predetermined open-ended
interviews. Study 2 involved 5 school principals‘ open-ended interviews and teachers were in the focus group
discussions. Study 3 is a case study involving three case studies employed interview; in-depth interview just like
study 6; and non-experimental quantitative survey. Study 4 used mini-focus group interview involving teachers.
Study 5 involved both principal and teachers; principal for interview and teachers for surveys.
The inclusion criteria for these 6 studies include educators and teachers in the basic education program. The
selected sample was a purposive sample in order to document the phenomenon.
Differences. Not all of the respondents have administrative functions, because many of them were only pure
teachers. Other respondents had ad ministerial functions as principals. In study 1, there were 74 teachers from
elementary schools in North Carolina employed in the data gathering. In study 2, the respondents were five
principals and five teachers who work participated in the study. In study 3, there were 12 school administrators
in Case Study 1; 16 veteran teachers in Case Study 2 and there were 21 administrators & 59 teachers in Case
Study 3.In study 4, there were eight participating international teachers in international education. In study 5,
there were 17 divisional principals and 135 expatriate teachers and in the study 6 there were 15 instructional
staff members (teachers) from an American international school in the United Arab Emirates. The studies were
conducted at different places, where culture, organizational climate, and policies in education may vary. One
difference to note is the limitation in varying length of experience in the field. It was not clear from every study
the length of service each respondent served in the institution. Secondly, some studies did not clearly elaborate
whether the respondents came from basic education department or higher education program. The important
implication of choosing the kind of respondents for every study is transferability of result output that will lead to
trustworthiness of research findings. There was also a striking difference as to where the proponents conducted
their studies. Some studies were in the western part, and others were in Asia (Justice, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017).
Variabilities. Studies vary regarding the places, culture, organizational climate, and general policies in
education (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014). It was
evident that results may have a potential link to the respondents' culture and organizational climate. Respondents
have varying lengths of service in their respective institutions (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018;
Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014), a considerable variability, which contributed to the responses they
provided in the interview and focus group discussion. Another considerable variability is the proponents' bias.
Some studies declared the proponents' vulnerability to bias and how to prevent them (Justice, 2018; Juneau,
2018; Gordon, 2018). The variability was also evident in how the proponents chose the respondents. Consistent
with the method and design of the study, for instance, more respondents were necessary in the case of mixed-
method (Justice, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014), and few on pure qualitative research
approach (Juneau, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017).
Advantages/Strengths with Respect to the Purpose of the Study. The very strength of choosing the
respondents in these studies is getting the validity and reliability of responses. All respondents have actual
experience in the point of interest of this study. Advantages and strengths of the purpose of the study include the
knowledge of the factors and influences of teacher‘s turnover. One advantage is that it explored the effect of
principals‘ interpersonal skills on the success of schools. It is also an attempt to identify the primary aspects of
administrative leadership that correlate to teachers‘ decisions to stay or leave their position. Furthermore, the
investigation will provide empirical data which will contribute to educational research on the teacher shortage
phenomenon. Moreover, this inquiry will add to the body of knowledge on teacher attrition, to provide principals
with a model for retaining educators and motivating teacher commitment. Additionally, the result of these
studies were used to identify principal behaviors that influenced teachers ‗job satisfaction and turnover intention
decisions from a teacher‘s perspective. The very strength of choosing the respondents in these studies is getting
the validity and reliability of responses. All respondents have the required experience in the point of interest of
this study (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014). The
proponents employed the respondents for appropriate purposes. For instance, more than the required sample
needed in qualitative research proved significant in the mixed method of analysis (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018;
Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014). The proponents were able to add up more samples,
especially in the combined approach for quantitative and qualitative analysis, which is a significant move to
ensure the quality of the triangulation approach. Another significant strength of the employed sample size or
participants and their size is the guarantee of getting the correct response because the proponents carefully
considered the experience and employment history of the participants. The proponents were able to use this
strength to ensure trustworthiness, reliability, and validity of the research findings (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018;
Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014).
Disadvantages/Weaknesses concerning the Purpose of the Study. Samples in some studies are not clear
whether they came from the primary education department or higher education department (Tkachyk, 2017).
This leads to the point that the result of the study under investigation may also vary depending on the
respondents' experience. Another significant limitation of the studies under investigation is the varying length of
experience of the proponents in their field (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu,
2015; Dajani, 2014). It was not clear from every study the length of service each respondent served in the
institution. Finally, some studies did not elaborate on whether the respondents came from primary education or
higher education programs. The critical implication of choosing the kind of respondents for every task is the
transferability of result output, leading to the trustworthiness of research findings.
Phenomenon of Interest (PI)
The Phenomenon of Interest in the SPIDER Framework is a qualitative tool that examines how and why certain
experiences, behaviours and decisions are occurring (in contrast to effectiveness of an intervention). It answered
the question which behaviours, decisions, experience are being considered.
Table 3 Cross-case Analysis of the Selected Studies in terms of Phenomenon of Interest (PI)
This study This study The purpose This study The analysis This
Experiences identified attempted to of the study gathered focused on qualitative
Explored desirable identify factors was to information about knowledge, case study
interpersonal of principal research and what international decision explored
skills leadership and identify teachers believe making, teachers'
possessed by decision specific are implications motivation perceptions of
elementary making that leadership of high turnover and principal
principals and contributes to behaviors on international organizational behaviors and
their decision teachers‘ and school influences decision
making skills decisions to attributes communities, related to the making that
and their return to their and decision and, finally, to role of impact job
impact on classrooms. making gain insights divisional satisfaction
school skills which about what principals in and job
climate, contribute to international teacher turnover
student teacher teachers believe retention. intention
learning, and commitment are potential steps decisions in an
teacher and to reduce high international
retention. retention. attrition rates of school setting.
international
teachers in
international
schools.
