Course: ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Lecture 4: POWER AMPLIFIER

1. INTRODUCTION
Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. This generally means that a much larger
portion of the load line is used during signal operation than in a small-signal amplifier. In
this chapter, we will cover four classes of power amplifiers: class A, class B, class AB, and
class C. These amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the input cycle for
which the amplifier operates in its linear region. Each class has a unique circuit
configuration because of the way it must be operated. The emphasis is on power
amplification. Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a communications
receiver or transmitter to provide signal power to speakers or to a transmitting antenna.
BJTs are used to illustrate power amplifier principles.
Large-signal or power amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power to
an output load to drive a speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to tens of
watts. we concentrate on those amplifier circuits used to handle large-voltage signals at
moderate to high current levels. The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the
circuit’s power efficiency, the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of
handling, and the impedance matching to the output device. One method used to
categorize amplifiers is by class. Basically, amplifier classes represent the amount the
output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.
CLASS-A AMPLIFIER: The output signal varies for a full 360° of the cycle. The Q-point
biase at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the output may vary up and down
without going to a high-enough voltage to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low
to approach the lower supply level, or 0 V in this description.
CLASS-B AMPLIFIER: A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half
the input signal cycle, or for 180° of signal. The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0 V,
with the output then varying from this bias point for a half cycle. Obviously, the output is not
a faithful reproduction of the input if only one half-cycle is present. Two class B operations
—one to provide output on the positive output half-cycle and another to provide operation
on the negative-output half-cycle are necessary. The combined half-cycles then provide an
output for a full 360° of operation. This type of connection is referred to as push-pull
operation, which is discussed later in this chapter. Note that class B operation by itself
creates a very distorted output signal since reproduction of the input takes place for only
180° of the output signal swing.
CLASS-AB AMPLIFIER: An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base
current level of class B and above one-half the supply voltage level of class A; this bias
condition is class AB. Class AB operation still requires a push-pull connection to achieve a
full output cycle, but the dc bias level is usually closer to the zero base current level for
better power efficiency, as described shortly. For class AB operation, the output signal
swing occurs between 180° and 360° and is neither class A nor class B operation.
CLASS D AMPLIFIER: This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse
(digital) signals, which are on for a short interval and off for a longer interval. Using digital
techniques makes it possible to obtain a signal that varies over the full cycle (using
sample-and-hold circuitry) to recreate the output from many pieces of input signal.
The major advantage of class D operation is that the amplifier is on (using power) only
for short intervals and the overall efficiency can practically be very high.
 2. THE CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER
When an amplifier is biased such that it always operates in the linear region where the
output signal is an amplified replica of the input signal, it is a class A amplifier. The
discussion of amplifiers in the previous chapters applies to class A operation. Power
amplifiers are those amplifiers that have the objective of delivering power to a load. This
means that components must be considered in terms of their ability to dissipate heat.
In a small-signal amplifier, the ac signal moves over a small percentage of the total ac
load line. When the output signal is larger and approaches the limits of the ac load line, the
amplifier is a large-signal type. Both large-signal and small-signal amplifiers are considered
to be class A if they operate in the linear region at all times, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Class A power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers with the objective of providing
power (rather than voltage) to a load. As a rule of thumb, an amplifier may be considered to
be a power amplifier if it is rated for more than 1 W and it is necessary to consider the
problem of heat dissipation in components.

Fig. 1 Basic class A amplifier operation. Output is shown 180° out of phase
with the input (inverted) [2]

Power transistors (and other power devices) must dissipate a large amount of internally
generated heat. For BJT power transistors, the collector terminal is the critical junction; for
this reason, the transistor’s case is always connected to the collector terminal. The case of
all power transistors is designed to provide a large contact area between it and an external
heat sink. Heat from the transistor flows through the case to the heat sink and then
dissipates in the surrounding air. Heat sinks vary in size, number of fins, and type of
material.
Their size depends on the heat dissipation requirement and the maximum ambient
temperature in which the transistor is to operate. In high-power applications (a few hundred
watts), a cooling fan may be necessary.
Recall that the dc and ac load lines intersect at the Q-point. When the Q-point is at the
centre of the ac load line, a maximum class A signal can be obtained. You can see this
concept by examining the graph of the load line for a given amplifier in Figure 2(a). This
graph shows the ac load line with the Q-point at its centre. The collector current can vary
from its.
 Fig.2. Maximum class A output occurs when
the Q-point is centred on the ac load line [2]

