Article

Critical Performance Analysis of Four-Wheel Drive Hybrid

Electric Vehicles Subjected to Dynamic Operating Conditions
Darsy John Pradeep 1 , Yellapragada Venkata Pavan Kumar 1, * , Bollineni Raja Siddharth 1 ,
Challa Pradeep Reddy 2 , Mohammad Amir 3 and Haris M. Khalid 4,5,6, *

1 School of Electronics Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati 522237, Andhra Pradesh, India;
[email protected] (D.J.P.); [email protected] (B.R.S.)
2 School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati 522237, Andhra Pradesh, India;
[email protected]
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia Central University, New Delhi 110025, India;
[email protected]
4 College of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Dubai, Academic City Emirates Road,
Dubai 14143, United Arab Emirates
5 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg,
Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
6 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Santiago, Santiago 3363, RM, Chile
* Correspondence: [email protected] (Y.V.P.K.); [email protected] (H.M.K.)

Abstract: Hybrid electric vehicle technology (HEVT) is emerging as a reliable alternative to reduce
the constraints of battery-only driven pure electric vehicles (EVs). HVET utilizes an electric motor as
well as an internal combustion engine for its operation. These components would work on battery
power and fossil fuels, respectively, as a source of energy for vehicle mobility. The power is delivered
either from battery or fuel or both sources based on user requirements, road conditions, etc. HEVT
uses three major propelling systems, namely, front-wheel drive (FWD), rear-wheel drive (RWD), and
four-wheel drive (4WD). In these propelling systems, the 4WD model provides torque to all four
wheels at the same time. It uses all four wheels to propel thereby offering better driving capability,
better traction, and a strong grip on the surface. The 4WD-based HEVs comprise four architectures,
Citation: Pradeep, D.J.; Kumar, Y.V.P.; namely, series, parallel, series-parallel, and complex. The literature focuses primarily on any one
Siddharth, B.R.; Reddy, C.P.; Amir, type of architecture for analysis in the context of component optimization, fuel reduction, and en-
M.; Khalid, H.M. Critical Performance ergy management. However, a focus on dynamic analysis that gives a real performance insight
Analysis of Four-Wheel Drive Hybrid was not conducted, which is the main motivation for this paper. The proposed work provides an
Electric Vehicles Subjected to Dynamic extensive critical performance analysis of all four 4WD architectures subjected to various dynamic
Operating Conditions. World Electr. operating conditions (continuous, pulse, and step-up accelerations). Under these conditions, various
Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138. https://doi.org/
performance parameters such as speed (of vehicle, engine, and motor), power (of engine and bat-
10.3390/wevj14060138
tery), battery electrical losses, charge patterns, and fuel consumption are measured and compared.
Academic Editor: Ayman EL-Refaie Further, the 4WD architecture performance is validated with FWD and RWD architectures. From
MATLAB/Simulink-based evaluation, 4WD HEV architectures have shown superior performance
Received: 11 April 2023
in most of the cases when compared to FWD type and RWD type HEVs. Moreover, 4WD parallel
Revised: 23 May 2023
Accepted: 24 May 2023
HEV architecture has shown superior performance compared to 4WD series, 4WD series-parallel,
Published: 26 May 2023 and 4WD complex architectures.

Keywords: dynamic performance; electric propulsion; four-wheel drive (4WD); fuel economy; hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV); HEV architectures; HEV technology; vehicle dynamics
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and 1. Introduction
conditions of the Creative Commons
Vehicular technology has improved and enhanced remarkably from the era of the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
early centuries to the modern day [1,2]. The evolution of advanced technology led to the
4.0/).
inclusion of many new features in the process of transportation [3,4]. This is due to the shift

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060138 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 2 of 20

towards decarbonization with the addition of variants such as renewable energy integration
(REI) [5,6], vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology systems [7,8], etc. The technology features
have been incorporated to meet various requirements of customers and governments.
The traditional internal combustion engine (ICE)-driven vehicles will be transformed into
electric vehicles (EVs) soon. This is due to the increased environmental pollution and fossil
fuel-related issues caused by ICE-type vehicles. However, the effective operation of any
type of vehicle depends on its drive systems.

1.1. Driving System Review

In four-wheel vehicles, the power is supplied to the wheels from the power source
through the powertrain. Two important configurations, namely, the two-wheel drive (2WD)
and the four-wheel drive (4WD) are utilized, where the power generated is delivered to
wheels for usage on the roads. Further, the 2WD systems possess two-sub configurations,
namely, the front-wheel drive (FWD) and the rear-wheel drive (RWD). These systems
are currently existing in all formations irrespective of vehicular technology (whether ICE,
hybrid electric, or pure electric). All these drive systems are described as follows.
FWD Vehicles: Most general-purpose vehicles utilize the FWD configuration. This
gives good fuel efficiency with the important advantage of being simple or having a less
complex design. The FWD vehicles are popular over the other configurations due to
their fuel efficiency and low emissions (thereby creating less pollution). Moreover, in
FWD vehicles, the engine is placed on the front side of the vehicle. This is to transfer the
power from the engine to the front wheels which become simple, thereby (1) reducing the
complexity, (2) weight, and (3) energy loss, as long drive shafts are eliminated. Additionally,
keeping the engine weight directly over the drive wheels improves acceleration and traction
on slippery roads. The main drawbacks of the FWD vehicle are (1) the wear and tear of
front tires and (2) the requirement for heavy acceleration to pull the body of the vehicle.
Moreover, the life span of these FWD vehicles is less compared to others.
RWD Vehicles: In RWD configuration, the power produced by the engine is transferred
via the drive trains through the drive shafts and finally into the wheels. The weight of the
vehicle is transferred to the backside so that the immediate punch of acceleration throws
the vehicle into motion. The front wheels in RWD are helpful to change the direction, while
the weight at the back reduces the torque. The RWD vehicles require a driveshaft that
needs to connect to the power source or engine, which is placed on the front side of the
vehicle. Placing the engine at the back can lead to stability and control issues. This also
makes RWD configurations use up lots of space. The additional weight and other factors
make RWD cars less fuel-efficient compared to FWD vehicles. The RWDs are used in heavy
vehicles such as trucks, etc. This is due to their property of traction control.
4WD Vehicles: The 4WD and all-wheel drive (AWD) systems are the systems that
come under the 4WD type of systems. In these systems, all four wheels propel and offer a
better driving experience under almost any road condition. The AWD system is almost like
4WD except for providing extra traction when needed. AWDs are also heavier compared to
FWDs for the same power rating. Both configurations are complex when compared to 2WD
vehicles and with increased weight, the fuel efficiency of the 4WD is also less compared
to 2WD vehicles. The 4WD offers better traction force which is very much necessary for
proper grip on the surface. Further, in places with slick, loose, or slippery surfaces, the
power is directly provided to the wheels of the vehicle to have more traction force control.
For driving on off-road and unconventional roads, FWD vehicles are preferred. The cost of
FWD is also more despite a lesser fuel efficiency, but it is preferred by the customers as it
suits most road and environmental conditions and gives a premium driving experience.
The 4WD is equipped with additional gear which is used to switch the power provided to
the two other wheels. These are normally called the 4 × 4 variants, mostly seen in jeeps
and SUVs. The 4WD, AWD, and 6 × 4 (drivetrain) are the most popular ones which are in
the present market.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 3 of 20

