VaTech-Lai 4-19

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1
Future Energy Electronics Center
Power Electronic Technologies
for Fuel Cell Power Systems
Dr. Jih-Sheng (Jason) Lai
Director, Future Energy Electronics Center
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0111
TEL: 540-231-4741
FAX: 540-231-3362
Email: [email protected]
Presentation at
SECA 6
th
Annual Workshop
Pacific Grove, California
April 19, 2005
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Outline
1. Basic Fuel Cell Power Systems
2. Non-isolated DC-DC Converters
3. Isolated DC-DC Converters
4. DC-DC Converter Implementation Issues
5. Basic DC-AC Inverters
6. Fuel Cell and Converter Interactions
7. Fuel Cell Energy Management Issues
8. Advanced V6 DC-DC Converter
9. Fuel Cell Current Ripple Issues
10. Recap
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1. Basic Fuel Cell Power Systems
Membrane
Electrode
Assembly
(MEA)
Membrane
Electrode
Assembly
(MEA)
Membrane
Electrode
Assembly
(MEA)
Membrane
Electrode
Assembly
(MEA)
1. Fuel Cell Control
Flow rate
Pressure
Humidity
Temperature
Fuel in
Core of fuel cell
2. Power Conversions
DC-DC for portable
DC-AC for household
DC-variable frequency
AC for automotive
3. Energy storage
Electricity
out
Power Electronics BOP
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Automotive Fuel Cell Power System
1. Fuel cell control
2. Power conversions
3. Energy storage
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Stationary Fuel Cell Power Plant for
Telecom Applications
Fuel cell output or converter input is low-voltage
DC with a wide-range variation
Plant output is 48-V DC
Isolation may or may not be needed
DC-AC
Inversion
AC-AC
Isolation
AC-DC
Rectification
Fuel
Cell
AC-DC
Rectifier
+
Filter
V
in
+
Full
Bridge
Converter
HF
Xformer
DC/DC converter
LV-DC
48-55V DC
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Stationary Fuel Cell Power Plant for
Household Applications
Plant output is high-voltage ac
Multiple-stage power conversions including
isolation are needed
DC-AC
LF-HF
AC-AC
LV-HV
AC-DC
HV-HV
DC-AC
HV-HV
DC-AC
Inverter
+
Filter
Fuel
Cell
AC-DC
Rectifier
+
Filter
V
in
+
Full
Bridge
Converter
HF
Xformer
DC/DC converter
LV-DC HV-AC
120V
120V
240V
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Major Issues Associated with the Power
Conditioning Systems
Cost
Efficiency
Reliability
Isolation
Fuel cell ripple current
Transient response along with auxiliary energy
storage requirement
Communication with fuel cell controller
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) emission
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2. Basic Non-Isolated DC-DC
Converters
Buck Converter Output voltage is always
lower than input voltage
Boost Converter Output voltage is always
higher than input voltage
Buck-boost Converter Output voltage can
be either lower or higher than input voltage
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Basic Principle of Buck Converter
L
R
+
V
in
C
+
V
o
v
gs D
1
v
gs
V
s
V
o
Gate on
Gate off
DT
s
DT
s
in o
DV V =
Average output voltage:
g
s d
where D is the duty ratio.
Because D < 1, V
o
is always
less than V
in
buck
converting
+
V
s
(t)
average V
s
= V
o
V
s
= V
in
V
s
= 0
T
s
: switching period = 1/f
s
(s)
f
s
: switching frequency (Hz)
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A Buck Converter Example
L
+
V
in
C
+
V
o
v
gs
Q
1
D
1
g
s d
+
v
s
(t)
48V
24V
22F
40H
Input is 48 V, and output is 24 V
Duty cycle D = V
o
/V
in
= 0.5
Switching frequency = 100 kHz
Output power = 150 W
Inductor and capacitor are designed to limit the current
and voltage ripples
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Basic Principle of Boost Converter
L
R
+
V
in
C
+
v
o
v
gs
Q
1
D
1
v
gs
V
s
V
o
Gate on
Gate off
DT
s
DT
s
g
s
d
V
s
= 0
V
s
= V
o
in in o
V
D
V
D
V
'
1
1
1
=
=
Average output voltage:
where D is the duty ratio,
and D = 1 D. Because
D < 1, V
o
is always
greater than V
in
boost
converting
v
s
+
V
o
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A Boost Converter Design Example
L
+
V
in
C
+
V
o
v
gs
Q
1
D
1
g
s
d
V
s
+
6V
48V
Input is 6 V, and output is 48 V
Duty cycle D = 1 V
in
/V
o
= 0.875
Switching frequency = 100 kHz
Output power = 180W
Inductor and capacitor are designed to limit the current
and voltage ripples
10H
100F
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Circuit Diagram of Buck-boost converter
L
R
+
V
in
C
+
v
v
gs
Q
1
D
1
g
s d
in in
V
D
D
V
D
D
V
' 1
=
=
+
+
The output voltage can be expressed as