Q-point value, ICQ, up to its saturation value, Ic(sat), and down to its cutoff value of
zero. Likewise, the collector-to-emitter voltage can swing from its Q-point value, VCEQ, up
to its cutoff value, Vce(cutoff ), and down to its saturation value of near zero. This operation
is indicated in Figure 2(b). The peak value of the collector current equals ICQ, and the peak
value of the collector-to-emitter voltage equals VCEQ in this case. This signal is the
maximum that can be obtained from the class A amplifier. Actually, the output cannot quite
reach saturation or cutoff, so the practical maximum is slightly less.
If the Q-point is not centred on the ac load line, the output signal is limited. Figure 3
shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved away from centre toward cutoff. The output
variation is limited by cutoff in this case. The collector current can only swing down to near
zero and an equal amount above ICQ. The collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing up to
its

Fig. 3. Q-point closer to cutoff [2]

Power Gain

A power amplifier delivers power to a load. The power gain of an amplifier is the ratio of
the output power (power delivered to the load) to the input power. In general, power gain is
 (1)
where Ap is the power gain, PL is signal power delivered to the load, and Pin is signal
power delivered to the amplifier.
The power gain can be computed by any of several formulas, depending on what is
known. Frequently, the easiest way to obtain power gain is from input resistance, load
resistance, and voltage gain. To see how this is done, recall that power can be expressed
in terms of voltage and resistance as

For ac power, the voltage is expressed as rms. The output power delivered to the load
is

The input power delivered to the amplifier is

The following useful relationship is produced:

(2)
For a voltage-divider biased amplifier

DC Quiescent Power
The power dissipation of a transistor with no signal input is the product of its Q-point
current and voltage.
The only way a class A power amplifier can supply power to a load is to maintain a
quiescent current that is at least as large as the peak current requirement for the load
current. A signal will not increase the power dissipated by the transistor but actually causes
less total power to be dissipated. The dc quiescent power, given in Equation 3, is the
maximum power that a class A amplifier must handle. The transistor’s power rating must
exceed this value.

(3)

Output Power
In general, the output signal power is the product of the rms load current and the rms
load voltage. The maximum unclipped ac signal occurs when the Q-point is centered on the
ac load line. For a CE amplifier with a centered Q-point, the maximum peak voltage swing
is

The rms value is 0.707Vc(max).

The maximum peak current swing is

The rms value is 0.707Ic(max).

To find the maximum signal power output, use the rms values of maximum current
and voltage. The maximum power out from a class A amplifier is

(4)

Example № 1.
Determine the voltage gain and the power gain of the class A power amplifier in
Figure 4. Assume ac = 200 for all transistors.

Figure 4 [2]

SOLUTION
 Efficiency
The efficiency of any amplifier is the ratio of the output signal power supplied to a load
to the total power from the dc supply. The maximum output signal power that can be
obtained is given by Equation 4. The average power supply current, ICC, is equal to I CQ and
the supply voltage is at least 2VCEQ. Therefore, the total dc power is

The maximum efficiency of a capacitively coupled class A amplifier is

The maximum efficiency of a capacitively coupled class A amplifier cannot be higher

than 0.25, or 25%, and, in practice, is usually considerably less (about 10%). Although the
efficiency can be made higher by transformer coupling the signal to the load, there are
drawbacks to transformer coupling. These drawbacks include the size and cost of
transformers as well as potential distortion problems when the transformer core begins to
saturate. In general, the low efficiency of class A amplifiers limits their usefulness to small
power applications that require usually less than 1 W.

Example № 2.
Determine the efficiency of the power amplifier in Figure 4 (Example 1).

SOLUTION

Transformer Coupled Class A Output

The circuit shown in fig. 4a is a class A power output stage, but its efficiency is improved
by using an output transformer instead of the resistor as its load. The transformer primary
winding has high apparent impedance (ZP) at audio frequencies because of the action of
the transformer in ‘magnifying’ the impedance of the loudspeaker. As shown by the formula:

The apparent impedance of the primary winding (Z P) will be the actual impedance of the
loudspeaker (ZLS) multiplied by the square of the turn’s ratio.
Although the impedance of the transformer primary winding is high, its DC resistance (at
0Hz) is practically zero ohms. Therefore while a class A voltage amplifier might be
expected to have a collector voltage of about half supply, a class A power amplifier will
have a DC collector voltage approximately equal to the supply voltage (+12V in Fig.4a) and
because of the transformer action, this allows a voltage swing of 12V above and below the
DC collector voltage, making a maximum peak to peak signal voltage (Vpp) available of
24V.

