Lecture 7

General Definitions
Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

• Any sensor is an energy converter. No matter what you try to measure, you
always deal with energy transfer between the object of measurement to the
sensor.

• The process of sensing is a particular case of information transfer, and any

transmission of information requires transmission of energy.

Transducer: A device that converts energy of one form into energy of

another form.

Actuator :A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action

Stimulus: The quantity that is sensed. Sometimes called the measurand.

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Sensor category by Stimulus

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Classification of sensors

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 Requirements for interfacing
 Sensors and actuators almost never operate by themselves.

 They are more often parts of more complex systems and function within these
larger systems.

 It is indeed a rare occurrence when the specifications of sensors or actuators

match the needs of the system.

 Therefore most sensors and actuators need to be interfaced with the system in
which they operate.

 Needs:

➢ Matching (impedances, voltages, currents, power)

➢ Transformations (AC/DC, DC/AC, A/D, D/A, V to F, etc.)

➢ Matching of specifications (temperature ranges, environmental conditions, etc.)

➢ Alternative designs. Etc. 5

 Simple connection of sensors/actuators

 Block with Microprocessor

 Amplifier

 Driver

 Should be provided for sensor/processor and processor/actuator

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 Control implementation…

 A/D and signal conditioning may be separate from the

processor

 Entire circuitry may be integrated into a “smart sensor”

 Impedance matching is necessary at input to amplifier and at

processor
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Alternative control implementation

 Uses an integrated sensor (LM35) that contains some of the

necessary circuitry and may still require an A/D (this is a
simpler design)

 This design gives a smaller measurement range (0-85oC)

compared to previous design (−200 to 200oC or more)

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PLC based Connection

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 Input Devices

Magnetic reed proximity sensor; Hall proximity sensor; Inductive proximity sensor,
Capacity proximity sensor
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Input Devices

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 Output devices

• Displays

• electric motors

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 Actuators
 Actuators: are hardware devices that convert a controller command
signal into a change in a physical parameter .

 A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action

 ▪▪ The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity).

 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical

quantity into some alternative form (e.g. electric current to rotational
speed of electric motor).

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Types of Actuators

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 Categories of Sensors
 Sensors can be classified into two basic categories:

➢ Analog (continuous)

▪ Examples: thermocouple, strain gauges, potentiometers.

➢ Discrete

a) Binary (on/off): Examples: Limit switch, photoelectric switches.

b) Digital (e.g., pulse counter): Examples: photoelectric array , optical

encoder .

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 Limit Switch
 Limit switch (mechanical): Binary contact sensor in which lever arm
or pushbutton closes or opens an electrical contact.

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Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• Application of Capacitive Proximity

Sensors in a Electro-mechanical
System:

• Non-contact detection of metallic

and non-metallic objects such as
glass, wood and plastic

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 Application

• More capable of detecting liquids

and transparent objects that cannot
be detected by photoelectric sensors.
• Thus can be used for level
measurement

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 Principle of Operation
 A capacitive proximity sensor uses the principle of capacitance to
sense the presence of an object.

 It creates an electrostatic field that is used to sense when a part comes

into range.

 It changes its contacts to their energized state whenever an object

comes within sensing range.

 Some capacitive sensors have a built-in sensitivity adjustment, which

allows the user to alter the electric field strength emitted by the sensor.

 NB: The capacitive sensor consists mainly of a capacitive probe,

which produces an electrostatic field. When an object enters the
electrostatic field, the capacitance of the probe system is changed.
This change in capacitance triggers the sensor
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Sensing a Metallic Object

• Ends of object become charged.

• Plate size of the capacitor
effectively increased.
• Capacitance of the capacitor
increases.
• This causes the oscillator to stop.

• Detection circuitry switches the

output.
Sensing a Nonmetallic Object
• The capacitors nominal dielectric
(e.g. air) is replaced by another
insulator.

• This increases the capacitance

of the capacitor.
• The oscillator is stopped.

• Detection circuitry switches the

output.

• The object is removed from the

sensing range, the output returns
to its de-energized state.
Characteristics that affect capacitive sensor operation

• Target Size
A capacitive sensor will detect a larger target at a greater
distance than a smaller target of the same material.

• Target Material
A capacitive sensors detect metallic objects at greater
distances than non-metallic objects.

• Operating Distance
The closer an object is to an capacitive sensor, the more likely
it is to be sensed.
Characteristics that affect capacitive sensor operation

• Sensing Head Size (Active Zone)

• A capacitive sensor with a larger sensing head size

produces a larger sensing field. Targets at a higher
distance can be detected.