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14
Synchronous Rectifier
D
G
S
oxide
S G
n+
D
n
p+
n
p+
n
i
i
MOSFET can be used as a diode by shorting G-S
However, when running under diode mode, gating
between G-S would allow current to flow through S-D
channel in reverse direction synchronous rectification
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Features of Synchronous Rectification
MOSFET voltage drop is resistive and can be as
low as possible, such as <0.1 V.
The voltage drop is very crucial to the converter
efficiency in a low voltage system. For example,
a diode with a fixed voltage drop of 0.7 V
represents 3.5% loss of a 20-V system.
Synchronous rectification allows the voltage
drop to be a function of MOSFET resistance and
current and cuts the conduction loss
substantially. For example, a MOSFET with 5
mO running at 20 A condition, the voltage drop
is 0.1 V, much less than diode voltage drop.
Suitable for low-voltage systems.
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Circuit configuration of a Boost Converter
with Synchronous Rectification
D
1
and D
2
are body
diode of Q
1
and Q
2
.
Q
1
and Q
2
switch
complimentary
Q
2
L
R
+
V
in
C
+
v
o
Q
1
D
2
D
1
v
gs1
Q
1
on
Q
1
off
DT
s
DT
s
v
gs2
Q
2
off
Q
2
on
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Experimental Results of a DC-DC
Converter with and without SR
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
80.0
82.5
85.0
87.5
90.0
92.5
P
o
(kW)
With SR
Without SR
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
Test condition:
V
b
=13V, V
o
=300V
Efficiency is improved by 7% with Synchronous
Rectification
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3. Isolated DC-DC Converters
Why isolation is needed?
Push-pull DC-DC converter
Half-bridge DC-DC converter
Full-bridge DC-DC converter
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Isolation is Required for Most Systems
High voltage conversion ratios
Isolation allows better device utilization
Grounding requirement
Isolation avoids noise coupling
Safety requirement
Isolation allows meeting safety standards
Multiple outputs
Isolation transformer allows multiple
secondary windings
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Problems with Isolation
Magnetic component design and cost are
non-trivial
Transformer saturation due to unbalance
input
Additional losses
Additional terminations
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Q
1
Basic Operating Principle of a Half-
Bridge Converter Circuit
V
in
C
f
+
Q
1
Q
2
Half-bridge converter
C
1
C
2
t
Q
1
Q
2
Q
2
v
ab
dead-time, current
circulating thru
anti-paralleled diodes
t
t
D
2
D
1
V
in
/2
0
Switches conduct
alternately
v
ab
2
in
V
2
in
V
+
v
ab
= V
in
v
ab
= V
in
1:n
b
a
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Half-Bridge DC/DC Converter
9 Low device count
9 Low voltage device
8 Device sees twice current
8 Unbalance due to split capacitors
8 High leakage due to twice transformer turns ratio
L
C R
v
o
+
D
5
D
6
D
7
D
8
v
d
i
2
i
L
V
in
+
1 : n
M
1
M
2
b
C
1
a
C
2
i
1
10V
>500A
20V
>250A
400V
5 kW
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Basic Operating Principle of a Push-Pull
Converter
1:1:n
Q
2
Q
1
V
in
+
C
Q
1
t
Q
1
Q
2
Q
2
v
ab
dead-time, current
circulating thru
t
t
D
2
D
1
2V
in
0
Switches conduct
alternately
v
ab
= 2V
in
v
ab
= 2V
in
a
b
Push-Pull converter
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L
C R
v
o
+
D
5
D
6
D
7
D
8
v
d
i
2
i
L
Push-Pull DC/DC Converter
+Simple non-isolated gate drives
+Suitable for low-voltage low-power applications
Device sees twice input voltage need high voltage MOSFET
High conduction voltage drop, low efficiency
Center-tapped transformer
Difficult to make low-voltage high-current terminations
Prone to volt-second unbalance (saturation)
1:1:n
M
1
M
2
V
in
+
a
b
40V
20V
>250A
400V
5 kW
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A Push-Pull Converter with Paralleled
Devices
Load
Push-pull
dc/dc
converter
DC
source
Input 28 to 35 V
Device voltage blocking level 100 V
Efficiency <85% even with 4 devices in parallel
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A Commercial Off-the-Shelf 1-kW Fuel Cell
Power Plant Using Push-Pull Converter
Push-pull
DC/DC
converter
DC
input
117V
DC/AC
Inverter
+
F
u
e
l
C
e
l
l
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Basic Operating Principle of a Full-
Bridge Converter Circuit
V
in
C
f
+
Q
1
Q
3
Q
2
Q
4
a
b
Full-bridge converter
t
Q
14
Q
14
Q
23
Q
23
v
ab
dead-time, current
circulating thru
t
t
D
23
D
14
V
in
0
Switches conduct
alternately
v
ab
+
v
ab
= V
in
v
ab
= V
in
1:n
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Full-Bridge DC/DC Converter
9 Most popular circuit today for high-power applications
Soft switching possible
Reasonable device voltage ratings
8 High component count from the look
8 High conduction losses
L
C R
v
o
+
D
5
D
6
D
7
D
8
v
d
i
2
i
L
V
in
+
1 : n
M
1
M
3
M
2
M
4
a
b
i
1
20V
>250A
20V
>250A
400V
5 kW
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Full-Bridge Converter with Paralleled Devices to
Achieve Desired Power Levels
Load
Fuel
cell
source
Multiple devices in parallel to achieve desired high efficiency
Problems are additional losses in parasitic components,
voltage clamp, interconnects, filter inductor, transformer,
diodes, etc.
L
f
Voltage clamp
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Design Considerations for Isolated DC-
DC Converters
Transformer turns ratio
Transformer core utilization
Device voltage stress
Device current stress
Output diode voltage stress
Voltage clamping
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Pulse Width Modulation for Isolated DC-
DC Converters
The average output voltage
V
o
= DnV
in
Where
n = transformer turns ratio = n
2
/n
1
D = duty ratio = t
on
/T
and
n
1
= number of turns of primary winding
n
2
= number of turns of secondary winding
t
on
= switch turn-on time
T = switching period
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Transformer Core Utilization
8 Forward: <50%
8 Flyback: <50%
i
M
9 Half-bridge: 100%
9 Push-pull: 100%
9 Full-bridge: 100%
i
M-pk
B
H
Ni
M-pk
B
H
i
M
Magnetizing current
0
0
i
M-pk
t t
Core is fully utilized
Ni
M-pk
Ni
M-pk
Core is half utilized
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Device Voltage and Current Stresses
Device voltage stress
8 Push-pull: 200%
9Half-bridge: 100%
9Full-bridge: 100%
Device current stress
8 Half-bridge: 200%
9Push-pull: 100%
9Full-bridge: 100%
Output diode voltage stress
8 Center tap: 200%
9Bridge: 100%
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Voltage Clamping
Problems of diode over voltages
Full-bridge
Center-tapped
Voltage clamping methods
Passive clamping method
Active clamping method
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Over-Voltage Caused by the Transformer
Leakage Inductance
L
C R
v
o
+
1 : n
L
lk
DT
s
v
1
v
2 v
d
+
v
o
v
1
v
2
v
d
v
o
v
1
: Primary side voltage
v
2
: Secondary side voltage v
2
, v
2
> v
o
.
v
d
: Voltage stress of upper diodes (D
5
, D
7
) when lower diodes
( D
6
, D
8
) conduct, or vice versus, v
d-pk
> v
2-pk
> v
o
, due to
leakage inductance voltage drop.
T
s D
5
D
6
D
7
D
8
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Full-Bridge Diode Rectifier Over-Voltage
Clamping
L
C
R
L
lk
v
2
D
5
D
6
C
c
R
c
v
o
v
d
v
o
v
d
Without clamp
With passive
clamp
v
d
+
Advantage: Diode voltage stress is significantly reduced.
Disadvantage: Added cost and complexity.
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Fuel Cell System Example for Topology
Selection
Question: With 48 V fuel cell voltage and 400 V dc output,
what topology is the best?
Answer: Intuitively, push-pull converter is the best
because of least parts count. However, with device
availability and cost consideration, full-bridge converter
may be a better choice.
Reason: For low-side power MOSFET, lower voltage is
more cost effective. Similarly, for high-side diode, lower
voltage is more cost effective.
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4. Implementation Issues in High
Power DC/DC Converters
Controller output duty cycles tend to be unbalanced
due to internal chip layout, resulting transformer
saturation.
Voltage sensing problem:
Feedback voltage signal tends to be corrupted by noises
Hall sensor is expensive
Common mode and isolation are difficult to deal with
resistor dividers
Current sensing problems:
Lossy with resistor sensing
Difficult to insert Hall sensor for device current
measurement
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Full-bridge Converter Design Example
Specifications:
Input fuel cell voltage ranges from 36 V to 60 V
Output: 400 V, 10 kW
Current
Output: 25 A
Input: 208 A
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Power Stage Design
V
in
L
C
f
+
C R
v
o
+
1 : n
Q
1
Q
3
Q
2
Q
4
a
b
HF ac
Xformer
Component Design and Selection:
Power MOSFET
Rectifier diode
Transformer
Filter inductor
Filter capacitor
D
5
D
6
D
7
D
8
v
d
i
1
i
2
i
L
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Survey of High Current Power MOSFETs
*Note: IXYS FMM 150-0075 is a dual pack (half bridge) device.
Manufacturer Part Number V
DSS
(V) R
DS-on
(m) Package
Fairchild FDB045AN08A0 75 4.5 TO-263
International Rectifier IRFP2907 75 4.5 TO-247
Fairchild FDP047AN08A0 75 4.7 TO-220AB
IXYS FMM 150-0075P 75 4.7 ISOPLUS i4-PAC
*
Vishay Siliconix SUM110N08-05 75 4.8 TO-263
IXYS IXUC160N075 75 6.5 ISOPLUS 220
International Rectifier IRF3808 75 7.0 TO-220AB
Fairchild FQA160N08 80 7.0 TO-3P
Quantity 1 100 1000 25,000 50,000 100,000
FDB045AN08A0 $3.50 $2.50 $2.40 $2.30 $2.10 $1.60
IRFP2907 $4.49 $3.96 $3.07 $3.07 $3.07 $2.89
FDP047AN08A0 $3.50 $2.50 $2.40 $2.30 $2.10 $1.60
FMM 150-0075P $8.00 $7.00 $6.19 $5.79 $5.30 $5.03
SUM110N08-05 $2.70 $2.50 $2.50 $2.35 $2.19 $2.19
IXUC160N075 $4.00 $3.00 $2.05 $1.65 $1.49 $1.40
IRF3808 $2.29 $2.16 $1.80 $1.50 $1.30 $1.17
FQA160N08 $4.00 $3.00 $2.90 $2.60 $2.50 $2.20
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Survey of Ultrafast Reverse Recovery
Diodes
Quantity 1 100 1000 25,000 50,000 100,000
RHRG5060 N/A, (300 part min) $3.50 $1.75 $1.50 $1.50
HFA50PA60C $8.81 $8.22 $7.71 $7.61 $7.25 $4.00
DSEK 60-06A $4.00 $3.00 $2.50 $2.07 $1.99 $1.90
Manufacturer Part Number V
F
t
rr
I Package
Fairchild RHRG5060 1.5 V 45ns (max) 50 A TO-247
International Rectifier HFA50PA60C 1.9 V 23ns (typ) 50 A TO-247AC
IXYS DSEK 60-06A 1.6 V 35ns (typ) 60 A TO-247AD
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Output Filter Capacitor Selection
- Typically based on the output voltage ripple
The output filter capacitor needs to handle 120 Hz, 22 A
ripple current generated from the next stage inverter.
Assume the voltage ripple is limited to 5%. The
capacitance can be calculated as
mF 2 . 2
05 . 0 400 60 8
22
8
=

