LECTURE II

Performance Characteristics

Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the

performance of an instrument.

◼ E.g.: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.

Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific

applications.

Two basic characteristics :

◼ Static

◼ Dynamic

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 Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
• The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not
vary with respect to time are called static characteristics.
• Sometimes, these quantities or parameters may vary slowly with respect to time.
✓ Accuracy:
▪ Accuracy is the closeness with which the reading measured value approaches an
accepted standard value or the true value of the measured quantity.
▪ Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong
▪ Accuracy of the measured signal depends upon the following factors:
• Intrinsic accuracy of the instrument itself;
• Accuracy of the observer;
• Variation of the signal to be measured; and
• Whether or not the quantity is being truly impressed upon the instrument
✓ Precision:
▪ Precision is the closeness with which individual measurements are distributed
about the mean value.
▪ Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., precision
is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from one
another.
▪ Answers:-How much do the measurements vary from trial to trial? 3
 Accuracy vs Precision
 The accuracy represents the degree of correctness of the
measured value with respect to the true value and the precision
represents degree of repeatability of several independent
measurements of the desired input at the same reference
conditions.

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 Repeatability
▪ Describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout

 Reproducibility
▪ Describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument,
location, conditions of use and time of measurement.

▪ Resolution
▪ The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the measured value to
which the instrument will respond.
▪ Thus, the resolution or discrimination of any instrument is the smallest change
in the input signal (quantity under measurement) which can be
▪ detected by the instrument.
▪ For a digital instrument it depends on the number of digits on the display.

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▪ Range or Span
▪ The range of an instrument refers to the minimum and maximum values of
the input variable for which it has been designed to measure.
▪ The range chosen should be such that the reading is large enough to give
close to the required precision.
▪ Bandwidth
▪ The bandwidth of an instrument is the difference between the minimum and
maximum frequencies for which it has been designed.
▪ If the signal is outside the bandwidth of the instrument, it will not be able to
follow changes in the quantity being measured.
▪ Sensitivity
▪ The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument
output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given
amount. The ratio of the change in output to the corresponding change in
input is defined as static sensitivity K.

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Tolerance
 Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error
that is to be expected in some value.
 While it is not, strictly speaking, a static characteristic of measuring instruments, it is
mentioned here because the accuracy of some instruments is sometimes quoted as a
tolerance value.
 When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured
component from some specified value.
 For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many
microns(10-6 m), and electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of
perhaps  5%.
Dead-band
 Is the largest change of input to which the system does not respond (no change in
output value).
 Threshold, Hysteresis, Drift, Back-lash, linearity

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 Dynamic Characteristics
 The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or
parameters that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic
characteristics.
 The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behavior
between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the
instrument output attains a steady value in response.
 Speed of response
 This is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.
 Measuring lag
 It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes
in the measured quantity.
 Fidelity
 This is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.
 Dynamic error
 It is the difference between the true value of the quantity being measured
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system.
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 The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system is governed
by instrument dynamic classification.
1. Zero order instruments (potentiometer)
2. First Order Instruments (thermocouple)
3. Second Order Instruments (accelerometer)

 As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic

characteristics quoted in instrument data sheets only apply when
the instrument is used under specified environmental conditions.
Outside these calibration conditions, some variation in the
dynamic parameters can be expected.

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 Calibration of instruments
 Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to
provide a result for a sample within an acceptable range.

 Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to

maintain instrument accuracy.

 The calibration procedures involve a comparison of the

particular characteristic with either a primary standard, a
secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument
to be calibrated, or an instrument of known accuracy.

 It checks the instrument against a known standard and

subsequently to errors in accuracy.

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 When do instruments need to be calibrated?
 Before major critical measurements- that requires highly
accurate data so that it remain unused before the test.

 After major critical measurements - helps user decide

whether the data obtained were reliable or not. Also, when
using an instrument for a long time, the instrument’s conditions
will change.

 After an event - For example, when something hits the

instrument or any kinds of accidents that might impact the
instrument’s accuracy. A safety check is also recommended.
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 When observations appear questionable - When you suspect the
data’s accuracy that is due to instrumental errors.