On the other hand, considering the issues of battery-only driven pure EVs, the hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV) is emerging as a reliable alternative. HEVs provide more driving
range compared to EVs as their operation includes the use of both an electric motor (EM)
and an ICE. It uses batteries, renewable energy sources, fossil fuels, etc., as sources of energy
for vehicle mobility. A study conducted on 4WD HEV showed that the hybrid vehicle
needs an energy management control strategy for the city road environment, intending to
maintain optimal velocities for a better fuel economy [9]. Other tasks are to maintain the
vehicle’s stability and increase fuel economy wherever possible while maintaining torque
control [10]. The design of the hybrid 4WD system has several models that are dependent
on how the energy from the ICE and EM are coupled to the transmission of the vehicle. The
new developments in this 4WD HEV include the use of in-wheel motors (IWM) technology
for improved dynamics, performance, and energy savings [11,12].

1.2. Energy Management Strategy Review

The research work done by different people across the world shows how the 4WD
systems can be improved in several areas to produce a good output in hybrid systems.
The development mainly requires (1) powertrain management and (2) energy-efficient
systems in 2WD and 4WD models. This is based on the estimation of the economic and
ecological characteristics of the vehicles [13]. A vehicle velocity optimization technique
in the connected environment under the equivalent consumption minimization strategy
(ECMS) for 4WD HEV is proposed. In this technique, a rule-based strategy is developed
based on a decentralized model of predictive control in a connected HEV environment [14].
Another important thing for a 4WD vehicle is traction control. A control strategy for
the same was implemented with the addition of IWMs [15]. The wheel torque control
development showed that the existing steering mechanism is not good enough to provide
the torque for the control in off-road conditions. Therefore, a new self-steering mechanism
is introduced to improve the dynamics and to improve the reliable nature of the vehicle [16].
The usage of energy and improving ECMS for the 4WD hybrid powertrain are devel-
oped [17]. The performance was much improved when it was built with the dual-clutch
transmission, which is most often used in vehicles these days [18]. With the rise of fuel
prices and exhaust-driven pollution, the series-parallel 4WD HEV was tested for fuel con-
sumption over the four different standard cycles. The test was conducted with an algorithm
that was based on dynamic programming, thereby desirable results were achieved [19].
The energy-saving is very important in hybrid four-wheel drives. A new MPC method on
the same with time control to reduce vehicle speed was discussed in [20]. Additionally,
the fuzzy-based algorithms to achieve optimum dual-motor power supply for saving fuel
and improving fuel efficiency were discussed in [21]. Series-parallel HEV is capable of
switching modes as it has multiple modes to suit different driving conditions. Energy
and fuel-saving algorithms were discussed for a plugin series-parallel HEV in [22,23].
Regenerative braking which is considered an advantage in HEVs also helps in generating
energy [3]. The developments made in these areas show the braking system developed
with hydraulic braking is more efficient as a power generator [24]. For a vehicle in terms
of SUV size, safety is also an important factor that makes it move close to the consumers.
The torque control system shows how the torque vectoring systems help in the rise of both
safety and agility with the in-wheel motor technology [25].
A torque integration strategy developed for hybrid slip control with the help of a single
motor was designed to minimize the wheel locking like the ABS technology to provide
safety [26]. An innovative 4WD powertrain based on the transmotor and capable of taking
or delivering mechanical energy more than the electric ratings were discussed in [27]. The
algorithm that tracks the curvilinear trajectory based on the Lagrangian multiplier path to
control the path trajectory of a 4WD was discussed in [28]. The electric power source of a
hybrid model can be replaced with proton exchange membrane fuel cells/supercapacitors
to ensure an improvement in the range for the 4WDs. Additionally, [29] describes the equal
traction force distributed in the case of 4WDs. It also provides equal torque and helps in
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 4 of 20

range improvement. The developments are also done to improve the dynamic stability and
minimize the drivetrain power loss in HEVs [30]. These developments are not only limited
to small passenger vehicles but also to a hybrid bus that uses 4 × 4 as an HEV application.
This was developed to use electronic continuous variable transmission which controls the
speed in city driving conditions [31].
It can be observed that the literature mentioned here shows the focus laid on the
management of safety, energy, and fuel. Many optimization techniques and algorithms
are developed to design a practical hybrid 4WD system. The different drive cycles and
their properties are evaluated and prove that the hybrids show the best torque outputs in
low range speeds and, neglecting the highway case, it gives much ride efficiency in urban
conditions [32]. Further, the powertrain analysis is done with the off-road simple vehicle. It
has been modified to make use of a dual motor and dual battery system which boosted the
performance by 78% [33].