=
A
A
=
V f
I
C
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44
Digital Computer Implementation for
High Power DC/DC Converters
Digital computer such as DSP has become a good
option for high power DC/DC converter control
implementation
Feedback voltage signal can be converted to digital
and through PWM feeding back to DSP to avoid
noise corruption
Even if commercial PWM or PSM chips are used, the
control signal can be obtained from DSP through
D/A conversion
Communication with digital signals has become the
essential part between the dc/dc converter and the
fuel cell controller or other power converters
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45
Controller Design for a Typical Converter
2
1
) (
s
Q
s
K
s G
p
+ +
=
s
K
K s G
i
p c
+ = ) (
Compensator
Converter
(plant)
Sensor
Reference
Output
(A standard PI controller)
G
c
(s)
G
p
(s)
s = je = 2tf
1 = j
f = frequency
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46
Digital Controller for a Typical Converter
Digital
Controller
A/D
(sample)
D/A
(hold)
Converter
plant
Sensor
Reference
Output
1
1
2
) (
+
+ =
z
z T
K K z G
s
i p c
+
T
s
= switching frequency
1
1 2
+
=
z
z
T
s
s
G
c
(s)
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47
Voltage Loop Controller Block Diagram
Full Bridge
Converter
V
in
L
+
C
R
v
o
+
v
d
i
L
H
G
c
(s)
+
v
ref
Pulse-width
modulator
d(t)
v
sense
v
c
H: Voltage scaling = 5.1/400
G
c
(s): PI or PID Controller
G
p
(s)
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48
Phase Margin Shifts due to Fuel Cell
Input Voltage Variation: 42 to 60 V
0dB from
initial design
G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)
P
h
a
s
e