The The behaviours The The behaviours The The
Behaviours behaviours assessed in the behaviours assessed in the behaviours behaviours
Assessed assessed in study was the assessed in study were assessed in assessed in the
the study leadership the study mentorship and the study was study were
were style of the were the administrative teachers‘ supportive
interpersonal principal supportive leadership of the turnover as behaviours of
behaviour of which includes behaviors principal and perceived principals and
the principal problem and teacher‘s decision based on the decision
and the solving, commitment to stay. leadership and making skills
teachers‘ reasoning and of principals decision that resulted to
perception to decision that making skills teachers' job
the decision making skills. impacted the of principal. satisfaction
making skills teachers‘ and retention.
of principal. retention.
Phenomenon Teachers‘ Faculty job Principals‘ Principals‘ Administrator Leadership

investigated retention and satisfaction leadership leadership s/ Principals‘ skills and
administrators and retention behaviour as behavior and leadership decision
or principals‘ based on the perceived by decision making skills and making of
leadership administrator‘s teachers in skills and behavior and principals and
skills and or principals‘ their teachers‘ their impact to teachers
decision leadership decision to retention the teachers‘ turnover.
making skills. skills and stay in the turnover
behavior teaching
field
Outcomes Teachers‘ Faculty job Teachers‘ Poor turnover is a The Retention is a
(Views/ retention or satisfaction is commitment potential impact knowledge, product of
Themes) morale is impacted by has of the lack of motivational, having a
influenced by principals‘ significant effective and principal who
principal‘s leadership impact on mentorship, lack organizational is a resource
skills in skills and retention. of administrative factors provider,
leadership mentoring Teacher‘s leadership necessary for supportive,
and decision programs. commitment support, and principals to professional,
making. is product of ineffective be successful good
Principals‘ leadership systems as the in their efforts communicator,
interpersonal influence result of poor to retain good
skills do and decision decision making expatriate evaluator,
impact school making skills. teachers in approachable,
climate. skills in international developer of
dealing with schools in the instructional
institutional sub-Saharan staff, and
problems. region of East promoter of
Africa collaborative
and positive
school culture.
Similarities. There is a link between leadership qualities, decision making skills and a principal's performance as
an administrator. Retention is an effect of the principal's leadership skills in terms of decision making and
initiatives, a common theme in all studies (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu,
2015; Dajani, 2014).
Secondly, teachers are proven to be the appropriate participants to tell more about principals' necessary skills and
leadership traits. This claim is supported by all the studies under review and analysis (Justice, 2018; Juneau,
2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014).
Moreover, common to all studies were the relationship and experience explored by the proponents (Justice,
2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014). Finally, expected outcomes of
the studies spoke of teachers' retention or attrition rate (Justice, 2018; Juneau, 2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk,
2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014).
Differences. The researchers can argue teacher retention as something that may be monitored closely based on
the teachers' or administrators' perception. One study dealt more with mentorship, providing a strong emphasis
on the complex supportive behavior of principals that positively impact attrition rate (Justice, 2018; Juneau,
2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Ozoglu, 2015; Dajani, 2014).
Variabilities. The outcomes of the studies have significant variabilities at some point. Highlights of this are
remarkable in the following results.
In study 1, the highlight was the interpersonal skills and decision making behavior of the administrators or
principals (Justice, 2018). In study 2, it was all about leadership factors (Juneau, 2018). In study 3, supportive
behaviors and commitment of principals' support for teachers were highlighted (Gordon, 2018). In study 4,
effective mentorship and administrative leadership support through were highlighted (Tkachyk, 2017). In study
5, the highlight was on the knowledge and decision making skills, motivational, and organizational factors
necessary for principals to be successful in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers. Finally, in study 6, the
principals' central behaviors include being resource provider, supportive, professional, good communicator, good
evaluator, approachable, developer of instructional staff, and promoter of collaborative and positive school
culture (Dajani, 2014). The above results reveal that the attrition rate is not only due to the behavior of the
principals and decision making skills, but other specific factors are affecting it at some point.
Advantages/Strengths concerning the Purpose of the Study. Consistent mention of leadership traits of
principals as essential factors associated with attrition rate is remarkable in five studies (Justice, 2018; Juneau,
2018; Gordon, 2018; Tkachyk, 2017; Dajani, 2014). Consistency is an advantage in this case because future
researchers will generate valid and reliable information concerning the study on teachers' retention rate.
In establishing the literature, it is essential to generate consistent information. The reviewed studies provided
consistent information per se, based on the results under investigation and analysis.
Furthermore, one can argue that it is easier to formulate the trustworthiness of research findings with that
consistency or reliability that can potentially help build a robust theoretical framework. This other advantage is
an upshot of the first advantage mentioned so far.
Disadvantages/Weaknesses concerning the Purpose of the Study. The scarcity of elaboration of the decision-
making skills of principals is a disadvantage of the studies under investigation. There was an attempt to do so in
Study 6, but not sufficient to elaborate more on the issue at hand (Dajani, 2014).
Moreover, the study of Dajani was published in 2014, which may require an update to align with the modern and
prevailing trend.
Design (D) The Design in the SPIDER Framework is the study design influences and the robustness of the study
analysis and findings. It answered the question what theoretical framework or research method employed in the
study.