1.3. Contribution and Structure of the Paper

From the literature review, it is concluded that the research was mainly focused only
on any one type of 4WD HEV architecture. The performance was studied with the goal
of optimization in critical aspects of HEV functioning, such as fuel reduction techniques.
Energy management and power optimization are other important areas of interest. Further,
the performance analysis of the 2WD HEVs such as FWD HEVs and RWD HEVs was
conducted [34,35]; however, a comprehensive behavioral analysis of 4WD HEVs under
dynamically varying driving conditions was not reported in the literature, which is the
main motivation for this present work.
In this view, this paper presents a comprehensive analysis and critical review of
the dynamic performance of all 4WD HEV architectures when subjected to dynamic op-
erating conditions. Moreover, it aims to conclude this analysis with recommendations
based on the comparative analysis of 2WD and 4WD HEVs, and among different 4WD
HEV architectures.
Based on the objective of this proposed study, the rest of the paper is organized as
follows. Section 2 describes the four key architectures of the HEVs and their modeling
aspects. Section 3 describes the system implementation for the four models discussed
in Section 2. It also provides various test conditions that are executed to test the four
architectures of the HEVs. Section 4 provides the results obtained under different test
conditions and their corresponding discussion, followed by conclusions in Section 5.

2. Description and Modelling of 4WD HEV Architectures

HEV architectures are defined based on the way ICE and EM are integrated. As
shown in Figure 1, four such architectures can be built, namely, parallel architecture, series
architecture, series-parallel architecture, and complex architecture. Each architecture has
its virtues and limitations. These limitations are constantly persuading for development
and better operation. In the present work, the above-mentioned HEV architectures were
designed and probed to observe the dynamic performance.
Among the four main architectures of hybrid technology, the first and the simplest
architecture is the series hybrid vehicle which is shown in Figure 1a. The name “series” is
given to it because all the components are connected in a series manner to the propulsion of
the vehicle. The electrical and mechanical power is in the form of a series which provides
power to the powertrain and the power flow is driven into the front and rear wheels and
the rear axle is equipped with an EM.
The second architecture is the parallel hybrid vehicle which is shown in Figure 1b.
The name “parallel” is given to it because all the components are connected in a parallel
manner to the propulsion of the vehicle. The electrical and mechanical power is parallelly
provided power to the powertrain and the power flow is driven into all wheels. The third
architecture is the series-parallel hybrid vehicle which is shown in Figure 1c. The name
“series-parallel” is given to it because all the components are connected in a series as well as
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 5 of 20

a parallel manner to the propulsion of the vehicle. The electrical and mechanical power is
World Electr. Veh. in
J. 2023,
the 14, x FOR
form of PEER
both REVIEW
combinations
of series-parallel via a planetary gearbox which provides 5

power to the powertrain and the power flow is driven into all wheels.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1. Cont.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 6 of 20
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o

(d)
Figure
Figure 1. Schematics of1. Schematics
the of the four key
four key architectures ofarchitectures
4WD HEVs.of (a)4WD HEVs.
Series 4WD(a) Series
HEV 4WD HEV architect
architecture;
(b) parallel 4WD(b) parallel
HEV 4WD HEV
architecture; (c)architecture; (c) 4WD
series-parallel series-parallel 4WD HEV(d)
HEV architecture; architecture;
complex 4WD(d) complex 4
HEV architecture.
HEV architecture.

Among the
The fourth architecture is four main architectures
the complex hybrid vehicle of hybrid
which technology,
is shown in theFigure
first and
1d.the simp
Complex architecture is the combination of both series and parallel combinations of com- “series
architecture is the series hybrid vehicle which is shown in Figure 1a. The name
given to it
ponents. The electrical because
and all the components
mechanical power is in the are mixed
connected form inofa series
seriesmanner to the propuls
and parallel
which provideof the vehicle.
power The electrical
to the powertrain withanda mechanical power isDC-DC
dual bi-directional in the form of a series
converter and which p
vides power to the powertrain and the power flow is
EM and the power flow is driven into all wheels. The building of architecture is complex, driven into the front and rear wh
and the rear
so it is named a complex hybrid.axle is equipped with an EM.
All these hybridsThe are
second architecture
developed and is the parallel
designed hybrid
to use the vehicle
FWD systemwhich is toshown
propelin Figure
the vehicle. The performance analysis of the forward-wheel drive HEV under different in a para
The name “parallel” is given to it because all the components are connected
manner
dynamical driving to the propulsion
conditions is discussedof theinvehicle.
[36]. The The torque
electrical and mechanical
distribution among power
the is parall
drivetrains is much more focused. A power train features (1) a source of power (EM/ICE), The th
provided power to the powertrain and the power flow is driven into all wheels.
architecture
(2) a clutch (manual is the series-parallel
transmission) or a torque converterhybrid vehicle
(automatic which is shown in (3)
transmission), Figure
gears, 1c. The na
(4) a driveshaft, (5) differentials, and (6) wheels. The power distributed to the drive shaftseries as w
“series-parallel” is given to it because all the components are connected in a
from the powerassource
a parallel mannerapplied
is directly to the propulsion
to the wheels of the vehicle.the
through The(1) electrical
torque and mechanical po
converter,
is in the form of both combinations of series-parallel via a planetary gearbox which p
(2) driveshaft, (3) differentials, and (4) gearbox. In a manual transmission, the clutch
vides power to the powertrain and the power flow is driven into all wheels.
couples/decouples the gearbox to the engine. A torque converter in automatic transmission
The fourth architecture is the complex hybrid vehicle which is shown in Figure
changes the gear ratio in a continuous variable format. The gears form the gear ratios from
Complex architecture is the combination of both series and parallel combinations of c
the input to the output shaft. It is done such that the engine speed torque matches the
ponents. The electrical and mechanical power is in the mixed form of series and para
load. A gear pair is present in the final drive to provide additional speed and for torque
which provide power to the powertrain with a dual bi-directional DC-DC converter
distribution over the differentials to the wheels. The system modeling equations are given
EM and the power flow is driven into all wheels. The building of architecture is comp
as follows.
so it is named a complex hybrid.
2.1. Torque and SpeedAll these hybrids are developed and designed to use the FWD system to propel
Calculations
vehicle. The performance analysis of the forward-wheel drive HEV under different
The torque delivered from the source to the wheels (Twheel) is calculated using (1) and (2).
namical driving conditions is discussed in [36]. The torque distribution among
The rotation speed of the wheel (Swheel ) (rpm) is given by (3). The vehicle speed (Sv ) is given
drivetrains is much more focused. A power train features (1) a source of power (EM/IC
by (4), and the vehicle’s traction force is given by (5) [36].
(2) a clutch (manual transmission) or a torque converter (automatic transmission),
gears, (4) a driveshaft, (5) differentials,
Twheel = i gr iog ηtw Tand (6) wheels. The power distributed (1) to the d
op
shaft from the power source is directly applied to the wheels through the (1) torque c
verter, (2) driveshaft, (3) differentials, and (4) gearbox. In a manual transmission,
clutch couples/decouples Top =the in1 + k 2 to
k1 Tgearbox Tin2
the engine. A torque converter in automatic (2) tra
mission changes the gear ratio in a continuous variable format. The gears form the g
ratios from the input to the output Soutshaft. It is done such that the engine speed tor
Swheel = (3)
matches the load. A gear pair is present i gr ior in the final drive to provide additional speed
for torque distribution over the differentials to the wheels. The system modeling equati
are given as follows. Sv = π × Swheel × r (4)
30
Twheel
Ftraction = (5)
r
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 7 of 20