(
)
2
2
/ ) /( 1
) (
o o
in
vd
s Q s
nV
s G
e e + +
=
a negative phase
margin with higher gain
or higher input voltage
0dB with higher gain
or input voltage
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49
DC-DC Converter Control System Design is
Challenging with the Fuel Cell Source
A typical controller is designed with low input voltage
and heavy load condition.
When the load is reduced, the fuel cell voltage
increases, and the original controller design may be
inadequate due to input voltage variation.
Increasing the input voltage is equivalent to increase
the closed-loop gain and tends to worsen the phase
margin, and the system can eventually become
unstable.
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50
5. DC/AC Inverters
Single-phase output
Half-bridge
Full-bridge
Dual single-phase outputs
Dual half-bridge
Three-leg inverter
Load Effect
Linear loads
Nonlinear loads
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51
Half-Bridge DC-AC Inverter with Split DC Buses
Q
1
Q
2
V
dc
L
+
C
AC
Load
V
dc1
V
dc2
v
ac
v
ab
Maximum output peak voltage V
max
= V
dc
/2
Simple dc-ac Inverter with minimum switch counts
Split dc buses should be very stiff and balance to avoid dc or
even harmonics at the ac output
Control is limited to the ordinary sinusoidal pulse width
modulation (SPWM)
Cost burden is in passive components
b
a
V
dc1
= V
dc2
= V
dc
/2
c
v
ba
v
ac
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52
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
v
sin
v
c
: carrier wave
Gating signal
When v
sin
> v
c
, gate signal is high, and IGBT is turned on;
Otherwise, gate signal is low and IGBT is turned off.
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53
Single-Phase Full-Bridge DC-AC Inverter
Q
1
Q
3
Q
2
Q
4
V
dc
L
C
dc
+
C
AC Load
Compared with Half-Bridge inverter, FB inverter features
Simple dc-ac Inverter with more switch counts, but
less bulky capacitors
Control is more flexible to have phase-shifted SPWM
for two individual legs Dual Modulation Method.
Size of passive components may be reduced
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54
Dual Single-Phase Outputs with Dual Half-
Bridge Inverters
Q
1
Q
2
2V
dc
C
dc1
+
V
dc
V
dc
v
ac1
Q
3
Q
4
L
1
C
1
L
2
C
2
v
ac2
9 Only one set of split dc buses are required
9 Q
1
-Q
2
and Q
3
-Q
4
pairs need to be switched complementary
so that the total v
ac
= v
ac1
+ v
ac2
.
8 Possible unbalanced output ac voltages under unbalanced
load conditions
v
ac
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55
Three-leg Inverter for Dual AC Outputs with
Single DC Bus
Q
1
Q
2
V
dc
C
dc
+
v
ac1
Q
5
Q
6
L
1
C
1
L
3
C
2 v
ac2
v
ac
Q
3
Q
4
Similar to full-bridge inverter with more switch counts, but less
bulky capacitors
Outer legs do SPWM to produce vac output. Middle leg is
controlled to equalize v
ac1
and v
ac2
Control is more complicated to ensure output voltage balance
Size of passive components may be reduced
L
2
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56
Using Low-Frequency Transformer for
Low-Voltage AC Inverter Output
L
C
48V
120V
120V
240V
Features:
Low-frequency transformer allows low-voltage DC to be
directly converted to AC
Output can be single or dual
Size is the major concern
JSL
57
Inverter Output with Resistive Load
R
V
I =
AV = 4.1%
v
ac
Voltage and current
are in phase
R
v
I
ac
R
=
I
R
R
JSL
58
Dual Output Voltage and Current with
Unbalanced and Reactive Loads
Voltage of Leg 1
Current of Leg 1
Voltage of Leg 2
Current of Leg 2
JSL
59
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
Majority of Power System Loads is Inductive
fL j L j X
L
t e 2 = =
v
ac
I
RL
R
L
Impedance of inductor is imaginary (90 apart from real
value)
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
v
ac
I
R
R L
I
L
I
RL
I
R
I
L
I
RL
v
ac
I
L
I
R
90 lagging
JSL
60
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
What about Watt and VAR?
P
Q
P+jQ
I
L
v
ac
Q (VAR)
I
R
v
ac
P (Watt)
VAR is reactive VA,
average VAR = 0, but
reactive current is not
0.
Watt is real VA,
average Watt > 0, and
is the average (VA).
VA = Watt+jVAR, not
Watt+VAR because
they are not in phase.
JSL
61
Implications of VAR
Average VAR = 0 No real power output
VAR loads are typically inductive such as
motors, magnetic ballasts, relays, etc.
The current associated with VAR causes
additional heat losses in the wiring and the
internal impedance of the source
Inductive VAR can be compensated with
capacitive VAR, but not without complexity
Nonlinear loads also introduce VAR
JSL
62
Majority of Electronic Loads is Nonlinear
Switch
Mode
Power
Supply
DC
Load
1-phase
rectifier
Inverter
Drive
AC
Motor
3-phase
rectifier
Used for:
Computers,
Printers, Fax,
most ITE
Electronic Lighting
Communications
Food Preparation
Used for:
HVAC, Battery
Charging, Food
Preparation,
Elevators
JSL
63
Inverter Output Voltage Under Nonlinear
Rectifier Load
Single-phase nonlinear load current is rich with odd
harmonics (3,5,7,) especially with the 3
rd
harmonic
The voltage waveform is flatten up due to nonlinear
current.
I
L
v
ac
JSL
64
Voltage Waveform Quality may be Improved
with Closed-loop Control
Voltage THD = 4.6%
Closed-loop control can smooth the voltage waveform but
the nonlinear current waveform remains nasty.
JSL
65
6. Fuel Cell and Converter
Interactions
Static modeling
Dynamic modeling
Fuel cell dynamic response with and without
converters
JSL
66
SOFC Voltage-Current Characteristic as
a Function of Temperature
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
800 C
Current (A/cm
2
)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
750 C
700 C
Data source: DOE SECA Modeling team report at Pittsburgh Airport, 10/15/2002
PEMFC
SOFC
JSL
67
Power Density of SOFC and PEMFC
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
800 C
Current (A/cm
2
)
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
c
m
2
)
750 C
PEMFC
SOFC
JSL
68
PEM Fuel Cell Dynamic Characteristics
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t (sec)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t (sec)
v
FC
(V)
i
FC
(A)
p
FC
(W)
Step load: 1.47kW
Parasitic power: 70W
voltage undershoot (2.5V)
due to compressor delay
150W dip
27.2V
3kW power
overshoot
43V
Nexa 1.2kW Unit
JSL
69
Fuel Cell Modeling with Electrical Circuit
load
JSL
70
Nexa1200 Polarization Curve
I_Ifc
0A 5A 10A 15A 20A 25A 30A 35A 40A 45A 50A
V(fc)
0V
5V
10V
15V
20V
25V
30V
35V
40V
45V
50V
simulation results
experimental results
JSL
71
Polarization Curves for Nexa PEM FC
I_Ifc
0A 10A 20A 30A 40A 50A 60A
V(fc)
20V
25V
30V
35V