• Sensor Mounting

• Minimum clearance distance must be provided (interfere

with sensor performance).
Determining the Switching Distance
 Problems with Capacitive Sensors
• Too much sensitivity can cause problems.
- Sensor detects a part when it is not present.
- High signal strength detects surrounding objects.
• Problems, if the sensitivity is decreased too much.
- Sensor may not detect a part when it should.
• If both non-metallic and metallic parts are to be detected:
- Sensitivity must be adjusted for both materials.
- It is easier to detect a metallic object than a non-metallic object.
 Inductive Sensors
 Inductive sensors, like photoelectric and capacitive sensors, are contactless
switching devices.

 They simply work like a closed or opened switch (NO or NC).

 With a standard switch, moving a mechanical actuator opens or closes a circuit.

 Instead of using a mechanical actuator, inductive sensors are activated when a

metal object is within the sensing range.

 The inductive sensor consists mainly of a coil on a ferrite core.

 As current flows through this coil, it produces a magnetic field. When a metallic
object enters the magnetic field, the field is disturbed and the sensor activates.

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 Functional Parts of a Transducer
 Normally, a transducer senses the desired input in one physical form and
converts it to an output in another physical form.

 The transducers may be thought of consisting of 2 important and closely

related parts.

 These 2 parts are:

1. sensing element

2. transduction element

 In addition there may be many other auxiliary parts such as amplifiers and
other signal processing equipment, power supplies, calibrating and
reference sources and mechanical mounting features.

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Sensing element / detector element

 A detector or a sensing element is that part of a transducer

which responds to a physical phenomena.

 The response of the sensing element must be closely related to

the physical phenomena.

Transduction elements

 A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing

element to an electrical output.

 The transducer element in a way acts as a secondary transducer.

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 Factors influencing the choice of transducers
These factors are:
i. Operating principle
ii. Sensitivity
iii. Operating range
iv. Accuracy
v. Errors
vi. Transient and frequency response
vii. Stability and Reliability
viii. Operating environment

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 Photo Conductive Cell
 This works on the principle that the resistance
of the photo cell varies with incident light.
 Typical control circuit showing the
application of a photo cell is shown in Fig.
 The potentiometer is used to make adjustment
to compensate for manufacturing tolerances in
photocell sensitivity and relay operating
sensitivity.
 When light is incident on the photocell, its
resistance becomes low and the current
through the relay is consequently high to
operate the relay.
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 When the light is intercepted, the resistance increases reducing
the current through the relay.

 This drop in current may de-energize the relay. These

transducers are used

i. for counting packages moving in a conveyor belt

ii. in burglar alarm circuit where the interception of the light

activates an alarm circuit. This application mostly uses infra
red light which a burglar cannot see.

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 Thermo-resistive Transducers
 These are modulating transducers based on the thermo-resistive
transduction principle.

 Energy conversion is thermal to electrical by first detecting a change in

resistance.

 Have advantages of simplicity of interface circuits (e.g. Wheatstone

bridges), sensitivity and long-term stability

 Three main groups: RTDs, Thermistors, semiconductor detectors

(silicon based)

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
 A second commonly used temperature sensor is the resistance temperature detector
(RTD, also known as resistance thermometer).

 Unlike filled system thermometers, the RTD provides an electrical means of

temperature measurement, thus making it more convenient for use with a
computerized system.

 An RTD utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance and temperature,

which may either be linear or nonlinear.

 RTDs are traditionally used for their high accuracy and precision.

 However, at high temperatures (above 700oC) they become very inaccurate due to
degradation of the outer sheath, which contains the thermometer.

 Therefore, RTD usage is preferred at lower temperature ranges, where they are the
most accurate.
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 RTDs
 There are two main types of RTDs, the traditional RTD
and the thermistor
 Traditional RTDs use metallic sensing elements that
result in a linear relationship between temperature and
resistance.
 As the temperature of the metal increases, increased
random molecular movement impedes the flow of
electrons.
 The increased resistance is measured as a reduced
current through the metal for a fixed voltage applied.
 The thermistor uses a semiconductor sensor, which
gives a power function relationship between
temperature and resistance.
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 RTDs
 As shown in fig, the RTD contains an outer sheath to prevent contamination
from the surrounding medium.
 Ideally, this sheath is composed of material that efficiently conducts heat to
the resistor, but resists degradation from heat or the surrounding medium.
 The resistance sensor itself is responsible for the temperature measurement, as
shown in the diagram.
 Sensors are most commonly composed of metals, such as platinum, nickel, or
copper.
 The material chosen for the sensor determines the range of temperatures in
which the RTD could be used.
 For example, platinum sensors, the most common type of resistor, have a
range of approximately -200oC – 800oC.
 Connected to the sensor are two insulated connection leads. These leads
continue to complete the resistor circuit.