where igr (=Sin /Sout ) is transmission gear ratio, Sin and Sout are input and output rotating
speeds, respectively, iog is the final drive’s gear ratio, η tw is driveline efficiency of the engine
to wheels, Top is output torque delivered, k1 and k2 are constants derived by torque coupling
parameters, r is the wheel radius.

2.2. Fuel Calculations

To calculate average fuel consumption, the fuel consumed per 100 km distance traveled
(liters/100 km) is considered. The main factors on which fuel consumption depends are
(1) type of engine, (2) number of gears, (3) vehicle resistance, (4) vehicle weight, and
(5) operational settings. The fuel economy of ICE is estimated as a ratio of used fuel
per energy output, which is called the specific fuel consumption (gsfw ) in g/kWh. To
estimate the fuel economy of the vehicle, the load power of the engine and specific fuel
consumption must be known. The engine load power (Peng in kW) is estimated using
(6). Upon calculating engine power, the engine speed is calculated using (7). To calculate
specific fuel consumption (gsfw ), the plot of Seng vs. Peng is used. The time rate of fuel
consumption (L/h) is calculated as per (8).
 
Sv dSv
Peng = Ff + Fw + Fg + Mvehicle δ (6)
ηt dt

30 × Sv × i gr ior
Seng = (7)
πr
Pengine × gs f w
Q= (8)
1000 × γ f
where Fw —aerodynamic drag, Ff —frictional force (rolling friction), Fg —grading force,
Mvehicle is the mass of the vehicle, Sv —vehicle speed, γf —fuel’s mass density (kg/L).

2.3. Power Calculations

The maximum power that a battery can give to the load is calculated in (9). The
power delivered by the engine differs with respect to the vehicle’s architecture. For a
vehicle employing series architecture, the power delivered is given by (10), and for parallel
architecture, it is calculated by (11). The power delivered in complex architectures is given
by (12).
2
Voper
Pmax = (9)
4( Rcon + Rinternal )
!
Sv ρ a CD A f Sv 2
Peng = Mvehicle g f r + (10)
1000ηt ηm 2
!
Sv Sv 2 ρ a CD A f
Peng = Mvehicle g( f r + 1) + (11)
1000ηt,e 2

Pmotor = Ptransmission − Peng = Tc ωc − Peng (12)

where Voper —battery operating voltage, Rinternal —internal resistance, Rcon —conductor re-
sistance, fr —tire rolling resistance coefficient (=0.01), g—gravity acceleration in 9.80 m/s2 ,
ρa —air density (=1.18 kg/m3 ), Af —vehicle’s front area (=3 m2 ), CD —aerodynamic drag
coefficient (=0.4), η t —transmission efficiency, η m —traction motor efficiency, η t,e —wheels
transmission efficiency.

3. System Implementation and Test Conditions

The study of vehicle performance parameters under dynamic acceleration (m/s2 ) is
crucial in determining the vehicle’s behavior and it helps in estimating future tasks. So,
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 8 of 20

this section describes the various dynamic operating conditions that are implemented, the
measured parameters, and the system implementation as given follows.

3.1. Dynamic Operating Conditions

HEVs performance is evaluated using the vehicle’s performance parameters for differ-
ent dynamic operating conditions. Three types of inputs are applied, namely, continuous
acceleration, pulse-type acceleration, and step-up type acceleration. Continuous accel-
eration is observed in cases where the vehicle is assumed to be operating in a no-traffic
environment with good road conditions. The pulse-type acceleration is assumed to be
applied in moderate to heavy traffic conditions. The sports car racing scenario is mimicked
by applying step acceleration type input. So, these inputs are applied to different HEV
architectures to assess their performance. The types of acceleration test inputs to which the
HEVs were subjected and various parameters that are observed/computed in this study
are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Various test conditions and observed parameters of this study.

Test Conditions or Inputs Observed Parameters

1. Continuous acceleration 1. Vehicle speed
2. Pulse-type acceleration 2. Engine speed
3. Step-up type acceleration 3. Motor speed
4. Engine power
5. Battery power
6. Battery electrical loss
7. Battery charge
8. Fuel consumption

3.2. System Implementation

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20
The Simulink models of HEV architectures mentioned in Section 2 are given in
Figures 2–5. These models are excited using three acceleration cases that mimic real-
time conditions. The Simulink models are used to compute eight different performance
that are that
metrics shown
are in Tablein1,Table
shown which helps in
1, which concluding
helps the use
in concluding ofuse
the HEVs underunder
of HEVs various real-
various
time operating conditions.
real-time operating conditions.

Figure 2. Simulink model of the series HEV architecture.