40V
45V
2
3
1
1. Fuel cell runs at 70-W parasitic load condition
Compressor is running at low speed
2. Fuel cell is fully loaded at 1.4 kW
Compressor is not immediately responding
to load step, voltage dips
3. Compressor speeds up, fuel cell voltage
picks up to or above nominal level
JSL
72
Time Domain Response
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t (sec)
v
FC
i
FC
voltage undershoot due
to compressor delay
1
2
3
JSL
73
PEM Fuel Cell Dynamic Simulation
Diagram
1
st
time
constant
+
+
X
+
+
2
nd
time
constant
+
High load current high voltage drop
Low output voltage low voltage drop
Multiplying ratio
parasitic
load
Transient
load
V
oc
Fuel
cell
High current
branch
Low current
branch
JSL
74
Fuel Cell Stack Output Dynamic
Simulation and Experimental Results
Fuel Cell Output Voltage (10V/div)
10s/div
Fuel Cell Output Current (5A/div)
Fuel Cell Output Power (200W/div)
0s 50us 100us
0
10
20
30
40
50
1
0W
0.2KW
0.4KW
0.6KW
0.8KW
1.0KW
2
>>
V
fc
P
fc
I
fc
(b) simulation
results
(a) experimental
results
V
fc
P
fc
I
fc
JSL
75
Fuel Cell Voltage Dynamic with
Converter Load Transient
Input Voltage from Fuel Cell (5V/div)
100ms/div
Simulated
Experimental
Significantly slower time constant (~50ms)
due to 30 mF converter input capacitor and
a long cable
JSL
76
Fuel Cell Responds with a Paralleled
140F Ultra Capacitor Capacitor
I
fc
V
fc
I
ulcap
Fuel Cell Voltage (20V/div)
Fuel Cell Current (20A/div)
Load Current (5A/div)
Ultra-Capacitor Current (20A/div)
50ms/div
I
Load
JSL
77
Fuel Cell Responds with a Paralleled
10mF Electrolytic Capacitor
I
fc
V
fc
I
cap
DC Link Current (25A/div)
Capacitor Current (5A/div)
20ms/div
Note: Fuel cell output voltage response is slowed down
to 30ms. Capacitor takes over the transient current.
I
dc
=I
cap
+I
fc
JSL
78
Findings of Fuel Cell Modeling and
Converter Test Results
Fuel cell stack shows very fast dynamic,
nearly instantly without time constant
Perception of slow fuel cell time constant is
related to ancillary system not fuel cell stack
Output voltage dynamic is dominated by the
converter interface capacitor and cable
inductor
Output current dynamic is dominated by the
load
JSL
79
Issues to be Resolved in a Fuel Cell
Power Conditioning System
Energy management system options Sizing of
converters and auxiliary sources
Advanced Bidirectional dc-dc converter technologies
Interleaved control and associated technologies
Digital control for high power dc/dc converters
Fuel cell voltage standardization
Fuel cell ripple current specifications
Fuel cell output voltage dynamic
Fuel cell and power conditioning interface and
communication protocol
JSL
80
7. Fuel Cell Energy Management
Issues
Problems without Slow Fuel Cell Response
and Auxiliary Energy Storage
Options of Energy Storage Placement
Energy Management options with
Bidirectional DC/DC Converters
JSL
81
Why Fuel Cells Need Auxiliary Energy
Source or Energy Storage?
For standalone power supplies: need
energy storage for load transient
For grid-connected power supplies: need
auxiliary energy source for start-up
For all systems: need auxiliary energy
source to provide power for control signals
JSL
82
Problems of a Fuel Cell System without
Energy Storage
Fuel cell does not have storage capability
Slow response, output voltage fluctuates
with loads
Source may not be continuously available
Size (or capacity) needs to be higher than the
peak load
When sized enough for the maximum load,
excess energy will be wasted
JSL
83
A Slow and Weak Energy Source During
Startup and Large Load Transient
With a slow and weak input source; it dips
significantly during start up and large load
step.
V
o
= 320 V
V
in
= 220 V
V
in
(100 V/div)
i
in
(20 A/div)
V
o
(100 V/div)
i
o
(10 A/div)
JSL
84
Converter Step Load Response with Stiff
Voltage Source and Voltage Loop Control
Load Current (2A/div)
Input Current (20A/div)
Output Voltage (50V/div)
20ms/div
With voltage control loop bandwidth designed at
20 Hz, settling time is about 40ms under load step
JSL
85
Converter Load Dump Response with Stiff
Voltage Source and Voltage Loop Control
Load Current (2A/Div)
Output Voltage (50V/Div)
10ms/Div
Input Current (20A/Div)
With voltage control loop bandwidth design at 20
Hz, settling time is about 40ms under load dump
JSL
86
A Fuel Cell Power Plant with Energy
Storage
Fuel
Cell
Source
DC/DC
Converter
DC/AC
Inverter
AC Line
Filter
Loads/
Grid
Auxiliary Energy storage options
Fuel Cells Need Auxiliary Energy Storage for energy
management
JSL
87
Low-Voltage Ultra-Capacitor Energy
Storage Configuration
DC/DC
converter
48-72V
Ultra-
capacitor
F
u
e
l
C
e
l
l
120V
DC/AC
Inverter
L
f
JSL
88
Use High-Voltage Battery as the
Auxiliary Energy Storage
Fuel
Cell
Source
DC/DC
Converter
AC
Load
High voltage auxiliary
energy storage battery
Capacitor
filter
120V
Photograph
of a 96V
battery bank
fuse
JSL
89
Potential Problems with Passive Energy
Storage
Low-side ultracap option:
Two voltage sources are paralleled not a good
engineering practice
Time to reach equilibrium point is too long because
dynamic characteristics of both sources are different
Ultra capacitor helps transient current sharing, but
creates significant voltage and current ripples due to
interaction between two voltage sources
Dynamic current sharing problem
High-side battery option:
Battery cell voltage balance problem
Battery state-of-charge management
Long-term battery life expectancy
Cost of battery is a concern
JSL
90
Energy Management Options with Energy
Storages and Power Electronics
Optimum energy usage control
Start-up control
Load transient control
Charging and discharging (bidirectional) controls
for auxiliary energy storages
JSL
91
Design Considerations for Hybrid-
Source Systems
1. Utilization of Primary Source
2. Simple Power Circuit (as simple as possible)
3. Voltage ratio
4. Isolation Requirement
5. Energy Storage Requirement
6. Inverter DC Bus Voltage Requirement
7. Cost
JSL
92
Energy Management Using Low Voltage
Battery and Bidirectional DC/DC
Fuel cell
Load
DC/DC
converter
Inverter
DC Bus
V
dc
I
ac
feedbacks
Bidirectional
dc/dc
converter
V
ac
V
batt
Low voltage battery controlling
DC bus through a bidirectional
dc/dc converter
Avoid battery cell voltage
balancing problem
Complicated control
JSL
93
Dual-Source Energy Management Using a
Unidirectional Boost Converter
A
B
C
100kW Inverter
+
+
300 V
D
2
S
1
V
dc
AC
Output
L
1
Low voltage
Fuel cell
High voltage
battery
Battery voltage > Fuel cell voltage
Simple boost converter regulates the battery state of charge
DC bus voltage is constant
1
8
0
2
4
0