Table 4 Cross-case Analysis of the Selected Studies in terms of Design (D)
Place of North Middle Acadia, East Asia International American
Study/Region Carolina Tennessee Montana Regional schools in the International in
Covered for Council of sub-Saharan United Arab
Cases Studied Schools region of East Emirates
Africa
Sample and Random Random Random Random Random Random
Sampling probabilistic probabilistic Probabilistic Probabilistic
Technique/Selec
tion of Cases
Research This mixed- This study Case 1: This study This study This study
Instrument method study used an in-person used a mini- used an in- utilized a one-
includes a in-person interviews focus group person on-one in-depth
survey interviews Case 2: interviews interview. structured
instrument . There interviews, through There were 6 interview. The
and teacher were 4 informal audio-taped survey questions were
interviews. grand tour discussions Skype questions and divided into
This questions and focus conference 5 interviews three categories.
combined and 9 group call for principals The first section
survey has probing meetings interviews. and teachers. asked questions
four questions Case 3: in order to
demographic for focus group gather
items and 37 principals; meeting background
survey and 4 information
questions. grand tour about the
questions participants'
and 10 background,
probing education, and
questions teaching
for experience. The
teachers. second category
explored the
area of turnover
intentions of the
teachers. The
third category
asked
participants to
identify specific
principal
behaviors that
affected their
job satisfaction.
Data Collection Survey and Focus Focus group Focus group Survey and in- Structured in-
In-depth group meetings and discussion depth depth interview
interview discussion in-person interview
interviews
Data Analysis The Data were Case study The This study The information
quantitative collected analysis perceptions sought to gathered was
and through method was of eight identify shared coded, and
qualitative in-person used and is international retention- categorized into
data interviews suitable as it overseas-hire related themes themes (Yin,
collected with sought to teachers common to 2009). The
were used to principals answer the employed in divisional study provided
determine and question of EARCOS for principals in in-depth
the impact of teachers what several parallel understanding
principal who had principal reasons: to contexts in regarding
interpersonal stayed supportive determine order to better teachers'
skills and with these practices and what these understand perception of
decision principals decision teachers how schools in their principals'
making as for at least making believe to related behaviors and
perceived by three influence have caused contexts might decision making
teachers on years. teachers‘ high teacher better skills that
school This study commitment turnover in understand the effected job
climate, looks at and international retention satisfaction and
student reasons retention. schools, to challenges that turnover
learning, and teachers The current gather they face and intentions.
teacher attribute research information the role of
retention. to their seeks to about what divisional
The research decision explore the international principals in
questions to stay specific teachers meeting those
were determine leadership believe are challenges.
addressed d by the practices and implications
using the leadership decision of high
data behaviour makings turnover on
collected. and skills that international
decision influence school
making teacher communities,
skills. retention. and, finally,
to gain
insights
about what
international
teachers
believe are
potential
steps to
reduce high
attrition rates
of
international
teachers in
international
schools.
Similarities. Studies are all outside the Philippines. Common sampling technique is random technique to
prevent bias. In-person interviews, focus group meetings or discussion are the common research instrument.
Schools covered in this study are mostly public schools and the samples were teachers and principals from
different schools in each respective places. Sampling technique employed in these studies are all random. A
sampling population were determined per the need of the study with regards to the demographic, geographic,
and teachers‘ years of experience. Participants were chosen for this study based on the amount of time spent in
their current role and their willingness to participate in the study.
Research instruments used in these studies were questionnaires formulated and adopted by the researchers.
These studies employed qualitative and mixed methods. Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing
non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used
to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is used to
understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend
to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data. Mixed methods on the other hand,
refers to an emergent methodology of research that advances the systematic integration, or ―mixing,‖ of
quantitative and qualitative data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The basic premise
of this methodology is that such integration permits a more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do
separate quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. Mixed methods research originated in the
social sciences and has recently expanded into the health and medical sciences including fields such as nursing,
family medicine, social work, mental health, pharmacy, allied health, and others. In the last decade, its
procedures have been developed and refined to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano
Clark, 2011).
With regards to data collection, four studies used interview questions while the other two studies used focus
group discussion. All researchers observed duly process and is approved by the ethics committee. In the data
analysis, a reliability analysis were all completed. Interviews for these studies were recorded and transcribed
prior to the coding. Data analysis required thorough review of these raw case data and software analysis for
pattern recognition. During this process, core themes were constructed by rearranging the initial themes
according to commonalities among them. Additionally, the archival records for participating teachers were
collected and carefully examined.
Differences. While these studies are qualitative and mixed methods, they differ with the research designs and
methodologies used. Studies 1 & 5 utilized mixed methods, while studies 2, 3, 4, & 6 utilized qualitative
methods. One proponent employed a combination of quantitative data gathering procedure and qualitative data
gathering procedure. There were interviews and other relevant data pertaining to school climate change,
teacher‘s interpersonal skills, student learning and teacher retention. Other researchers used a qualitative data
gathering procedure was employed that came from interviews and focus group discussion. One proponent
employed three case studies: a semi-structured interview or qualitative and exploratory interview with
administrators to investigate common strategies used to retain teachers; an opposite approach, to know the role
of principal in the teacher turnover phenomenon as perceived by educators themselves; and a quantitative data
gathering procedure to find the relationship between principal supportive behaviors and teachers‘ commitment
and retention using a quantitative data gathering technique to find the relationship between a principal‘s supports
for teachers and the actual retention of teachers who work in high risk placements or hard to hard-to-staff
environment.
The relationship between support scores on the administrative support survey of teacher and principals are
common to all studies was the inclusion of qualitative techniques in data gathering, which commonly included
interview and focus group discussion. On the contrary, the only difference is the fact that some studies combined
quantitative data gathering technique with qualitative data gathering procedure. The advantage of each study is
evident on hoWeach established trustworthiness and validity and reliability of data gathering procedure. The
weakness on the other hand is some studies did not specify the extent of bias of the proponent as significant
research instrument especially in qualitative data gathering technique. How research has been collected provides
social value by ensuring how future researchers may enhance prevailing qualitative or mixed method technique
for data gathering procedure.