Fig 4. Basic Class A Power Amplifier [5]

With no signal, the quiescent collector current of the (medium power) output transistor
may typically be about 50mA. When a signal is applied, the collector current will vary
substantially above and below this level.
Class A power amplifiers, using the relatively linear part of the transistors characteristics
are less subject to distortion than other bias classes used in power amplifiers, and although
their inferior efficiency improves when output transformers are used, the introduction of a
transformer can itself produce additional distortion. This can be minimised by restricting
amplitude of the signal so as to utilise less than the full power of the amplifier, but even
under optimum conditions the efficiency of class A presents problems. With substantially
less than 50% of the power consumed from the supply going into the signal power supplied
to the loudspeaker, the wasted power is simply produced as heat, mainly in the output
transistor(s).
In large high power amplifiers class A is not practical. For example an amplifier used to
produce 200W to a large loudspeaker system would need a 400W amplifier producing at its
most efficient, 200W of wasted heat that must be dissipated by very large transistors and
even larger heat-sinks if overheating, and subsequent component failure is to be avoided.
Class A output stages are therefore used mainly in low to medium power output stages of 1
to 2 watt and below, such as domestic radio or TV receivers and headphone amplifiers.

3. THE CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER

When an amplifier is biased at cutoff so that it operates in the linear region for of the
input cycle and is in cutoff for 180° it is a class B amplifier. Class AB amplifiers are biased
to conduct for slightly more than 180°. The primary advantage of a class B or class AB
amplifier over a class A amplifier is that either one is more efficient than a class A amplifier;
you can get more output power for a given amount of input power. A disadvantage of class
B or class AB is that it is more difficult to implement the circuit in order to get a linear
reproduction of the input waveform. The term push-pull refers to a common type of class B
or class AB amplifier circuit in which two transistors are used on alternating half-cycles to
reproduce the input waveform at the output.

Class B Operation

The Q-Point is at Cutoff. The class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff point so that
 It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input signal drives
the transistor into conduction. This is illustrated in Figure 6 with an emitter-follower circuit
where the output is not a replica of the input.

Fig. 5. Basic class B amplifier operation (noninverting) [2]

Fig. 6. Common-collector class B amplifier [2]

Class B Push-Pull Operation

As you can see, the circuit in Figure 6 only conducts for the positive half of the cycle.
To amplify the entire cycle, it is necessary to add a second class B amplifier that operates
on the negative half of the cycle.
The combination of two class B amplifiers working together is called push-pull
operation. There are two common approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to reproduce
the entire waveform. The first approach uses transformer coupling. The second uses two
complementary symmetry transistors; these are a matching pair of npn/pnp BJTs.
Complementary Symmetry Transistors
Figure 7 shows one of the most popular types of push-pull class B amplifiers using
two emitter-followers and both positive and negative power supplies. This is a
complementary amplifier because one emitter-follower uses an npn transistor and the other
a pnp, which conduct on opposite alternations of the input cycle. Notice that there is no dc
base bias voltage (VB=0). Thus, only the signal voltage drives the transistors into
conduction. Transistor Q1 conducts during the positive half of the input cycle, and Q2
conducts during the negative half.

(a) During a positive half-cycle (b) During a negative half-cycle

Fig. 7. Class B push-pull ac operation [2]

Crossover Distortion When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and
the input signal voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts. Because of this,
there is a time interval between the positive and negative alternations of the input when
neither transistor is conducting, as shown in Figure 8. The resulting distortion in the output
waveform is called crossover distortion.

Fig. 8. Crossover distortion in a class B push-pull amplifier [2]

Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the VBE
of the transistors; this results in a modified form of operation called class AB. In class AB
operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight conduction, even when no input signal
is present. This can be done with a voltage-divider and diode arrangement, as shown in
Figure 9. When the diode characteristics of D1 and D2 are closely matched to the
characteristics of the transistor base-emitter junctions, the current in the diodes and the
current in the transistors are the same; this is called a current mirror. This current mirror
produces the desired class AB operation and eliminates crossover distortion.