V

F
u
e
l
C
e
l
l
80kW converter
Total power electronics: 80-kW DC/DC + 100-kW DC/AC
Total energy sources: 20-kW battery + 80-kW fuel cell
JSL
94
An Example of Dual Sources with a
Bidirectional DC-DC Converter
A
B
C
100kW Inverter
+
+
2
4
0
3
8
0

V

1
8
0
2
4
0

V

S
1
S
2
V
dc
AC
Output
Battery voltage < fuel cell voltage needs a boost converter to supply
energy during transient load and a buck converter to charge the battery
Fuel cell voltage = dc bus voltage not regulated
L
1
Low
voltage
Battery
High voltage
Fuel cell
F
u
e
l
C
e
l
l
20kW Converter
JSL
95
Interleaved Bidirectional DC/DC Converter for
Fuel Cell Energy Management
L
d1
L
d2
S
1u
S
2u
S
1d
S
2d
V
FC
V
batt
F
u
e
l
C
e
l
l
100 kW
Inverter
20kW converter
80kW
20kW
Interleaved operation for both boost and buck modes
smaller passive components;
less battery ripple current
JSL
96
DC Bus Voltage During 800-W Load Step and
Load Dump Under Boost Mode Operation
V
dc
V
dc
I
dc (1A/div)
(50V/div) (50V/div)
I
dc
(1A/div)
DC bus voltage fluctuates but returns to original setting after
load transients
20ms/div
20ms/div
JSL
97
Battery Voltage During 800-W Battery Charge
Command Step under Buck Mode Operation
V
batt
I
dc
(2A/div)
(20V/div)
(20A/div)
I
Ld1
V
batt
I
dc
(2A/div)
(20V/div)
(20A/div)
I
Ld1
Battery voltage keeps constant during severe charging and
discharging current conditions
JSL
98
8. Advanced V6 Converter
Single-Phase Half-Bridge Converter
Two-Phase Full-bridge Converter
Three-Phase Converter
V6 Converter
Test Results with V6 Converter
V6 Converter Prototype
JSL
99
Half-Bridge Converter A Single-Phase
Converter
1 : n
HF-AC
Half-bridge converter
Xformer
Rectifier+LC filter
A
c
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d
20V
>250A
S
o
l
i
d
-
O
x
i
d
e

F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l
400V
5 kW
10V
>500A
JSL
100
Full-Bridge Converter A Two-Phase
Converter
1 : n
HF AC
Xformer
Rectifier+LC filter
A
c
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d
S
o
l
i
d
-
O
x
i
d
e

F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l
Full-bridge converter
20V
>250A
400V
5 kW
20V
>250A
JSL
101
Full-Bridge Converter with Paralleled
Devices to Achieve Desired Power Levels
Load
6x 6x
With 6 devices in parallel, the two-leg converter can barely
achieve 95% efficiency
Problems are additional losses in parasitic components,
voltage clamp, interconnects, filter inductor, transformer,
diodes, etc.
Voltage clamp
S
o
l
i
d
-
O
x
i
d
e

F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l
20V
250A
JSL
102
Fuel Cell Voltage and Current with Full
Bridge Converter Case
Time
0s 2ms 4ms 6ms 8ms 10ms
V(Vfc)
10V
20V
30V
-I(Vfc)
20A
40A
60A
I(Cin)
-50A
50A
100A
150A
SEL>>
I(Ld3) V(Iac)
-15A
-5A
5A
15A
Fuel cell voltage
Fuel cell current
Load step
Input capacitor current
AC load current
Filter inductor current
Load dump
330%
33%
JSL
103
Switching Waveforms with Full-Bridge
Converter
Time
4.998ms 5.000ms 5.002ms 5.004ms 5.006ms 5.008ms 5.010ms
I(M1:d) I(M3:d)
-25A
25A
50A
75A
100A
SEL>>
V(M1:d)-V(M1:s) V(M1:g)-V(M1:s)
-10V
0V
10V
20V
30V
40V
I(Cin)
-100A
-50A
0A
50A
100A
150 A
Ripple frequency = 100 kHz
Zero-voltage switching is achieved
JSL
104
A Three-Phase Bridge Converter
v
in
L
C
f
+
C
o
v
o
+
1 : n
S
1
S
5
S
4
S
2
a
c
HF AC
Xformer Rectifier+LC filter
D
1
D
4
D
3
D
6
i
A i
a
i
L
A
c
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d
F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l

o
r

o
t
h
e
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

s
o
u
r
c
e
3-phase bridge inverter
S
3
S
6
b
D
5
D
2
A
B
C
n
i
C
Hard switching
With 4 devices in parallel per switch
Efficiency ~ 95%
20V
>167A
JSL
105
Fuel Cell Voltage and Current with 3-
Phase Bridge Converter Case
Time
0s 5ms 10ms
V(Vfc)
10V
20V
30V
-I(Vfc)
20A
60A
SEL>>
I(Cin)
-50A
0A
50A
100A
150A
I(Ld3) V(Iac)
-15A
-5A
5A
15A
Fuel cell voltage
Fuel cell current
Load step
Input capacitor current
AC load current
Filter inductor current
A significant reduction in capacitor ripple current
33%
80%
No reduction in low-freq. fuel cell ripple current
Load dump
JSL
106
Switching Waveforms with 3-Phase
Bridge Converter
Time
4.998ms 5.000ms 5.002ms 5.004ms 5.006ms 5.008ms 5.010ms
I(M1:d) I(M4:d)
-25A
0A
25A
50A
75A
100A
V(M1:d)-V(M1:s) V(M1:g)-V(M1:s)
-10V
0V
10V
20V
30V
40V
I(Cin)
-50A
0A
25A
50A
SEL>>
35 A
Ripple frequency = 300 kHz
Zero-voltage switching is achieved
JSL
107
Key Features of Multiphase Converter
Device is switched at a lower current, while
maintaining zero-voltage switching.
High-frequency capacitor ripple current is
reduced by >4x, and its frequency is
increased by 3x. This translates to
significant capacitor size reduction and cost
saving.
No effect on low-frequency AC current ripple,
which remains an issue to be solved.
JSL
108
Circuit Diagram of the Virginia Tech V6
Converter
S
o
l
i
d
-
O
x
i
d
e