The methodology itself in data gathering is a rich literature with consistent research gap for the future studies to
fulfil. The survey tested expected and received support based on emotional, environmental, instructional, and
technical support variables. Emotional support was based on administrators‘ behavior that focused on feelings
and emotion. The environmental support subscale was leadership behaviors that were based on physical
characteristics and how administrators managed the work conditions for teachers.
Variabilities. Studies varied with regards to the range of samples used. Depending on the desired number of
sample population were estimated and required. In study 1, The participants for this study were drawn from 13
elementary schools in a North Carolina community. The elementary schools in this study were selected based on
proximity to the researcher and resources available. Multiple elementary schools were included to increase the
probability of gathering data regarding principals who display varied levels of interpersonal skills and a wider
possible range of perceptions of school climate. In study 2, Five principal participants were selected and
interviewed for this study. All principals selected for the study have been in their current position at their current
school for a minimum of five years. Study 3 involved a total of 80 subjects consisting of 21 administrators and
59 teachers participated in the study.
In study 4, the principals at each school provided a list of teachers that the specified criteria for the investigation.
A total of 80 subjects consisting of 21 administrators and 59 teachers participated in the study. In study 5, 17
divisional principals and 135 expatriate teachers. In study 6, the selected sample was a purposive sample in order
to document the phenomenon. The sample used in order to achieve representation and saturation included 15
selected participants who were the instructional teachers that worked at an American international school in the
United Arab Emirates, which was consistent with case study protocol.
Using the questions from the interview guide, the researcher asked the participants the questions. Collecting data
using a survey instrument was appropriate because it identifies the perception of a large population efficiently
and provides standardized measurement and consistency among respondents (Fowler, 2009). The constant
comparative method of data analysis as suggested by Strauss (1987) was used to analyze the qualitative data
obtained from the principal interviews.
Advantages/Strengths with Respect to the Purpose of the Study. The establishment of trustworthiness,
validity and reliability of the study. The rejection of reliability and validity in qualitative inquiry in the 1980s has
resulted in an interesting shift for ―ensuring rigor‖ from the investigator's actions during the course of the
research, to the reader or consumer of qualitative inquiry. The emphasis on strategies that are implemented
during the research process has been replaced by strategies for evaluating trustworthiness and utility that are
implemented once a study is completed. In this article, we argue that reliability and validity remain appropriate
concepts for attaining rigor in qualitative research.
We argue that qualitative researchers should reclaim responsibility for reliability and validity by implementing
verification strategies integral and self-correcting during the conduct of inquiry itself. This ensures the
attainment of rigor using strategies inherent within each qualitative design, and moves the responsibility for
incorporating and maintaining reliability and validity from external reviewers' judgements to the investigators
themselves. Without rigor, research is worthless, becomes fiction, and loses its utility. Hence, a great deal of
attention is applied to reliability and validity in all research methods. Challenges to rigor in qualitative inquiry
interestingly paralleled the blossoming of statistical packages and the development of computing systems in
quantitative research.
Thus, reliability and validity have been subtly replaced by criteria and standards for evaluation of the overall
significance, relevance, impact, and utility of completed research. Strategies to ensure rigor inherent in the
research process itself were back staged to these new criteria to the extent that, while they continue to be used,
they are less likely to be valued or recognized as indices of rigor.
Disadvantages/Weaknesses with Respect to the Purpose of the Study. Some studies did not specify the extent
of bias of the proponent as the research instrument of the study. The research design refers to the overall strategy
that the researchers choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way,
thereby, ensuring it will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data. The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained
enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible. In social
sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of
evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to
an observable phenomenon.
With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations far too early,
before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without
attending to these designs issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and
any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity
of the study will be undermined.
The length and complexity of describing the purpose of these research studies varied considerably in identifying
the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that
could have been used; and reviewed and synthesized previously published literature associated with the research
problem.
Evaluation (E)
The Evaluation in the SPIDER Framework is the evaluation outcomes which may include more subjective
outcomes (such as views, attitudes, etc.).
Table 5 Cross-case Analysis of the Selected Studies in terms of Evaluation (E)
All interviews All interviews The author In this study, Data from A tape
were recorded, were recorded conducted the researcher the principal recorder was
with consent, and later telephone audio-taped survey, used to
through use of transcribed for surveys of 49 Skype teacher document the
a recording analysis. superintendents, conference survey, and answers
application. Interpretive assistant call principal provided by
The interviews Phenomenologic superintendents, interviews interviews the
were recorded al Analysis (IPA) executive with the focus were participants
with an was used in the directors and group analyzed and during the
electronic analysis since it human resource participants. coded interviews.
Views
device, and the is a researcher- district personnel This against the Participants
researcher centered method from 65 eligible technique six assumed were asked
took of analysis, and schools. The inherently knowledge for
handwritten much of the study used enabled the causes permission to
notes during observations detailed in-depth researcher to following audio-record
the interview made during data collection gain firsthand identification the
as well. The analysis could be using various insights into of validation interviews.
recorded the result of sources of participants‘ items from Using a tape
information researcher information. responses and the survey recorder in
was interpretation. behaviors and this study
transcribed during the interview allowed for
verbatim, and session. protocols. an in-depth
the data from analysis of
the interviews the responses.
were coded for The tape can
confidentiality be played
, themes, and back
patterns. repeatedly
and
transcribed
for careful
examination
of the
answers.