Fig. 9. Biasing the push-pull amplifier with current-mirror

diode bias to eliminate crossover distortion [2]

In the bias path of the circuit in Figure 9, R1 and R2 are of equal value, as are the
positive and negative supply voltages. This forces the voltage at point A (between the
diodes) to equal 0 V and eliminates the need for an input coupling capacitor. The dc voltage
on the output is also 0 V. Assuming that both diodes and both complementary transistors
are identical, the drop across D1 equals the V BE of Q1, and the drop across D2 equals the
VBE of Q2. Since they are matched, the diode current will be the same as I CQ. The diode
current and ICQ can be found by applying Ohm’s law to either R1 or R2 as follows:

This small current required of class AB operation eliminates the crossover distortion
but has the potential for thermal instability if the transistor’s VBE drops are not matched to
the diode drops or if the diodes are not in thermal equilibrium with the transistors. Heat in
the power transistors decreases the base-emitter voltage and tends to increase current. If
the diodes are warmed the same amount, the current is stabilized; but if the diodes are in a
cooler environment, they cause ICQ to increase even more. More heat is produced in an
unrestrained cycle known as thermal runaway. To keep this from happening, the diodes
should have the same thermal environment as the transistors. In some cases, a small
resistor in the emitter of each transistor can alleviate thermal runaway.
AC Operation
Consider the ac load line for Q1 of the class AB amplifier in Figure 9. The Q-point is
slightly above cutoff. (In a true class B amplifier, the Q-point is at cutoff.) The ac cutoff
voltage for a two-supply operation is at VCC with an ICQ as given earlier. The ac saturation
current for a two-supply operation with a push-pull amplifier is

(5)
The ac load line for the npn transistor is as shown in Figure 10. The dc load line can
be found by drawing a line that passes through VCEQ and the dc saturation current,
IC(sat). However, the saturation current for dc is the current if the collector to emitter is
shorted on both transistors! This assumed short across the power supplies obviously would
cause maximum current from the supplies and implies the dc load line passes almost
vertically through the cutoff as shown. Operation along the dc load line, such as caused by
thermal runaway, could produce such a high current that the transistors are destroyed.

Fig.10. Load lines for a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier [2]

Under maximum conditions, transistors Q1 and Q2 are alternately driven from near
cutoff to near saturation. During the positive alternation of the input signal, the Q1 emitter is
driven from its Q-point value of 0 to nearly VCC, producing a positive peak voltage a little
less than VCC. Likewise, during the negative alternation of the input signal, the Q2 emitter
is driven from its Q-point value of 0 V, to near producing a negative peak voltage almost
equal to Although it is possible to operate close to the saturation current, this type of
operation results in increased distortion of the signal.
The ac saturation current (Equation 5) is also the peak output current. Each
transistor can essentially operate over its entire load line. Recall that in class A operation,
the transistor can also operate over the entire load line but with a significant difference. In
class A operation, the Q-point is near the middle and there is significant current in the
transistors even with no signal. In class B operation, when there is no signal, the transistors
have only a very small current and therefore dissipate very little power. Thus, the efficiency
of a class B amplifier can be much higher than a class A amplifier. It will be shown later that
the maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier is 79%.
Example № 3.
Determine the ideal maximum peak output voltage and current for the circuit shown
in Figure 11.

Fig. 11. Push-pull amplifier class B

SOLUTION

Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier

Push-pull amplifiers using complementary symmetry transistors can be operated
from a single voltage source as shown in Figure 12. The circuit operation is the same as
that described previously, except the bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to be
VCC/2 instead of zero volts used with two supplies. Because the output is not biased at
zero volts, capacitive coupling for the input and output is necessary to block the bias
voltage from the source and the load resistor. Ideally, the output voltage can swing from
zero to VCC, but in practice it does not quite reach these ideal values.
 Fig.12. Single-ended push-pull amplifier [2]

4. THE CLASS B/AB POWER AMPLIFIER

Maximum Output Power You have seen that the ideal maximum peak output current
for both dual-supply and single-supply push-pull amplifiers is approximately Ic(sat), and the
maximum peak output voltage is approximately VCEQ. Ideally, the maximum average output
power is, therefore,

Substituting VCC/2 for VCEQ, the maximum average output power is

(6)
DC Input Power
The dc input power comes from the VCC supply and is

Since each transistor draws current for a half-cycle, the current is a half-wave signal
with an average value of

Efficiency
 An advantage of push-pull class B and class AB amplifiers over class A is a much
higher efficiency. This advantage usually overrides the difficulty of biasing the class AB
push-pull amplifier to eliminate crossover distortion. Recall that efficiency, is defined as the
ratio of ac output power to dc input power.