F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l
A
c
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d
Rectifier+LC filter
Six-phase bridge converter
HF AC
Xformer
20V
>83A
JSL
109
Key Features of V6 Converter
Double output voltage reduce turns ratio and
associated leakage inductance
No overshoot and ringing on primary side device
voltage
Input side high-frequency ripple current elimination
cost and size reduction on high-frequency capacitor
Output DC link inductor current ripple elimination
cost and size reduction on inductor
Secondary voltage overshoot reduction cost and
size reduction with elimination of voltage clamping
Significant EMI reduction cost reduction on EMI
filter
Soft switching over a wide load range
High efficiency ~97%
Low device temperature High reliability
JSL
110
Waveform Comparison between Full-
Bridge and V6 Converters
Full Bridge Converter V6 Converter
i
L
i
L
v
d
v
d
Secondary inductor current is ripple-less; and in
principle, no dc link inductor is needed
Secondary voltage swing is eliminated with <40%
voltage overshoot as compared to 250%
JSL
111
Significant DC link Inductor Size
Reduction
With V6 converter, an effective 10x reduction in DC
link filter inductor in terms of cost, size and weight
Single Phase
500W
60Hz
Single Phase
5 kW
50kHz
Three Phase
5 kW
50kHz
Single Phase
500W
60Hz
Single Phase
5 kW
50kHz
Three Phase
5 kW
50kHz
Single Phase
500W
60Hz
Single Phase
5 kW
50kHz
Three Phase
5 kW
50kHz
JSL
112
Input and Output Voltages and Currents at
1kW Output Condition
V
in
V
o
V
o
I
in
V
in
I
in
I
o
I
o
(a) Full bridge converter
(b) V6 Converter
Significant improvement with V6 converter
9 Less EMI
9 Better efficiency (97% versus 87% after calibration)
(97%) (87%)
JSL
113
Where are the Losses?
Switch conduction
Diode conduction
Transformer
Output rectifier
Output filter inductor and capacitor
Input capacitor
Parasitics
Copper traces
Interconnects
JSL
114
Calorimetry for Accurate Loss
Measurement
Calibration with resistor bank
fans
JSL
115
Test the 160-Liter Calorimeter at 120-W
Loss Condition
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (min)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
d
e
g

C
)
Average probe temperature
Temperature rise
>9 hours for each test points
JSL
116
Temperature Rise Versus Power Loss
y = 0.4086x + 2.9771
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Power Loss (W)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
d
e
g

C
)
TempRise
Linear (TempRise)
JSL
117
Efficiency Measurement Results
80%
82%
84%
86%
88%
90%
92%
94%
96%
98%
100%
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Output power (W)
Experimental data and trend line
Measurement error: within 1%
Heat sink temperature rise:
<20C at 2kW with natural
convection
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Output Power (W)
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Phase-II V6-Converter Efficiency (calibrated)
Phase-I Efficiency Measured Results
JSL
118
The Beta Version Prototype Converter
Schematic Circuit Diagrams
V6 Cost Estimate
Summary of Beta Version Prototype
JSL
119
Schematic Circuit Diagrams
Power board
Gate drive board
Control board
Digital board
Interface board
JSL
120
Photographs of V6-Converter Together
with DC-AC Inverter Prototype
Front View
Rear View
Converter
Inverter
JSL
121
Prototype and Production Cost Estimate
for the 5-kW V6 DC-DC Converter
Quantity 100 1000 10000
Material cost $475 $347 $227
Tooling, Assembly & Testing $1,424 $347 $114
Production Cost $1,899 $694 $341
Key Materials Parts Count Qty 1 Qty 10000
Power Circuit 22 $571.00 $154.40
Devices 8 $201.00 $38.40
Capacitors 6 $84.00 $30.00
Transformers 3 $180.00 $45.00
Inductors 2 $24.00 $8.00
Sensors 2 $32.00 $8.00
Contactor 1 $50.00 $25.00
Control Circuit 325 $113.70 $33.22
Resistors 164 $18.59 $2.71
Capacitors 110 $46.61 $17.41
Discretes 27 $8.00 $2.42
IC's 24 $40.50 $10.68
Miscellaneous 55 $174.80 $52.44
Total 402 $840.50 $227.05
JSL
122
9. Fuel Cell Current Ripple Issues
L
f
C
f R
A
B
V
dc
+
S
ap
S
an
S
bn
S
bp
V
o
+
60Hz
120Hz
Current ripple propagates from AC load back to DC side
With rectification, ripple frequency is 120 Hz for 60 Hz
systems
Low-frequency ripple is difficult to be filtered unless
capacitor is large enough
AC filter
LC
High-side
cap.
DC-DC
converter
120Hz
Fuel
Cell
JSL
123
AC Current Ripple Problems
Inverter AC current ripple propagates back to fuel cell
Fuel cell requires a higher current handling capability
Cost penalty to fuel cell stack
Ripple current can cause hysteresis losses and
subsequently more fuel consumption Cost penalty
to fuel consumption
State-of-the-art solutions are adding more capacitors or
adding an external active filters Size and cost
penalty
Virginia Tech solution is to use existing V6 converter
with active ripple cancellation technique to eliminate
the ripple No penalty
JSL
124
Circuit Model for AC Current Ripple
N : 1
I
in
V
in
I
load
R
s
L
f
V
dc
+
I
p
I
s
i
in
/N
i
load
N
2
R
s
L
f
i
p
/N i
s
DC Model
AC Ripple Model
C
in
/N
2
N
2
R
Cin
C
in
R
Cin
C
f
R
Cf
C
f
R
Cf
DC/DC
Converter
V
in
R
s
L
f
I
load
C
in
R
Cin
C
f
R
Cf
JSL
125
Solutions to Ripple Currents
Add more capacitors (ultra capacitor) on the
low-side dc bus
Add more capacitors on the high-side dc
bus
Add one more stage DC-DC converter
Add an active ripple cancellation circuit
with a bidirectional DC-DC converter to
stabilize the high-side dc bus voltage
with a built-in control function in the DC-DC
converter
JSL
126
Benchmark DC/DC Converter
Parameters for Ripple Study
Input Voltage: 25V
Output Voltage: 200V
Input DC Capacitor: 6mF
Output DC Capacitor: 2200mF
Filter Inductor: 84mH
Inverter Modulation Index: 0.86
Inverter Load Resistor: 16.7
JSL
127
Adding Hide-Side Energy Storages on
DC Bus Helps Reduce Ripple Current
0.25k
-50
0.1k
0 50m 10m 20m 30m 40m
0.25k
-50
0.1k
0 50m 10m 20m 30m 40m
Time (s)
20% ripple
current
10% ripple
current
DC/DC
Converter
DC bus
energy buffer
4-cycle energy backup
8-cycle energy backup
AC
Load
120V
Fuel
Cell
JSL
128
Simulation Results with LV-Side Capacitor
Input Capacitor has Very Little Effect to Current
Ripple Reduction
t(s)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
10
15
5
200
190
80
40
0
20
25
(A)
(V)
(A)
(V)
HV DC
Current
HV DC
Voltage
LV DC
Voltage
LV DC
Current
t(s)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
10
15
5
200
190
80
40
0
20
25
(A)
(V)
(A)
(V)
Input Cap Reduced to 136F Input Cap 6mF
JSL
129
Output Capacitor can be Used as Passive
Solution to Current Ripple Reduction
Cost is a Concern
t(s)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
10
15
5
200
190
80
40
0
20
25
(A)
(V)
(A)
(V)
HV DC
Current
HV DC
Voltage
LV DC
Voltage
LV DC
Current
t(s)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
0
10
15
5
200
190
80
40
0
20
25
(A)
(V)
(A)
(V)
Output Cap Reduced to 820F Output Cap 2.2mF
JSL
130
Current Ripple Reduction with High-Side
Energy Storage Capacitor
1
.
10
4
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.05
0.1
0.0068 0.055
Capacitance (F)
F
u
e
l