Collaborative
Trust, Characteristic
relationships Administrativ
problem- s of an
between teachers Teachers‘ e leadership Leadership
solving, effective
and commitment; support; style and
teacher principal
Themes administrators; Leadership; effective behavior,
morale, leading to
transparent teachers‘ mentorship; decision
retention higher
communication, retention ineffective making skills
teacher
teacher systems
retention
autonomy
The data The implications This study High turnover
gained from of this study served to rates of
Principal
this study could aid in inform This study teachers
leadership style
could create a future leadership administrator was designed impact
can influence this
positive social training s, teachers, to help student
decision, with
change in programs. This students, and principals to learning
teachers
education study could also school become more negatively
preferring to
including prepare communities successful in since it leads
work for positive
increased educational about the their efforts to a
leaders who want
student leaders for the implications to improve deficiency in
to collaborate
learning, moral dilemmas that high expatriate qualified
with them and
reduced faced by teachers teacher teacher teachers; loss
are not afraid to
teacher educating under turnover has retention by of continuity
show that they
turnover, and the current on student improving and
are also learning
Axiological positive school policies. performance, relevant commitment;
as they grow
Implication climate. The Recommendation school areas of and loss of
professionally.
s survey results s for future climate, and leadership funds used to
School
from this study research include school style and recruit and
administrators
indicated that conducting the communities. behavior, train new
can use this
principal study with an This research decision teachers
research to
interpersonal emphasis on also provided making (Odland &
reflect on their
skills, district-level insights and skills, Ruzicka,
leadership
specifically leadership and information knowledge, 2009).
qualities and
trustworthines principal‘s for parents, motivation Therefore, it
look for ways to
s, decision decision making education and was deemed
foster
making skills to determine if boards, and organizationa crucial to
collaborative
and problem- principal policy makers l examine
discussion and
solving, do leadership to assist them effectiveness teacher's
decision-making
positively practices can be in creating . perspective
with teachers.
impact school applied to strategies to and identify
climate. increase teacher reduce principals'
retention. teacher behaviors and
turnover and decision
promote making skills
teacher that impact
retention. teacher
EARCOS turnover
school (Day, et al.,
administrator 2010; M
s can then ancuso et al.,
employ 2010). The
necessary purpose of
measures this
steps to qualitative
reduce the single case
increasing study was to
high teacher explore
turnover teachers'
rates. In perceptions
addition, this of principal
research can behaviors and
also decision
contribute to making that
the existing impact job
quantitative satisfaction
and and job
qualitative turnover
research base intention
and could decisions in
pave the path an
for potential international
further school
exploration setting.
and Therefore the
investigation results from
of teachers‘ this study
personal and may provide
professional current and
perspectives aspiring
on teacher principals
turnover and information
retention in that can be
international helpful in
schools. future
applications
in American
international
schools.
Similarities. Retention is the effect of principal‘s leadership, decision making skills, and initiative. Findings on
these studies revealed being valuable in maintaining good school atmosphere for the teachers and administrators.
These studies projected principals‘ interpersonal skills and decision making do impact school climate;
principals‘ leadership skills and mentoring programs promote faculty job satisfaction; leadership impacts
teachers‘ commitment and retention and retention is the result of principal being a provider, supportive,
professional, good communicator, good evaluator, approachable, developer of instructional staff, and promoter
of collaborative and positive school culture.
Additionally, these studies projected principals as someone who maintained positive environment in the
workplace, the one who ensured job satisfaction of personnel and ensuring the right factors to minimize or
alleviate turnover. The themes of these studies stemmed to the collaborative relationships between teachers and
principals, administrators; transparent communication, teacher autonomy and characteristics of an effective
principal leading to higher teacher retention. The principal interpersonal skills and decision making were found
to statistically predict student learning and teacher retention, teacher interviews imply that these skills are
important as perceived by teachers. The findings of these studies suggested that effective communication
practices have a direct influence on employee motivation and an indirect impact on staff productivity (Rajhans,
2012).
Differences. Retention can be argued as whether something that should be monitored closely based on
perception of the teachers or administrators themselves. The provision and maintenance of quality teachers is a
matter of priority for the profession. Moreover, teacher attrition is costly to the profession, to the community and
to those teachers who leave feeling disillusioned. Themes in these studies varied from trust, problem-solving,
teacher morale, collaborative relationships between teachers and administrators; transparent communication,
teacher autonomy, administrative leadership support; effective mentorship; ineffective systems and the
characteristics of an effective principal to mitigate teacher retention.
The participants wanted clear communication about school goals and expectations, while given the freedom to
make decisions and the provision of autonomy to accomplish the school goals. As principals are a powerful
force that can impact a teacher's decision to leave or stay at their job, the principal needs to uphold and sustain a
culture that encourages collaboration, ownership, honesty, appreciation, trust, and professionalism. Accordingly,
it is recommended that principals work to promote a positive school culture as one strategy to mitigate teacher
turnover.
Variabilities. Perceptions vary according to experiences of respondents. In study 1, the outcome being impacted
was the teachers‘ retention or morale as influenced by principals‘ skills in leadership and decision making
behavior. Principals‘ interpersonal skills do impact school climate. The two interpersonal skills that showed
significance as measured by their relationship to climate were trust and problem-solving. Although the
interpersonal skills within this study did not statistically predict reading proficiency and math proficiency,
teacher interviews clearly identified the importance of principal interpersonal skills with regard to student
performance in elementary schools. Finally, principal interpersonal skills did not statistically predict teacher
turnover in this research; however, trend data collected from teacher interviews indicated that teacher morale and
retention were based on skills of the school leader.
In study 2, faculty job satisfaction is impacted by principals‘ leadership skills, decision making and mentoring
programs. Collaborative, relationships between teachers and administrators, transparent communication, and
teacher autonomy were factors found to positively influence teachers‘ decision to remain in their school.