Figure 2. Simulink model of the series HEV architecture.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 9 of 20

Figure 2. Simulink model of the series HEV architecture.

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Simulink model of
Simulink model of the
the parallel
parallel HEV
HEV architecture.
architecture.

Figure 4. Simulink model of the series-parallel HEV architecture.

Figure 4. Simulink model of the series-parallel HEV architecture.

The parameters
The parameters usedused for
for the
the system
system implementation
implementation are are given
given inin Table
Table 2.
2. The
The vehicle
vehicle
speed is an indication of how effectively the inputs affect the vehicle’s
speed is an indication of how effectively the inputs affect the vehicle’s performance. The performance. The
motor and engine shaft speed measurements help to determine the effect of inputs the
motor and engine shaft speed measurements help to determine the effect of inputs on on
speed
the of the
speed vehicle.
of the TheThe
vehicle. measurements
measurements of the power
of the power delivered by ICE
delivered andand
by ICE battery are
battery
useful
are to determine
useful to determinehowhow the power
the poweris balanced
is balanced amongst ICE and
amongst ICE EM.
and The
EM. effective utili-
The effective
zation of battery
utilization power
of battery by the
power by HEV is determined
the HEV is determined by the by battery charge
the battery parameter.
charge The
parameter.
energy
The utilized
energy by the
utilized by battery and and
the battery the unused
the unused battery power
battery can can
power be determined
be determined by this
by
parameter.
this TheThe
parameter. wayway
in which the battery
in which charges
the battery andand
charges discharges
dischargesfollowing the the
following inputs ap-
inputs
plied areare
applied also
alsodetermined
determinedby bythethebattery
batterycharge
charge parameter.
parameter. The The battery loss parameter
parameter
determines
determines how much battery
much battery power is lost in the process of power conversion
the process of power conversion from from the
the
battery to the
battery the motor
motor and
and also
also determines
determines the the charge
charge loss.loss. Fuel
Fuel consumption
consumption is is another
another
important parameter
important parameter to to assess
assess how
how capably
capably the the fuel
fuel isis being
beingutilized
utilizedbybythe
theHEV.
HEV.
 zation of battery power by the HEV is determined by the battery charge parameter. The
energy utilized by the battery and the unused battery power can be determined by this
parameter. The way in which the battery charges and discharges following the inputs ap-
plied are also determined by the battery charge parameter. The battery loss parameter
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138
determines how much battery power is lost in the process of power conversion from the
10 of 20
battery to the motor and also determines the charge loss. Fuel consumption is another
important parameter to assess how capably the fuel is being utilized by the HEV.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Simulink
Simulink model
model of
of the
the complex
complex HEV
HEV architecture.
architecture.

Table 2. Parameters used in this study.

Parameter Description
Twheel Wheel torque
Swheel Wheel speed
igr Transmission gear ratio
iog Drive final gear ratio
η tw Driveline efficiency
Peng Engine load power
Seng Engine speed
Fw Aerodynamic drag
Ff Frictional force (rolling friction)
Mvehicle Mass of the vehicle
Sv Vehicle speed
γf Fuel’s mass density (kg/L)
Fg Grading force
Pmax Maximum power delivered by battery to load
Voper Battery operating voltage
Rinternal Internal resistance
Rcon Conductor resistance
fr Tire rolling resistance coefficient (=0.01)
g Gravity acceleration in 9.80 m/s2
ρa Air density (=1.18 kg/m3 ),
Af Vehicle’s front area (=3 m2 )
CD Aerodynamic drag coefficient (=0.4)
ηt Transmission efficiency
ηm Traction motor efficiency
η t,e Wheels transmission efficiency

4. Results and Discussion

The results of this study are presented in three subsections. The first subsection deals
with the analysis of performance metrics listed in Section 3 when the HEVs are excited with
test input-1. The second subsection deals with the study of performance metrics when the
HEVs are excited with test input-2. A similar study is conducted and presented in the third
subsection with test input-3 as excitation. The results are presented in per unit (pu) metrics
on the y-axis as the comparison between different parameters with different units needs to
be done. A comprehensive analysis of the performance metrics with three inputs applied
to different HEV architectures is done at the end. In this study, note that the capacity of the
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 11 of 20

engine, the rating of the battery, and the rating of the power converter used in all the HEV
architectures are the same. The simulation is conducted for 45 s with the application of
various abovementioned inputs. The results obtained for all four HEV architectures with
different test inputs are compared as described follows.

4.1. HEV Performance Parameters for Test Input-1

The plot of speeds of different HEVs when excited with test input-1 is given in
Figure 6a. It can be observed that, with a change in input, there is almost a spontaneous
change in the speed of all the HEV architectures. The rate of change of speed (pu) is the
same in all architectures with 195 units, but the slightly parallel architecture performed
well with some high speeds than others at the initial stage. The engine speed profiles of
HEV architectures, when excited with test input-1, are given in Figure 6b. From this, it can
be observed that the parallel and complex and the series and series-parallel were almost
the same and the most performed was the complex architecture at the initial stage, but the
series was superior. The motor speed profiles of all the HEV architectures excited with
test input-1 are given in Figure 6c. From this, it can be observed that the responses were
the same for all the architectures and the response of the complex architecture was lesser
when compared to others. The engine power profiles of HEV architectures, when excited
with test input-1, are given in Figure 6d. From the responses, it has been observed that
the response of the parallel architecture was superior due to the low usage of the engine,
followed by series architecture.
The power profiles of the battery used in different HEVs when excited by test input-1
are given in Figure 6e. From the plot, it is observed that the parallel architecture used more
battery power so it is superior. Battery electric loss profiles of different HEV architectures,
when excited with test input-1, are given in Figure 6f. The parallel architecture shows
the least loss whereas the complex architecture presents a higher loss. The state of the
battery charge for different HEV architectures, when excited with test input-1, is given
in Figure 6g. From the profiles, it is noted that the complex architecture has kept the
initial value and charged 0.8 units in other architectures; this decrement is 0.9 pu. With
the increasing cost of fuel, fuel consumption has become a key factor that needs to be
studied. The fuel consumption pattern of various HEV architectures, when excited with
test input-1, is plotted in Figure 6h. From these results, it is seen that the series architecture
is the most fuel-efficient and the parallel architecture is the least fuel-efficient among all the
architectures studied.