 Per requirements - Some experiments require calibration

certificates. Check the requirements first before starting the
experiment.

 Indicated by manufacturer - Every instrument will need to be

calibrated periodically to make sure it can function properly and
safely. Manufacturers will indicate how often the instrument will
need to be calibrated.

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 Measurement Errors
 There is no measurement that can be made with perfect accuracy therefore there will
always be some errors.
 An absolute error is defined as the difference between the measured and absolute (true)
value.
 Errors in measurement systems can be divided into those that arise during the
measurement process and those that arise due to later corruption of the measurement
signal by induced noise during transfer of the signal from the point of measurement to
some other point.
 It is extremely important in any measurement system to reduce errors to the minimum
possible level and then to quantify the maximum remaining error that may exist in any
instrument output reading.
 Errors are usually classified into:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
3. Random Errors
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 Gross Errors
 The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measurement results.

 This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and
calculating measurement results.

 The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter.

 The experimenter may grossly misread the scale due to an oversight or transpose the
reading while recording.

 Sometimes, the gross errors may also occur due to improper selection of the
instrument.

 Ways of Reducing Gross Errors

 Great care when reading and recording data

 More than one reading should be taken for the quantity under measurement.

 Choose the best suitable instrument, based on the range of values to be measured. 14
 Systematic Errors
 These are errors in the output readings of a measurement
system that are consistently on one side of the correct
reading, that is, either all the errors are positive or they
are all negative.
 Systematic errors in the output of many instruments are
due to factors inherent in the manufacture of the
instrument arising out of tolerances in the components of
the instrument.
 Systematic Errors can emanate from different sources.

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 Sources of Systematic Errors
 The main sources of systematic error in the output of
measuring instruments can be summarized as:
1. Effect of environmental disturbances, often called
modifying inputs
2. Instrumental errors
3. Observation errors
4. Changes in characteristics due to wear in instrument
components over a period of time
5. Resistance of connecting leads

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 Errors due to Environmental Inputs
 The environmental conditions surrounding the measurement system can
lead to errors.

 It is very difficult to avoid environmental inputs, because it is either

impractical or impossible to control the environmental conditions
surrounding the measurement system.

 Environmental errors – are due to conditions external to the measuring

device e.g. effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, vibrations or
external magnetic or electrostatic field.

 These errors are introduced due to using an instrument in different

conditions than in which it was assembled and calibrated.

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 In different environment, the characteristics of measuring instruments vary
to some extent and cause measurement errors.

 The static and dynamic characteristics specified for measuring instruments

are only valid for particular environmental conditions.

 System designers are therefore charged with the task of either reducing the
susceptibility of measuring instruments to environmental inputs or,
alternatively, quantifying the effect of environmental inputs and correcting
for them in the instrument output reading.

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 Minimizing Environment Errors
 Keeping conditions e.g temperature as nearly as constant
as possible

 Careful instrument design: Using equipment immune to

these effects e.g. materials with very low resistance
temperature coefficient.

 Use of magnetic or electrostatic shields.

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Instrumental errors:
These are due to;
 Inherent shortcomings in the instruments; these may be due to construction,
calibration and operation of the measuring devices.
 Misuse of the instruments; a good instrument used in a wrong way.
 Loading effects e.g use of voltmeter on high resistance circuit
 They can be reduced by;
✓ Calibration before measurement.
✓ Proper use of the measuring equipment
✓ Continuously monitoring for faults by checking for erratic behavior,
reproducibility and stability of results.
✓ Loading effects should be considered while planning any measurement.
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 Observational Errors

 This type of errors occur due to observer while taking the meter readings.

 Parallax errors belong to this type of errors.

 Wear in Instrument Components

❖ Systematic errors can frequently develop over a period of time because of wear in
instrument components.
❖ Recalibration often provides a full solution to this problem.
 Connecting Leads

 In connecting together the components of a measurement system, a common source of

error is the failure to take proper account of the resistance of connecting leads (or pipes in
the case of pneumatically or hydraulically actuated measurement systems).
 Reduced by:

 Careful consideration needs to be given to the choice of connecting leads.