Findings also suggest that principals who implement effective mentor programs and provide leadership
opportunities for teachers tend to have faculty who report higher job satisfaction and who are more likely to
return.
In study 3, teachers‘ commitment which has significant impact on retention was highlighted and evident.
Holistic coding and a cross-case analysis revealed that leadership and decision making skills directly influenced
teachers‘ commitment, and teachers‘ commitment had a significant impact on retention. In study 4, poor
turnover is a potential impact of the lack of effective mentorship, lack of administrative leadership support, and
ineffective systems. In study 5, principals possess understanding of the knowledge, decision making skills and
motivation factors that contribute to teacher retention, they lack understanding of the relative importance of
these factors. The findings of the study will pave way to administrator‘s significant move to mitigate or alleviate
the potential big impact of teacher higher attrition rate.
In study 6, retention was found to be the impact of having a principal who was a resource provider, supportive,
professional, good communicator, good evaluator, approachable, developer of instructional staff, and promoter
of collaborative and positive school culture. Common to all the results of the studies is the fact that retention is
an effect of principals‘ leadership, skills and initiative. The only difference in the findings is the idea that
retention can be argued as whether something that should be monitored closely based on perception of the
teachers or administrators themselves. This is the potential weakness associated with all the findings. Although
each result possesses strength on consistent thought about principal leadership and skills associated with
retention. The outcome being impacted as staged in every finding reveals valuable in maintaining good school
atmosphere for the teachers and administrators.
Advantages/Strengths with Respect to the Purpose of the Study. Variability of perceptions led to
understanding more about the connection between principal‘s leadership and faculty attrition rate. The results of
the statistical analyses revealed that overall interpersonal skills do impact climate; however, individually only
two of the four soft skills presented in this study significantly predicted school climate. Results from study
participants revealed several main contributing factors that influence teachers‘ job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
and consequently lead to the high incidence of international overseas-hire teacher turnover in international
schools. The main factors include effectiveness of school systems, administrative support, mentorship
opportunities, and benefits packages. That the main implications of high teacher turnover on international
schools resulted in a detrimental effect on school climate, a lack of continuity in school programming, the
financial costs to replace outgoing teachers with new teachers, and, positively speaking, the potential to inherit
fresh ideas brought in from the outside by the newly hired teachers entering the school. Principals need to
understand that teachers' job satisfaction and turnover intentions are affected by their behaviours. The results of
this study can be used to generate information for principals in American international schools to implement, in
order to support the different needs of teachers, to provide and maintain positive school culture, and to offer
competitive monetary packages in order to increase job satisfaction and reduce teacher turnover. Problem-
solving also significantly predicted school climate in this study. Teacher interviews indicated that while
problem-solving was an important interpersonal skill, principals should collaborate with staff, parents,
community, and children to find solutions.
The results are significant in educational leadership because it emphasizes the importance of structure and
consistency in schools and district communication practices on the overall climate and achievement of schools.
Future principals must establish a culture, climate and communication practices that inspires and motivates both
students and teachers.
Disadvantages/Weaknesses with Respect to the Purpose of the Study. Retention cannot be directly argued as
the problem associated with principal‘s leadership and skills and decision-making or the characteristics of the
teachers themselves. In order to identify these factors, the researcher gathered data from various sources,
including principal interviews, teacher interviews, a teacher focus group, and artifacts from a teacher mentorship
program.
Research Type
The Research Type in the SPIDER Framework is the qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods research could
be searched for.
Table 6 Cross-case Analysis of the Selected Studies in terms of Research Type (R)
Analysed 1 2 3 4 5 6
Worldview Pragmatism Constructivism Pragmatism Constructivism Pragmatism Pragmatism
Convergent
Design Phenomenology Case Study Phenomenology Sequential Phenomenology
Parallel
Mixed
Method
(Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Mixed Qualitative
Methods
research and method method method method method
Quantitative
research)
Similarities. All studies follow certain worldview in as conscious knowledge associated with saying what
uncovering the truth. Five out of the six studies used is perceived, sensed, and known from the person‘s
the design phenomenology. Phenomenology as a experience (Moustakas, 1994). Like Hegel‘s
methodological framework has evolved into a process description of the phenomenology, Lourer (1967)
that seeks reality in individuals‘ narratives of their implied that the unique source of absolute existence is
lived experiences of phenomena (Cilesiz, 2009; based on what the person thinks, feels, and perceives.
Husserl, 1970; Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology The purpose of the phenomenological approach is to
includes different philosophies consisting of illuminate the specific, to identify phenomena
transcendental, existential, and hermeneutic theories through how they are perceived by the actors in a
(Cilesiz, 2010). Hegel described the phenomenology situation. In the human sphere this normally translates
into gathering ‗deep‘ information and perceptions In summary findings of the studies, all findings were
through inductive, qualitative methods such as arranged according to themes and topics and draw out
interviews, discussions and participant observation, key issues being discussed by participants. The aim
and representing it from the perspective of the here should be to be faithful to the participants, and to
research participant(s). Phenomenological and be aware (insofar as is possible) of biases being
associated approaches can be applied to single cases brought to the inevitable editing which is needed;
or to serendipitous or deliberately selected samples. there is an ethical issue about misrepresenting,
While single-case studies are able to identify issues distorting or deleting findings which have been
which illustrate discrepancies and system failures - provided in good faith by participants (‗treachery,‘
and to illuminate or draw attention to ‗different‘ according to Plummer). This part of the report does
situations - positive inferences are less easy to make involve some interpretation and conjecture in
without a small sample of participants. deciding what to select and how to express and order
it, but its main role is to describe rather than explain.