4.2. HEV Performance Parameters for Test Input-2

In lesser and mid-range traffic regions, pulse-type acceleration is preferably applied
to tackle traffic uncertainties. Analysis and effects of these inputs on HEV performance
are of major interest in the proposed work. The performance of the HEV architecture is
analyzed by providing a pulse for 5 s and studying fall time and rise time. The input is
applied for 45 s in two continuous cycles to study the effect of pulse-type acceleration on
various HEV architectures. Various performance parameters of the HEV for test input-2 are
given in Figure 7.
The plots of speeds for different HEV architectures with test input-2 applied are
given in Figure 7a. From the figure, it can be perceived that the response of three HEV
architectures is approximately 71 units, but for complex HEV architecture, the speed is
approximately 72 units. The engine speed profiles of HEV architectures, when excited
with test input-2, are given in Figure 7b. From the response, it is observed that the series
architecture performance was superior, followed by the series-parallel architecture.
The motor speed profiles of HEV architectures for this input are given in Figure 7c.
From the response, it can be noted that the performance of parallel HEV architecture is
superior compared to the performance of other architectures. The engine power profiles
for test input-2 are given in Figure 7d. It is observed that the performance of the parallel
architecture is superior in terms of lower engine power utilization. The profiles of battery
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 12 of 20

test input-1 are given in Figure 6c. From this, it can be observed that the responses were
the same for all the architectures and the response of the complex architecture was lesser
when compared to others. The engine power profiles of HEV architectures, when excited
power forinput-1,
with test test input-2 for all
are given in the HEV
Figure 6d.architectures are given
From the responses, in been
it has Figure 7e. Thethat
observed parallel
the
architecture
response of showed a superior
the parallel performance
architecture whereas
was superior the
due to complex
the architecture
low usage is seen
of the engine, fol-to
utilize
lowedless battery
by series power.
architecture.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 6. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-1.
Figure 6. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-1.
(a) Vehicle speed responses for test input-1; (b) engine speed responses for test input-1; (c) motor
(a) Vehicle
speed speed responses
responses for test (d)
for test input-1; input-1; (b)power
engine engineresponses
speed responses
for test for test input-1;
input-1; (c) motor
(e) battery powerspeed
re-
responses for test input-1; (d) engine power responses for test input-1; (e) battery power
sponses for test input-1; (f) battery electric loss responses for test input-1; (g) battery charge responses
re-
for test input-1;
sponses for test(f) battery(h)
input-1; electric loss responses
fuel consumption for test input-1;
responses (g) battery charge responses for test
for test input-1.
input-1; (h) fuel consumption responses for test input-1.
 In lesser and mid-range traffic regions, pulse-type acceleration is preferably applied
to tackle traffic uncertainties. Analysis and effects of these inputs on HEV performance
are of major interest in the proposed work. The performance of the HEV architecture is
analyzed by providing a pulse for 5 s and studying fall time and rise time. The input is
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 applied for 45 s in two continuous cycles to study the effect of pulse-type acceleration
13 on
of 20
various HEV architectures. Various performance parameters of the HEV for test input-2
are given in Figure 7.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 7. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-2.
Figure 7. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-2.
(a) Vehicle speed responses for test input-2; (b) engine speed responses for test input-2; (c) motor
(a) Vehicle
speed speed responses
responses for test(d)
for test input-2; input-2;
engine(b)power
engineresponses
speed responses for test input-2;
for test input-2; (c) motor
(e) battery powerspeed
re-
responses for test input-2; (d) engine power responses for test input-2; (e) battery power
sponses for test input-2; (f) battery electric loss responses for test input-2; (g) battery charge responses
re-
for test input-2;
sponses for test(f) battery(h)
input-2; electric loss responses
fuel consumption for test input-2;
responses (g) battery charge responses for test
for test input-2.
input-2; (h) fuel consumption responses for test input-2.
The plots of speeds for different HEV architectures with test input-2 applied are
given in loss
The profiles
Figure of battery
7a. From power
the figure, of HEV
it can architectures
be perceived for response
that the test input-2 are given
of three HEVin
Figure 7f. The least power loss is experienced in the series-parallel architecture
architectures is approximately 71 units, but for complex HEV architecture, the speed is whereas
complex architecture
approximately experience
72 units. higher
The engine loss. profiles
speed For a pulsated
of HEVacceleration, thewhen
architectures, chargeexcited
profiles
ofwith
thetest
battery for various HEV architectures are given in Figure 7g. The charging
input-2, are given in Figure 7b. From the response, it is observed that the series and
discharging
architecture profiles for pulse
performance input of the
was superior, HEV architectures
followed follow the
by the series-parallel same pattern of
architecture.
decrement with respect
The motor to time of
speed profiles except
HEVfor the complex
architectures forHEV
this architecture
input are givenwhere the battery
in Figure 7c.
charge hasresponse,
From the improveditin terms
can of time.
be noted thatAs the
the battery discharge
performance is improved
of parallel with respect
HEV architecture is
superior compared to the performance of other architectures. The engine power profiles
for test input-2 are given in Figure 7d. It is observed that the performance of the parallel
architecture is superior in terms of lower engine power utilization. The profiles of battery
power for test input-2 for all the HEV architectures are given in Figure 7e. The parallel
architecture showed a superior performance whereas the complex architecture is seen to
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 14 of 20

to time in the complex HEV architecture, it is considered the superior architecture with
respect to battery charge for a pulse input.
The fuel consumption profiles of various HEV architectures for test input-2 are given
in Figure 7h. From the responses, it is observed that complex architectures consume more
fuel when compared to other architectures and parallel architecture consumes the least fuel.