The maximum efficiency for a class B amplifier (class AB is slightly less) is

developed as follows, starting with Equation 6.

Example № 4.
Find the maximum ac output power and the dc input power of the amplifier in Figure
13.

SOLUTION

Fig. 13. Push-pull amplifier class AB [2]

 Input Resistance
The complementary push-pull configuration used in class B/class AB amplifiers is, in
effect, two emitter-followers. The input resistance for the emitter-follower, where R1 and R2
are the bias resistors, is

(8)

Class AB Complementary Push Pull Output Stage

The output circuit shown in Fig 13a includes many of the features and techniques
described throughout Amplifier Modules 1 to 5. It shows a class AB output stage (Tr2 and
Tr3) and a class A audio driver (voltage amplifier) Trl. The circuit features both AC negative
feedback to reduce distortion and noise, and widen bandwidth, as well as DC negative
feedback to stabilise the DC biasing. There is also some positive feedback, ‘Bootstrapping’
applied to increase input impedance and improve efficiency. Other essential features
include the use of diodes to provide thermal stability, and some bias adjustments to give
minimum distortion.

Fig 13a. Class AB Output Stage [5]

 Operation
Tr1 driver transistor is a class A voltage amplifier fed with a variable amplitude audio
signal from the input via the volume control VR1. Bias for Tr1 is provided via the potential
divider R2, Vr2 & R3 from the junction of Tr2 & Tr3 emitters, which will be at half of the
supply voltage.

DC Bias Stabilisation
Biasing for Tr2 and Tr3 is provided by the current flowing through the loudspeaker
(which is also the output load for the amplifier), R5 and VR3. This provides an appropriate
base current on Tr2 and Tr3 to make the emitters of Tr2 and Tr3 (the mid-point), half of the
supply voltage. Because the base bias for Tr1 (via R2, VR2 and R3) is taken from the
emitters of Tr2 and Tr3, if the voltage at the mid-point increases, the bias on Tr1 base will
also increase, causing Tr1 to conduct more heavily.
The collector voltage on Tr1 would therefore fall, also causing the voltages on the
bases of Tr2 and Tr3 to fall. As Tr2 is NPN and Tr3 is PNP this would tend to turn Tr2 off
and Tr3 on, reducing the voltage at the mid-point until it returns to its correct value of half
supply.
If the voltage at the mid-point falls too far, this will result in a lowering of the bias
voltage on Tr1, turning it off and increasing its collector voltage, and also the base voltages
of Tr2 and Tr3. This action will increase the conduction in (NPN transistor) Tr2 and
decrease conduction in (PNP transistor) Tr3, raising the mid-point to its correct voltage
once more.

Temperature Compensation
Dl & D2 are two silicon diodes having a similar junction potential as Tr2 and Tr3.
They are connected across the output transistors base/emitter junctions to improve thermal
stability. As Tr2 and Tr3 warm up, their base/emitter junction potentials will naturally fall.
This would lead to over biasing and more current flow in the transistors, leading eventually
to thermal runaway. D1 & D2 are usually mounted on the same heat-sinks as the output
transistors. Therefore as Tr2 and Tr3 heat up, so will D1 and D2.
The junction potential of the diodes also falls, and they begin to conduct. Because
the voltage between the two output transistor bases is set by VR1 to 1.2V under cold
conditions, Dl and D2 are initially just cut off. However if these diode junction potentials fall
due to heating, they will begin to conduct and reduce to voltage between Tr1 and Tr2
bases. This will therefore reduce the bias on the output transistors and so maintain correct
class AB bias conditions.

Mid-Point Adjustment
It is important that the mid-point voltage is kept accurately at half supply in order to
obtain the maximum peak to peak output signal without clipping either peak of the
waveform. VR2 is made variable so that the mid point voltage can be accurately set. This
adjustment should only be needed after manufacture or when any components have been
replaced. With no signal applied, a voltmeter connected to the mid point and VR2 is
adjusted for half supply voltage.

