Group 2 Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The United Nations defines VAWC as “any” act of gender-based violence against
women, whether in public or private life, that causes or is likely to inflict physiological,
sexual, or psychological pain or suffering to women, including threats, coercion, or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Gender-based violence is any form of violence directed
towards women based on their sex (WHO, 2021).
According to the Daily Tribune Philippines (2021), violence against women
happens in one out of every four Filipinas (Antolin, 2021). The prevalence of violence
against women and their children (VAWC) is so extensive that the international
community has been prompted to declare it as a public health and human right issue of
worldwide scope (Guedes et al., 2016).
There is a consensus that unequal gender power relations and discrimination
against women and girls are root causes of violence against women, however gender
inequality does not look the same in every country and context (UN Women,
forthcoming, UN Women, 2018, Our Watch et al., 2015). Yet, in almost all societies
around the world, men have greater access to power, status, opportunities, and
resources than women and people of other genders (World Economic Forum, 2014).
Gender inequality still prevails in the 21st century despite the generally
progressive trend of cultural, racial, and sexual boundaries being erased in almost all
areas of life nowadays. Females, no matter their geographical or cultural background,
still must endure a lifelong struggle against discrimination, abuse, and violence, with
those who are poor bearing the brunt the most (Oxfam International, 2021).
Cultural stereotypes can contribute to the persistence of violence against women
and influence reporting behavior. Some studies have found that cultural stereotypes
expected of a Filipino woman and a power imbalance in existing social structures instill
a tolerance of violent behavior (Berbarte et al., 2018; Molin, 2018; Santos, 2009;
Tanyag, 2018). Studies also found the strong influence of the Catholic church on
policies and moral codes and the religious roots of valuing a woman’s virginity as
factors that foster tolerance of violence against women (Estrada-Claudio, 2002;
Manalastas & David, 2018; Yarcia, de Vela, & Tan, 2019).
In addition, empirical research has been conducted to determine whether
exposure to domestic violence impacts the behavioral, emotional, academic, and social
adjustment of children.
The impact of witnessing domestic violence can vary for all individuals. The
impact of witnessing domestic violence can have many developmental impacts on
children, and those can start as early as conception and carry on through adulthood
depending on the severity of the trauma (Curran, 2013). Previous studies have shown
general behavioral, cognitive, and emotional implications when children are exposed to
domestic violence including irritability, sleep problems, fear of being alone, immaturity,
language development, poor concentration, aggressiveness, antisocial behaviors,
anxiety, depression, violence behaviors, low frustration tolerance, problems eating, and
being passive or withdrawn (McGee, 2000; Elderson, 1999; Holt, 2015).
Moreover, The Philippine government has long recognized the importance of
protecting women and their children against violence and threats to their safety and
security. There are several government agencies and programs established to perform
functions for this purpose such as Philippine Commission on Women (PCW) created in
1975, Women and Children Protection Center (WCPC) of the Philippine National Police
(PNP) and the Gender and Development (GAD) Program in all government
departments, among others. The passage of Republic Act 9262 or the Anti-Violence
against Women and their Children Act of 2004, is the biggest step the government has
taken so far towards ending VAWC (UNICEF, 2020). The government has also
partnered with the United Nations (UN) agencies and civil society organizations in
pursuing its goals of ending VAWC and helping people who suffered from gender-based
violence (United Nations, 2020).
Furthermore, former Senator Legarda (2016) remarks that despite efforts by the
government to document all forms of VAWC, the number of women who are victims of
domestic abuse can only be estimated at best due to many cases being unreported.
Many victims choose not to report incidents of abuse mainly because they are not
aware of their legal rights emphasizing the need to increase public awareness on
women’s rights. Garcia (2020) acknowledged the lack of awareness about the issues,
laws, and the services. Despite PNP WCPC various efforts and information drives, their
reach is limited, and that many people remain unaware. People are not aware that
VAWC is a public offense and there are laws in place to protect women from abuse.
The QCPD considered that not only women, but also men and potential offenders,
should be aware of the law. Men should also be aware of the fact that VAWC are
unconstitutional and have major legal consequences. Because of the exclusivity of the
legal profession, many people are unaware of the laws and their rights.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

sexual, or psychological pain or suffering to women, including threats, coercion, or

arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Gender-based violence is any form of violence directed

towards women based on their sex (WHO, 2021).

According to the Daily Tribune Philippines (2021), violence against women

worldwide scope (Guedes et al., 2016).

There is a consensus that unequal gender power relations and discrimination

areas of life nowadays. Females, no matter their geographical or cultural background,

factors that foster tolerance of violence against women (Estrada-Claudio, 2002;

Manalastas & David, 2018; Yarcia, de Vela, & Tan, 2019).

In addition, empirical research has been conducted to determine whether

impact of witnessing domestic violence can have many developmental impacts on

language development, poor concentration, aggressiveness, antisocial behaviors,

being passive or withdrawn (McGee, 2000; Elderson, 1999; Holt, 2015).

Moreover, The Philippine government has long recognized the importance of

violence (United Nations, 2020).

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