A variety of methods can be used in
The findings can be reported robustly, and my usual
phenomenological-based research, including
preference is to include direct quotes - both ‗sound
interviews, conversations, participant observation,
bites‘ and more extensive quotes - from participants
action research, focus meetings and analysis of
to illustrate points. Some types of study benefit from
personal texts. If there is a general principle involved
vignettes of individual cases or participants, provided
it is that of minimum structure and maximum depth,
this does not compromise confidentiality (see Connell
in practice constrained by time and opportunities to
1985 for an interesting if debatably valid solution to
strike a balance between keeping a focus on the
this).
research issues and avoiding undue influence by the
researcher. The establishment of a good level of A discussion section enables the researcher to
rapport and empathy is critical to gaining depth of ‗intrude‘ more into the study by making
information, particularly where investigating issues interpretations and linkages, relating the findings to
where the participant has a strong personal stake. previous research or commentary, to personal
Interview methods and issues are discussed in Gorden experience or even to common-sense opinions, and
(1969), Measor (1985), Oakley (1981), Plummer developing tentative theories. Informed speculation
(1983) and Spradley (1979) among others. and theorising can be included here, provided it is
clear what findings are being discussed and what
Differences. While all studies followed certain
assertions and assumptions are being made. Facts
worldviews, these worldviews also vary. Study 1 is a
have been left behind in the previous section: it is
mixed method of research. Study 2 is a qualitative
important not to pass off interpretations and theories
method of research. Study 3 is qualitative method of
developed here as more concrete than they are.
research. Study 4 is qualitative research. Study 5 is
mixed method. And study 6 is qualitative method of A final section on issues and implications (or
research. Common to all qualitative research is the recommendations, in a commissioned report). I have
philosophical underpinnings associated with a dislike of ‗conclusions‘ particularly in this kind of
constructivism. Researchers in their studies are research, because it suggests a finality and surety
constructivist in approach as they begin from which is not defensible. However, this section
observation to generalization. They may have chosen provides an opportunity to be creative with the ideas
potential theories as lens of their study, but later they developed through the discussion, provided it is made
have deconstructed that theory. This is a significant clear what is being done. A suppositional structure to
difference observed among studies employing pure arguments can be useful to indicate that the study is
qualitative research approach. The mixed method of not coming to a firm conclusion, but pointing to
research is approached from the standpoint of implications or ways forward which make sense if the
pragmatism. Here, common to all studies is to follow- interpretation referred to is an accurate or useful one.
up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain more Variabilities. Although phenomenology is used in
information. However, a significant limitation on this many ways by many famous philosopher such as
approach is the time component that may have Kant, Hegel, Heidegger, and Husserl in the scope of
significant impact on the actual result or outcome of research, we can used as referring to first person
the study. Otherwise, what this reveals on the use of moral experience. The term phenomenology is
qualitative research and combined approach of derived from the Greek ‗phainein‘, which means ‗to
quantitative and qualitative research is an implication appear‘, and it was first used by Immanuel Kant in
of usage and discovery of more improved or 1764. Kantian phenomenology is based on
enhanced methodology in the future. constructivist philosophy for the reason that the
phenomena are constructed by cognitive subject who and discover more improved or enhanced
is human being. In constructionist view, the subject methodology in the future.
constructs what it knows, and in phenomenological The studies chosen used phenomenological studies
view, the subject knows what it construct which are that make detailed comments about individual
not appearance but it has appearance in the situations which do not lend themselves to direct
consciousness (Rockmore, 2011). generalization in the same way which is sometimes
Some studies follow potential theory as lens of the claimed for survey research. The development of
study, but some studies have deconstructed the general theories (i.e. which apply to situations beyond
theory. The ‗problem‘ for many researchers with the participants or cases which have been studied)
phenomenological research is that it generates a large from phenomenological findings needs to be done
quantity of interview notes, tape recordings, jottings transparently if it is to have validity; in particular, the
or other records all of which have to be analysed. reader should be able to work through from the
Analysis is also necessarily messy, as data doesn‘t findings to the theories and see how the researcher
tend to fall into neat categories and there can be many has arrived at his or her interpretations. This may or
ways of linking between different parts of discussions may not involve the researcher appearing ‗in person‘
or observations. Where the data is fairly disorganised in the research (while this is beginning to happen in
- interview transcripts, unstructured notes or personal theses, academic papers and sometimes in
texts - the first stage is to read through and get a feel organizational research, it is still rare in public-
for what is being said, identifying key themes and domain reports).
issues in each text. These points - from all the texts Since the chosen studies used phenomenological
for a small-scale project, or a sample of different ones
design, it is pertinent to note the lived experiences of
where there are more than 15-20 - can then be the participants. Manen (1990) explained the nature
aggregated and organised with the aid of a mind-map of the lived experience in a phenomenological study
or set of ‗post-it‘ notes. by offering the following analogy. This analogy
Phenomenological research has overlaps with other presents a lived experience, showing differences
essentially qualitative approaches including between two people experiences in the same event.
ethnography, hermeneutics and symbolic The lived experience can be a starting point in a
interactionism. Pure phenomenological research seeks phenomenological study, as it identifies teacher‘s
essentially to describe rather than explain, and to start perceptions on the leadership style and decision
from a perspective free from hypotheses or making style of principals. Therefore,
preconceptions (Husserl 1970). More recent humanist phenomenological studies start and stop with lived
and feminist researchers refute the possibility of experience and it should be meaningful and
starting without preconceptions or bias, and significant experience of the phenomenon (Creswell
emphasise the importance of making clear how 2007; Moustakas, 1994. van Manen, 1990).