Crossover Adjustment
VR3 is the ‘Crossover Control’ and it is adjusted with a sine wave signal applied to
the amplifier input and observed on an oscilloscope connected across the output load, to
give minimum crossover distortion. VR3 would be adjusted, either during manufacture or
after component replacement, so that the voltage difference between the bases of Tr2 and
Tr3 is such that a small standing (quiescent) current is flowing in to the bases of both Tr2
and Tr3. The voltage across VR3 will therefore be about 0.6 x 2 = 1.2V.
 Because the effects of VR2 and VR3 interact with each other the adjustments would
normally need to be repeated a number of times, each time with decreasing amounts of
adjustment until both are correct, with the mid point voltage at half supply and crossover
distortion minimised.
In commercial equipment, the correct method for adjusting VR2 and VR3 would
normally be given in the manufacturers manual and these instructions should be followed
precisely. The mid point and crossover controls are preset controls and once adjusted
during manufacture should not normally be re-adjusted except where components have
been replaced.
AC Negative Feedback
AC negative feedback is provided by C2 to increase bandwidth and especially to
reduce distortion. This is important, as it is not possible to entirely eliminate crossover
distortion by careful biasing alone.

Bootstrapping
Tr2 & Tr3 are biased in class AB, and so must be biased just before cut off (i.e. with
0.6V between base and emitter). The bias resistor network for these transistors also forms
the resistive load for Tr1. Therefore the value of R5 and VR3 is governed by the DC
voltages required for correct base biasing of TR2 and Tr3.
To provide a high gain in the class A driver stage Tr1 the collector load should have
as high a resistance as possible; this conflicts with the DC requirements for biasing Tr2 and
Tr3. However the collector load resistor of Tr1 actually only needs to have a high resistance
to AC signals; if a way can be found to give R5 and VR3 a high impedance at audio
frequencies and yet retain an appropriate (much lower) resistance at DC the gain in the
driver stage Tr1 can be increased.
To achieve this increase in gain, AC positive feedback (bootstrapping) is provided by
C2, which feeds back the AC output signal to the top of R5. This AC signal is in phase with
the signal on Tr2 and Tr3 bases, and positive feedback would normally cause oscillation,
but this is prevented by the fact that Tr2 and Tr3 are operating in emitter follower mode and
the voltage gain of an emitter follower is less than 1 (typically about 0.9).
This means that whatever the amplitude of the signal voltage is on Tr1 collector,
about 0.9 of this signal appears at the top of R5, so the AC voltage developed across VR3
and R5 appears to be only one tenth of the signal on Tr1 collector, therefore the (AC) value
of resistance of VR3 and R5 appears to be ten times higher than it actually is, giving a x10
increase in the gain of Tr1 without any change in the DC resistance of VR3 and R5.

Quasi Class AB
Complementary output stages can be used effectively for power amplifiers, but as
power increases above a few watts it becomes increasingly difficult to find PNP and NPN
transistors with characteristics sufficiently closely matched to provide equal amplification of
positive and negative half cycles. One solution is to use a Quasi-complementary output
stage as illustrated in Fig. 13b. In this circuit a low power complementary pair (Tr1 and Tr2)
are used to drive a pair of High Power NPN output transistors (Tr3 and Tr4).
 Fig 13b. Quasi Class AB [2]

5. THE CLASS C POWER AMPLIFIER

Class C amplifiers are biased so that conduction occurs for much less than Class C
amplifiers are more efficient than either class A or push-pull class B and class AB, which
means that more output power can be obtained from class C operation. The output
amplitude is a nonlinear function of the input, so class C amplifiers are not used for linear
amplification. They are generally used in radio frequency (RF) applications, including
circuits, such as oscillators, that have a constant output amplitude, and modulators, where
a high-frequency signal is controlled by a low-frequency signal.

Basic Class C Operation

The basic concept of class C operation is illustrated in Figure 14. A common-emitter
class C amplifier with a resistive load is shown in Figure 15(a). A class C amplifier is
normally operated with a resonant circuit load, so the resistive load is used only for the
purpose of illustrating the concept. It is biased below cutoff with the negative VBB supply.
The ac source voltage has a peak value that is slightly greater than so that the base
voltage exceeds the barrier potential of the base-emitter junction for a short time near the
positive peak of each cycle, as illustrated in Figure 15(b). During this short interval, the
transistor is turned on. When the entire ac load line is used, as shown in Figure 15(c), the
ideal maximum collector current is Ic(sat), and the ideal minimum collector voltage is
Vce(sat).