C
e
l
l

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

R
i
p
p
l
e

(
p
u
)
0
Standard design
Adding 55 mF capacitor
10X capacitor is needed to drop
ripple current under 5%
JSL
131
Features of High-Voltage DC Bus Energy
Storage Capacitors
Fuel cell voltage is low, typically from 36 to 60 V.
High voltage dc bus voltage is split into two 200 V.
For a single-phase dual ac outputs such as 120/240 V in US
residential systems, the transformer secondary and dc bus
can be split in two halves. Each phase leg of the full-bridge
along with the split-capacitors becomes a half-bridge inverter
to supply 120 V ac output. Summing two 120 V outputs
becomes 240 V.
Multiple capacitors are paralleled for the high-voltage dc bus
to store more energy and to provide more transient handling
capability during dynamic load change conditions. Energy
storage is proportional to CV2.
Size and weight are dominated by passive components. With
split DC buses, the volume of energy storage capacitors
becomes an issue.
JSL
132
Experimental Current Ripples without
Adding Capacitors or Controls
Fuel cell voltage
(20V/div)
Fuel cell current
(10A/div)
AC Load Voltage (200V/div)
AC Load Current (5A/div)
5ms/div
More than 35% ripple current at the input
35%
JSL
133
Fuel Cell Ripple Current Problem is
Severe During Load Transients
For single-phase ac loads, 120 Hz (twice the
fundamental frequency) current ripple can
reflect back to fuel cell.
During load transients such as turning on
light bulbs or starting up motors, the
transient initial current is typically more than
5 times the steady-state current, and the fuel
cell ripple current exceeds more 100% or
even 200% in some cases.
JSL
134
Fuel Cell Responds to AC Load Steps
(without Externally Added Capacitor)
I
fc
V
fc
i
ac
20ms/div
I
d-LV
Fuel cell sees severe current transient (spike)
and current ripple in steady state (35%)
JSL
135
Using Electrolytic Capacitor to Smooth
Fuel Cell Responding to AC Load Steps
I
fc
V
fc
i
ac
20ms/div
I
d-LV
I
cap
I
fc
i
ac
I
cap
V
fc
I
d-LV
With 20 mF capacitor, fuel cell current transient
is reduced, but the current ripple remains
JSL
136
AC Load Transient Response for Fuel
Cell with 53-mF Added Capacitors
Fuel Cell Current Ripple is 5% plus Overshoot
V
fc
20ms/div
I
fc
i
ac
I
cap
I
d-LV
JSL
137
Fuel Cell Output Response with an Ultra
Capacitor Cut-in
V
fc
20ms/div
I
fc
i
ac
I
ulcap
Capacitor Current (20A/div)
JSL
138
Fuel Cell Output Response with an Ultra
Capacitor Dropout
V
fc
20ms/div
I
fc
i
ac
I
ulcap Capacitor Current (20A/div)
JSL
139
Experiment with Open-Loop and with
only Voltage Loop Control
No improvement on current ripple reduction
with voltage loop control
DC bus voltage (100V/div)
Fuel cell voltage (10V/div)
Fuel cell current (20A/div)
DC bus current (10A/div)
(a) Open loop
(b) With voltage loop control
t (5ms/div)
JSL
140
Solving Current Ripple with Added
Current Loop inside the Voltage Loop
v
ref
+
R
v2 C
v1
C
v2
R
v1
H
v
v
sense
V
o
+
R
L
G
vc
+
V
m
PWM
d
L
f
C
f
V
d
i
Lf
+
R
cf
+
R
i2 C
i1
H
i
i
ref
R
i1
i
sense
C
i2
G
ic
V
d
= dV
in
Adding a current loop to regulate the output current
JSL
141
Fuel Cell Current Ripple Reduction with
the Proposed Active Control Technique
Fuel Cell Current Ripple is Reduced to 2%
Input Voltage
Input Current
Output Current
Output Voltage
<2%
JSL
142
Summary of V6 DC-DC Converter with
Active Ripple Cancellation
High efficiency with a wide-range soft switching: 97%
Cost reduction by cutting down passive components
Output inductor filter reduction with three-phase interleaved
control: 6X
Input high frequency capacitor reduction: 6X
Output capacitor reduction with active ripple reduction: 10X
Reliability enhancement
No devices in parallel
Soft-start control to limit output voltage overshoot
Current loop control to limit fuel cell inrush currents
Significance to SOFC design
Stack size reduction by efficient power conversion and ripple
reduction: 20%
Inrush current reduction for reliability enhancement
JSL
143
10. Recap
1. Basic DC-DC converters and DC-AC inverters are
introduced
2. Circuit topology selection can be misled by schematic
diagram. Some important considerations are
Device voltage and current stresses
Number of paralleled devices
Parasitic components and losses
3. Advanced V6 DC-DC converter not only shows superior
performance but also low production cost
4. Fuel cell current ripple issue can now be solved with
advanced current control developed by Virginia Tech
without adding cost penalty

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The output voltage can be expressed as

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