interpretations and meanings have been placed on
Disadvantages/Weaknesses with Respect to the
findings, as well as making the researcher visible in Purpose of the Study. The time component involved
the ‗frame‘ of the research as an interested and in the studies, as they were all phenomenological in
subjective actor rather than a detached and impartial nature, may have significant impact on the actual
observer (e.g. see Plummer 1983, Stanley & Wise
result or outcome of the study. The main issue that
1993). researchers could come across in taking a
Advantages/Strengths with Respect to the Purpose phenomenological (or any qualitative) approach in a
of the Study. The general purpose of the commercial or organizational setting is people not
phenomenological study is to understand and describe understanding what it is, and expecting similar
a specific phenomenon in- depth and reach at the parameters to apply as for quantitative research. A
essence of participants‘ lived experience of the fairly common comment concerns sample size - it can
phenomenon. One of the many purposes of be hard to get over to people that a single-figure
phenomenological research is to seek reality from sample is valid - and there can be confusion between
individuals‘ narratives of their experiences and methods such as theoretical sampling (see Glaser &
feelings, and to produce in-depth descriptions of the Strauss 1967), used to ensure that participants are
phenomenon. Phenomenological research studies in drawn from a spread of contexts, and statistical
educational settings generally embody lived sampling which is concerned with quantitative
experience, perception, and feelings of participants reliability and often with differences between
about a phenomenon. There is an opportunity to use contexts. If the sample size is increased a common
misunderstanding is that the results should be 4. Conclusion and Recommendations
statistically reliable. Conclusion
The principal and teacher participants in this study
Moreover, commissioning clients are rarely willing to
used their experiences to identify what they perceived
pay realistic rates for in-depth studies using a small
were the most important leadership factors and
number of participants: they usually want a larger
decision making skills impacting teacher retention
sample size based on the reasons above. Although a
decisions. The study was designed to examine
skilful interviewer can get into reasonable depth quite
patterns and trends in participant responses in order to
quickly, this does mean that depth of information
highlight the essential leadership aspects and the
gathered is often less than it could be. Equally,
decision skills that directly contribute to a teacher‘s
depending on the studies it can be difficult to gain
decision to remain in his/her school. The coding
access to participants for more than a single session
process established leadership, organization and
of an hour or less, particularly if they are not strongly
structure, and retention as the main categories of data
engaged with the topic of the study. The result tends
gathered through surveys and individual interviews.
to be a compromise where a phenomenological
approach is used, but the methods used are more The findings in this study are consistent with
structured and contrived than is ideal. information found in the literature and indicated that
leadership styles and decision making skills of the
Finally, phenomenological approaches are good at
principals has an impact on teacher retention.
surfacing deep issues and making voices heard. This
Decision making is a daily activity for any human
is not always comfortable for clients or funders,
being; there is no exception about that. In the case of
particularly when the research exposes taken for-
the studies selected, this has led to a personal
granted assumptions or challenges a comfortable
evaluation that decision making is a habit and a
status quo. On the other hand, many organizations
process as well. In the decision process, we choose
value the insights which a phenomenological
one course of action from a few alternatives.
approach can bring in terms of cutting through taken-
Principals‘ decision making skills should be an
for-granted assumptions, prompting action or
influenced for teachers to stay because a good
challenging complacency.
decision maker requires having excellent analytical
Synthesis of the Six Studies and interpretive skills. These are used to determine
Decision making is a daily activity for any human the issues that must be addressed and accounted for in
being; there is no exception about that. The findings the deliberative and implementation phases.
in this study are consistent with information found in
The themes of supportive leadership, good decision
the literature and indicated that leadership styles and
making skills, organizational factors e.g., school
decision making skills of the principals has an impact
culture, working conditions, and colleague support,
on teacher retention. The principal and teacher
and monetary factors were found to impact job
participants in this study used their experiences to
satisfaction. The findings indicated the most
identify what they perceived were the most important
prevailing theme that affected teacher turnover
leadership factors and decision making skills
decisions was supportive leadership, which included
impacting teacher retention decisions. The study was
behaviors and decision making such as providing
designed to examine patterns and trends in participant
appropriate professional development, providing
responses in order to highlight the essential leadership
teachers with resources and supplies, autonomy,
aspects and the decision skills that directly contribute
creating a positive working environment, help with
to a teacher‘s decision to remain in his/her school.
student discipline issues, and emotional assistance.
Principals‘ decision making skills should be an
influenced for teachers to stay because a good Recommendations
The results of this study may be used by principals
decision maker requires having excellent analytical
who desire to learn more about which leadership
and interpretive skills. These are used to determine
behaviors and decision making skills impacted and
the issues that must be addressed and accounted for in
increased teachers' job satisfaction and reduced
the deliberative and implementation phases. This
teachers' turnover rates. Current school principals
study suggested that principals need to understand,
who desire to learn what teachers need in order to be
that in order to retain qualified teachers, they need to
appreciate, respect, empower, and support them in a satisfied with their jobs, and ultimately reduce teacher
turnover rates can use the results of this study.
positive school culture. It was noted that principals
Recommendations for practice included the
have to focus well on creating a positive, supportive
identification and development of specific principal
environment in their schools as people-oriented
behaviors that teachers view as necessary to maintain
leaders.
job satisfaction. This study is also recommended to [8] Akademi. Barbieri, G., Rossetti, C., & Sestito,
current principals concerning different strategies they P. (2011). The determinants of teacher
can employ in order to support the different needs of mobility: Evidence using Italian teachers‘
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[10] Alecia, K. K. (2014). Increasing retention of
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International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

The Decision Making Skills of Principals and the

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Cherrie N.

KEYWORDS: Educational leadership, decision making, leadership

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 2 Flowchart of the Study Selection

Dimensions Studies Reviewed

Phenomenon Teachers‘ Faculty job Principals‘ Principals‘ Administrator Leadership

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