Fig. 14. Class C amplifier [2]

 (a) Basic class C amplifier circuit [2]

(b) Input voltage and output current (c) Load line operation
waveforms
Fig. 15. Basic class C operation [2]

Power Dissipation
The power dissipation of the transistor in a class C amplifier is low because it is on
for only a small percentage of the input cycle. Figure 16(a) shows the collector current
pulses. The time between the pulses is the period (T) of the ac input voltage. The collector
current and the collector voltage during the on time of the transistor are shown in Figure
16(b).
To avoid complex mathematics, we will assume ideal pulse approximations. Using
this simplification, if the output swings over the entire load, the maximum current amplitude
is Ic(sat) and the minimum voltage amplitude is Vce(sat) during the time the transistor is on.
The power dissipation during the on time is, therefore,

The transistor is on for a short time, ton, and off for the rest of the input cycle.
Therefore, assuming the entire load line is used, the power dissipation averaged over the
entire cycle is
 (a) Collector current pulses (b) Ideal class C waveforms
Fig. 16. Class C waveforms [2]

Example № 5.
A class C amplifier is driven by a 200 kHz signal. The transistor is on for 1 ms,
and the amplifier is operating over 100 percent of its load line. If Ic(sat) = 100 mA and
Vce (sat) = 0.2 V, what is the average power dissipation of the transistor?

SOLUTION

Tuned Operation
Because the collector voltage (output) is not a replica of the input, the resistively
loaded class C amplifier alone is of no value in linear applications. It is therefore necessary
to use a class C amplifier with a parallel resonant circuit (tank), as shown in Figure 16(a).
The resonant frequency of the tank circuit is determined by the formula The short pulse of
collector current on each cycle of the input initiates and sustains the oscillation of the tank
circuit so that an output sinusoidal voltage is produced, as illustrated in Figure 17. The tank
circuit has high impedance only near the resonant frequency, so the gain is large only at
this frequency.
 Fig.17. Tuned class C amplifier [2]

The current pulse charges the capacitor to approximately +VCC, as shown in Figure
18(a). After the pulse, the capacitor quickly discharges, thus charging the inductor. Then,
after the capacitor completely discharges, the inductor’s magnetic field collapses and then
quickly recharges C to near VCC in a direction opposite to the previous charge. This
completes one half-cycle of the oscillation, as shown in parts (b) and (c) of Figure 18. Next,
the capacitor discharges again, increasing the inductor’s magnetic field. The inductor then
quickly recharges the capacitor back to a positive peak slightly less than the previous one,
due to energy loss in the winding resistance. This completes one full cycle, as shown in
parts (d) and (e) of Figure 18. The peak-to-peak output voltage is therefore approximately
equal to 2VCC.
The amplitude of each successive cycle of the oscillation will be less than that of the
previous cycle because of energy loss in the resistance of the tank circuit, as shown in
Figure 19(a), and the oscillation will eventually die out. However, the regular recurrences of
the collector current pulse re-energize the resonant circuit and sustain the oscillations at
constant amplitude. When the tank circuit is tuned to the frequency of the input signal
(fundamental), reenergizing occurs on each cycle of the tank voltage, Vr, as shown in
Figure 19(b). When the tank circuit is tuned to the second harmonic of the input signal, re-
energizing occurs on alternate cycles as shown in Figure 19(c). In this case, a class C
amplifier operates as a frequency multiplier. By tuning the resonant tank circuit to higher
harmonics, further frequency multiplication factors are achieved.
Fig.18. Resonant circuit action [2]
 Fig. 19. Tank circuit oscillations. Vr is the voltage across the tank circuit [2]

Maximum Output Power

Since the voltage developed across the tank circuit has a peak-to-peak value of
approximately 2VCC, the maximum output power can be expressed as

(9)
Rc is the equivalent parallel resistance of the collector tank circuit at resonance and
represents the parallel combination of the coil resistance and the load resistance. It usually
has a low value. The total power that must be supplied to the amplifier is
 (10)

When Pout >>7 PD(avg), the class C efficiency closely approaches 1 (100 percent).

6. Power Transistors & Heat Sinks

Power Transistors
There is not a clear cut difference between ‘ordinary’ transistors used in voltage
amplifiers and power transistors, but generally Power transistors can be categorised as
those than can handle more than 1 Ampere of collector (or Drain in the case of FETs)
current.