4.3. HEV Performance Parameters for Test Input-3

Extreme acceleration cases such as speed racing can be mimicked using the stand-
step acceleration signal. The acceleration is applied linearly for 10 s followed by a brief
deceleration of 5 s applied for 45 s. The speed response of various HEV architectures
used in this study for step acceleration is given in Figure 8a. In comparison, the speed
response of almost all HEVs is 125 units. Among these, the parallel HEV architecture
touched 124.7 units. When HEVs are excited by test input-3, the engine speed profiles are
given in Figure 8b. From this these responses, the series architecture was superior and the
series-parallel was the next to have higher engine speeds.
The motor speed profiles of HEV architectures for test input-3 are given in Figure 8c.
From these responses, the parallel architecture was demonstrated to be superior. The engine
power profiles of HEV architectures for test input-3 are given in Figure 8d. Based on these
responses, the parallel architecture was the superior one and the series was the next to have
the best and least engine power values. The profiles of battery power for various HEVs,
when excited by test input-3, are given in Figure 8e. From these plots, it is observed that
the complex architecture used less battery power while the parallel architecture utilized
very high battery power. Battery electric loss profiles for test input-3 for all the HEV
architectures are given in Figure 8f. From this, it was observed that complex architecture
had the least loss. The battery charge state for HEV architectures for step acceleration is
given in Figure 8g. From these profiles, it is noted that the complex architecture has been
maintained well when compared to the other HEV architectures. The fuel consumption
profiles of all the HEV architectures discussed in this study are plotted in Figure 8h.
On analyzing these plots, the complex HEV architecture has consumed the most fuel
and the parallel architecture expends less fuel. The fuel consumption of the series and
series-parallel architecture is the same with less than a unit difference.

4.4. Validation of 4WD HEV Architectures

The criteria followed for validating the performance of 4WD HEV architectures are
given in Figure 9. As shown, the effectiveness of the 4WD HEV type is validated by
comparing it with the FWD HEV type [34] and the RWD HEV type [35]. In all these
cases, four key architectures, namely, (1) series architecture, (2) parallel architecture,
(3) series-parallel architecture, and (4) complex architecture are simulated. Their per-
formance metrics (namely, vehicle speed, engine speed, motor speed, engine power, battery
power, battery electrical losses, battery charge, and fuel consumption) are computed under
three test conditions (namely, continuous acceleration, pulse-type acceleration, and step-up
type acceleration). All these performance parameters of the 4WD HEV architectures are
computed based on their characteristics depicted in Figures 6–8.
All the measurements from the above-mentioned validation criteria are tabulated
and compared as given in Table 3 to find the best architecture. The desired value for
each performance metric is considered to identify the superior architecture in each case.
From this table, it is observed that the 4WD HEV architectures have shown superior
performance in most of the cases when compared to FWD type and RWD type HEVs.
Further, among various 4WD HEV architectures, the 4WD parallel HEV architecture has
shown superior performance compared to the 4WD series, 4WD series-parallel, and 4WD
complex architectures.
World
WorldElectr.
Electr.Veh.
Veh.J.J.2023,
2023,14,
14,138
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 15
of of2020

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
Figure 8. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-3.
Figure 8. Response of critical parameters for different HEV architectures subjected to test input-3.
(a) Vehicle speed responses for test input-3; (b) engine speed responses for test input-3; (c) motor
(a) Vehicle
speed speed responses
responses for test(d)
for test input-3; input-3;
engine(b)power
engineresponses
speed responses
for test for test input-3;
input-3; (c) motor
(e) battery powerspeed
re-
responses
sponses for fortest
testinput-3;
input-3;(f)
(d)battery
engineelectric
power loss
responses for test
responses for input-3; (e) battery
test input-3; powercharge
(g) battery responses
re-
for test input-3;
sponses for test (f) battery(h)
input-3; electric loss responses
fuel consumption for test input-3;
responses (g) battery charge responses for test
for test input-3.
input-3; (h) fuel consumption responses for test input-3.
The motor speed profiles of HEV architectures for test input-3 are given in Figure 8c.
From these responses, the parallel architecture was demonstrated to be superior. The en-
gine power profiles of HEV architectures for test input-3 are given in Figure 8d. Based on
these responses, the parallel architecture was the superior one and the series was the next
to have the best and least engine power values. The profiles of battery power for various
HEVs, when excited by test input-3, are given in Figure 8e. From these plots, it is observed
that the complex architecture used less battery power while the parallel architecture uti-
lized very high battery power. Battery electric loss profiles for test input-3 for all the HEV
architectures are given in Figure 8f. From this, it was observed that complex architecture
 (namely, vehicle speed, engine speed, motor speed, engine power, battery power, battery
electrical losses, battery charge, and fuel consumption) are computed under three test con-
ditions (namely, continuous acceleration, pulse-type acceleration, and step-up type accel-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138
eration). All these performance parameters of the 4WD HEV architectures are computed 16 of 20
based on their characteristics depicted in Figures 6–8.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

HEV Types

Front-wheel Rear-wheel Four-wheel

Drive (FWD) Drive (RWD) Drive (4WD)

HEV Architectures

Series Parallel Series-Parallel Complex

Architecture Architecture Architecture Architecture

Test Conditions

Continuous Pulse-type Step-up type

Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration

Performance Metrics

Battery Electrical Fuel

Vehicle Speed Engine Speed Motor Speed Engine Power Battery Power Battery Charge
Losses Consumption

Figure
Figure 9. Validation criteria. 9. Validation criteria.

All the measurements from the above-mentioned validation criteria are tabulated
and compared as given in Table 3 to find the best architecture. The desired value for each
performance metric is considered to identify the superior architecture in each case. From
this table, it is observed that the 4WD HEV architectures have shown superior perfor-
mance in most of the cases when compared to FWD type and RWD type HEVs. Further,
among various 4WD HEV architectures, the 4WD parallel HEV architecture has shown
superior performance compared to the 4WD series, 4WD series-parallel, and 4WD com-
plex architectures.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 17 of 20

Table 3. Critical performance comparison of 4WD, FWD, and RWD HEV architectures.