 Not only should they be of adequate cross-section so that their resistance is minimized,
but they should be adequately screened if they are thought likely to be subject to electrical
or magnetic fields that could otherwise cause induced noise.
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 Random Errors
 Errors caused by unpredictable variations in the measurement system.

 They are usually observed as small perturbations of the measurement

either side of the correct value, i.e. positive and negative for a series of
measurements made of the same constant quantity.

 Typical sources of random error are:

1. Measurements are taken by human observation of an analog meter,

especially where this involves interpolation between scale points

2. Electrical noise

3. Random environmental changes, for example, sudden draft of air

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 They can be reduced by calculating the average of a number of
repeated measurements, provided that the measured quantity
remains constant during the process of taking the repeated
measurements.

 This averaging process of repeated measurements can be done

automatically by intelligent instruments.

 The degree of confidence in the calculated mean/median values

can be quantified by calculating the standard deviation or variance
of the data, these being parameters that describe how the
measurements are distributed about the mean value/median
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Errors due to Induced Measurement Noise
 Errors are also created in measurement systems when
electrical signals from measurement sensors and
transducers are corrupted by induced noise.
 This induced noise arises both within the measurement
circuit itself and also during the transmission of
measurement signals to remote points.
 Noise can be generated from sources both external and
internal to the measurement system.
 Induced noise from external sources arises in
measurement systems for a number of reasons that include
their proximity to mains-powered equipment and cables

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Common sources of noise in Instrumentation systems
Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling

 Capacitive coupling can occur between the signal wires in a

measurement circuit and a nearby mains-carrying conductor.

 It can also be cause by switching of nearby d.c. and a.c.

circuits.

 Capacitive coupling can be minimized by ensuring that signal

wires are positioned as far away as possible from such noise
sources.

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Noise due to multiple earths
 This is a condition caused when large currents machinery
connected to the same earth plane cause the potential to
vary between different points on the earth plane.

 This creates a series mode noise voltage in the measurement

circuit.

 Noise due to multiple earths can be avoided by good

earthing practices. In particular, this means keeping earths
for signal wires and earths for high-current equipment
entirely separate.
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Inductive Coupling
 This is the primary mechanism by which external devices such as
mains cables and equipment, fluorescent lighting and circuits
operating at audio or radio frequencies generate noise.

 If signal-carrying cables are close to such external cables or

equipment, a significant mutual inductance can exist between them.

 Noise due to inductive coupling is also substantially reduced if each

pair of signal wires is twisted together along its length.

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Noise in the form of voltage transients
 When motors and other electrical equipment are switched on and off,
large changes of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity
supply system.

 This can cause voltage transients (‘spikes’) in measurement circuits

connected to the same power supply.

 Corona discharge can also cause voltage transients on the mains

power supply. This occurs when the air in the vicinity of high voltage
DC circuits becomes ionized and discharges to earth at random
times.

 This can be avoided by having proper isolation of circuits.

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Shot Noise:

 Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated circuits, and other

semiconductor devices.

 It consists of random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers

across junctions within such devices.

Electrochemical Potentials:

 These are potentials that arise within measurement systems due to

electrochemical action.

 Poorly soldered joints are a common source.

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 Statistical analysis of measurements
 Since in Random errors, the error vary from trail to trail,
so we have to use statistical or data- processing method to
reduce the errors.
 The most important statistical operators are:
1. Mean - Sum of all values divided by the number of
quantities.

2. Median- It is the middle value in the data set when the

measurements are written down in ascending order of
magnitude.
3. Mode -the most frequently occurring value in a data set
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 Deviation (Error)- the difference of each measurement
from the mean

 The variance (V) of the set of measurements is formally

defined as the mean of the squares of the deviations:

 The standard deviation (σ) of the set of measurements is

defined as the square root of the variance:

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 Self Assessment
1. Outline the necessity of having units in measurements and also briefly
describe different classes of SI units.

2. Distinguish between international, primary, secondary and working

standards

3. With aid of block diagram, outline and explain the elements of a

measurement system.

4. Define calibration and outline the conditions in which instruments are

calibrated.

5. Distinguish between gross error, systematic error and random error with
examples. What are the methods for their elimination/reduction?

6. Explain loading effect in measurement systems.

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