Because power transistors, such as those shown in Figure handle larger currents
and higher voltages, they have a different construction to small signal devices. They must
have low output resistances so that they can deliver large currents to the load, and good
junction insulation to withstand high voltages. They must also be able to dissipate heat very
quickly so they do not overheat. As most heat is generated at the collector/base junction,
the area of this junction is made as large as possible.

Power and Temperature

The maximum power rating of a transistor is largely governed by the temperature of
the collector/base junction as can be seen from the power de-rating graph in Fig. 20. If too
much power is dissipated, this junction gets too hot and the transistor will be destroyed, a
typical maximum temperature is between 100°C and 150°C, although some devices can
withstand higher maximum junction temperatures. The maximum power output available
from a power transistor is closely linked to temperature, and above 25°C falls in a linear
manner to zero power output as the maximum permissible temperature is reached.

Power De-rating
For example, a transistor such as the TIP31 having a quoted maximum power output
PTOT of 40W can only handle 40W of power IF the case temperature (slightly less than the
junction temperature) is kept below 25°C. The performance of a power transistor is closely
dependant on its ability to dissipate the heat generated at the collector base junction.
Minimising the problem of heat is approached in two main ways:
 1. By operating the transistor in the most efficient way possible, that is by choosing a
class of biasing that gives high efficiency and is least wasteful of power.
2. By ensuring that the heat produced by the transistor can be removed and
effectively transferred to the surrounding air as quickly as possible.

Fig. 20. Power de-rating Graph for the TIP31

Method 2 above, highlights the importance of the relationship between a power

transistor and its heat sink, a device attached to the transistor for the purpose of removing
heat. The physical construction of power transistors is therefore designed to maximise the
transfer of heat to the heat sink. In addition to the usual collector lead-out wire, the collector
of a power transistor, which has a much larger area than that of a small signal transistor, is
normally in direct contact with the metal case of the transistor, or a metal mounting pad,
which may then be bolted or clipped directly on to a heat-sink. Typical metal cased and
metal body power transistors.
Because power amplifiers generate substantial amounts of heat, which is wasted
power, they are made to be as efficient as possible. With voltage amplifiers, low distortion is
of greater importance than efficiency, but with power amplifiers, although distortion cannot
be ignored, efficiency is vital.

Heat-sinks
A heat-sink is designed to remove heat from a transistor and dissipate it into the
surrounding air as efficiently as possible. Heat-sinks take many different forms, such as
finned aluminium or copper sheets or blocks, often painted or anodised matt black to help
dissipate heat more quickly. A selection of heat-sinks is illustrated in Fig. 21. Good physical
contact between the transistor and heat-sink is essential, and a heat transmitting grease
(heat-sink compound) is smeared on the contact area before clamping the transistor to the
heat-sink.
 Fig. 21. Heat-sinks

Where it is necessary to maintain electrical insulation between transistor and heat-

sink a mica layer is used between the heat-sink and transistor. Mica has excellent
insulation and very good heat conducting properties.

Choosing the Right Heat-sink

Many heat-sinks are available to fit specific transistor package types, (‘package’
refers to the shape and dimensions of the transistor). Fig 22 shows the various stages in
fitting a typical clip on heat-sink.
a. Shows a tube of heat-sink compound.
b. Shows a TO220 clip on heat-sink.
c. Shows a TIP31 transistor, which has a TO220 package type, ready for mounting.
d. Shows the metal body of the transistor smeared with heat-sink compound. This
is essential to create efficient heat transfer between the transistor and heat-sink.
e. Shows the transistor fitted to the heat-sink.
f. Shows an alternative method of mounting, used when the metal body of the
transistor, (which is usually also the collector terminal), must be insulated from the heat-
sink. This example uses a TO220 shaped mica washer, and the transistor is clamped to the
heat-sink with a bolt fitted through the small insulating bush.

Fig. 22. Fitting a TO220 Heat-sink

References
1. Alexander Ch., Sadiku M. Fundamentals of electric circuits. Fifth edition. McGraw-
Hill. 2013.
2. Floyd, Thomas L. Electronic devices : electron flow version / Thomas L. Floyd.- 9th
ed. 2012
3. Nagrath I. J. , ELECTRONICS: Analog and Digital, Kindle Edition
4. David Crecraft, Stephen Gergely. Analog Electronics: Circuits, Systems and Signal
Processing 1st Edition
5. www.learnabout-electronics.org
6. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/category/dccircuits