Test 4WD HEV Architectures FWD HEV Architectures [34] RWD HEV Architectures [35] Superior
Performance Metrics Input Series Parallel Series-Parallel Complex Series Parallel Series-Parallel Complex Series Parallel Series-Parallel Complex Architecture

1 195.1 196.2 195.8 194.5 140 144.2 141.7 142.2 139.9 147.2 141.7 155.7 4WD Parallel
Vehicle Speed 2 71.95 71.92 71.96 72.07 71.76 71.65 71.84 72.06 71.8 71.93 71.8 18.08 4WD Complex
(Desired: High value)
3 125.1 124.7 125.1 125.1 116.6 118 117.2 119.7 116.5 118.9 117 71.7 4WD
1 802.2 803.2 802.5 790.1 1247 1284 1261 1265 1246 1311 1261 1343 RWD Complex
Motor Speed 2 540.7 540.9 540.8 536.1 633.7 636.6 634.3 637.3 636.3 637.1 636.4 645.3 RWD Complex
(Desired: High value)
3 796.4 796.7 796.5 790.4 1035 1049 1039 1060 1035 1051 1040 1065 RWD Complex
1 2054 1606 2043 1580 2057 2567 2043 2529 2162 5596 2153 6002 RWD Complex
Engine Speed 2 2057 1082 2043 1072 2056 1272 2043 1275 2002 2020 2053 1803 4WD Series
(Desired: High value)
3 2055 1593 2042 1581 2057 2097 2043 2120 2162 4512 2154 3944 RWD Parallel
1 3.01 2.03 3.22 4.66 2.8 2.2 3.4 3.5 4.9 5.5 4.94 5.0 4WD Parallel
Engine Power 2 2.67 1.30 2.93 9.89 3.2 1.35 3.46 10.04 4.9 3.4 4.94 6.98 4WD Parallel
(Desired: Low value)
3 2.59 1.96 2.86 7.11 2.37 2.45 2.67 6.51 4.9 5.17 4.94 24.7 4WD Parallel
1 44.3 44.4 44.3 44.0 51.41 55.36 52.92 54.04 50.8 55.1 52.3 42.0 FWD Parallel
Battery Power 2 38.9 48.6 30.7 24.3 25.65 28.03 25.99 18.13 25.09 27.4 25.4 8.45 4WD Parallel
(Desired: High value)
3 77.6 90.4 75.5 36.6 27.86 29.8 29.02 34.01 42.01 45.2 42.8 34.7 4WD Parallel
1 8.03 7.95 8.07 8.35 3.74 4.40 3.39 4.10 3.65 4.49 3.8 0.79 RWD Complex
Batter Electric Loss 2 2.52 2.61 2.50 2.80 0.84 1.03 0.88 0.90 0.64 0.74 0.66 0.10 RWD Complex
(Desired: Low value)
3 8.33 8.37 8.28 7.84 1.01 1.15 1.06 1.34 2.42 2.84 2.5 1.19 FWD Series
1 149.1 149.1 149.1 149.2 147.6 147.3 147.5 147.5 148.7 148.7 148.1 148.6 4WD Complex
Battery Charge 2 149.9 149.9 149.9 150.3 149.8 149.7 149.8 150.1 149.9 149.9 149.9 150.1 4WD Complex
(Desired: High value)
3 149.4 149.3 149.4 149.6 147.8 148.6 147.8 149 149.1 149.4 149.3 149.0 4WD Complex
1 9.6 11.6 10.4 10.1 9.67 9.39 10.44 11.14 19.1 19.8 10.4 29.6 4WD Series
Fuel Consumption 2 9.6 5.3 10.4 21.3 9.69 5.39 10.44 21.4 9.0 10.9 10.4 11.3 4WD Parallel
(Desired: Low value)
3 9.6 8.0 10.4 21.7 9.67 8.86 10.44 22.69 9.1 16.06 10.4 42.36 4WD Parallel
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 138 18 of 20

5. Conclusions
An in-depth investigation of the critical performance metrics of four important HEV
architectures when excited with three types of dynamic operating conditions is conducted
and presented. A comparative analysis of these performance metrics was elucidated in
the presence of dynamic inputs. A comparison of the performance metric of 4WD with
FWD and RWD is also presented. This comparison reveals that the 4WD HEV architectures
have shown superior performance in most of the cases when compared to FWD type
and RWD type HEVs. Further, among various 4WD HEV architectures, the 4WD Parallel
HEV architecture has shown superior performance compared to the 4WD series, 4WD
series-parallel, and 4WD complex architectures.
From the comparative quantities presented in Table 3, it is observed that the parallel
4WD HEV architecture showed superior performance for parameters, namely, (1) motor
speed, (2) engine power, (3) battery power, and (4) fuel consumption, whereas, for the bat-
tery charge parameter, the complex 4WD HEV architecture showed good performance. For
the engine speed parameter, the series 4WD HEV architecture showed good performance.
Hence, from all these observations, the following recommendations can be derived.
• If fuel economy is to be prioritized, the parallel architecture is recommended;
• If power and speed are to be prioritized over fuel economy, the complex architecture
is recommended;
• If the balanced fuel, power, and speed are to be prioritized, the parallel architecture is
recommended. This can be reinforced by the conclusions presented in [37].
The conclusions are made based on the assumption that the parameter under consid-
eration and all other system parameters do not undergo any drastic change and are within
the allowable limits of operation. This is the limitation of the present work. The same type
of analysis can be done under a proper energy management scheme and the results can be
verified accordingly.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.J.P.; data curation, C.P.R.; formal analysis, Y.V.P.K.;
funding acquisition, H.M.K.; investigation, B.R.S.; methodology, Y.V.P.K.; project administration, M.A.
and H.M.K.; resources, M.A.; software, D.J.P.; supervision, Y.V.P.K.; validation, C.P.R.; visualization,
H.M.K.; writing—original draft, B.R.S.; writing—review and editing, D.J.P. and M.A. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the VIT-AP University, Amaravati,
Andhra Pradesh, India; Jamia Millia Islamia Central University, New Delhi, India; University of
Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa; and
University of Santiago, Chile for supporting this collaborative research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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