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 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

 Based on temperature dependence of the resistivities of all metals and most

alloys.

 Makes use of metal or thin films and some semiconductor materials.

 Mostly uses platinum (linear, predictable response, long-term stability, and

durability), but also nickel, copper, tungsten (rare) and alloys.

 Resistivity increases with temperature (positive temperature coefficient).

 Temperature-resistance relationship is given by Callendar-van Dusen

approximations:

 For the range from -200 to 0◦C

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 RTD characteristics
 Accurate (± 0.1 ºC)
 Highly linear over limited temperature range (platinum)
 Wide temperature range
 Long term stability
 Repeatable
 Resistant to contamination/corrosion (Pt)
Disadvantages of RTDs:
 Expensive wire wound but low cost film
 Low sensitivity (Pt100; 0.4Ω/ºC)
 Available in limited values (Pt100, Pt500, Pt1000)
 Slow response time
 Sensitive to shock and vibration
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 Self heat in RTDs
 RTDs are subject to errors due to rise in their temperature produced by the
heat generated in them by the current used to measure their resistance (Wire
wound or thin film)

 Power dissipated: Pd = I2R (I is the current (RMS) and R the resistance of the
sensor)

 Self heat depends on size and environment : Lower in large elements, higher
in small elements thus its important to lower the current as much as possible.

 Given as temperature rise per unit power (C/mW) Or: power needed to raise
temperature (mW/ C)
 Applications of RTDs:
 Oil & Gas industry: thermowells,

 Food & beverage,

 pharmaceutical and bio-technology

plants: Temperature dryers in food
processes, Pasteurization,

 Heat exchangers, furnaces

 Material storage tanks,

 Cookers/freezers, Dehydrator,

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 Thermoelectric sensors: Thermocouples
• These are some of the most useful and most common thermal sensors
• Energy conversion is thermal to electrical by directly generating an emf. (passive
sensor)
• Based on the principle that a potential difference develops across junctions of two
different metals maintained at two different (junction) temperatures (Seebeck
effect = Peltier effect + Thomson effect)
• Thermocouple junctions may be connected in series to form a thermopile.
• Metal thermocouples mostly available but can also have semiconductor
thermocouples.
• Special semiconductor thermocouples and thermopiles are available that can
generate heat or cool (usually called thermoelectric generators (TEGs) or Peltier
cells), hence used as actuators.
• Very small voltages generated, therefore amplification is needed for measurement.
• Generated emf can be influenced by noise …requires compensation.
• Thermocouples can operate on almost the entire range of temperature from near
absolute zero to about 2600oC.
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 EMF in Thermocouple Circuits

• Based on the Seebeck effect:

– An e.m.f. exists at a junction of two dissimilar metals. The e.m.f.
generated is a function of the junction temperatures
• Peltier effect:
– Heat is generated or absorbed at the junction of two dissimilar materials
when an e.m.f. exists across the junction due to the current produced by
the e.m.f. in the junction.
– This effect has found application in heating and cooling e.g. in portable
refrigerators and cooling electronic components
• Thomson effect:
– A current carrying wire, if unevenly heated along its length, will either
absorb or radiate heat depending on the direction of current in the wire
(from hot to cold or from cold to hot).
• The Seebeck effect is the sum of the Peltier and Thomson effects

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• If both ends of the two conductors are connected and a temperature
difference is maintained between the two junctions, a thermoelectric
current will flow through the closed circuit (generation mode).

• If the circuit is opened, an e.m.f. will appear across the open circuit
(sensing mode).
• The e.m.f. is measured in a thermocouple sensor.

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• Based on above figure, assuming homogeneous conductors and
junctions at two different temperatures;

• Seebeck e.m.f. across each of the conductors, a and b is given by

• Thermoelectric e.m.f. generated is

• αA and αB are the absolute Seebeck coefficients (μV/oC) and are

properties of the materials A, B.

• αAB = αA-αB is the relative Seebeck coefficient (μV/oC) of the material

combination A and B (coefficient normally used).
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• Seebeck coefficients are rather small – from a few
microvolts to a few millivolts per ◦C.

• Although output can be measured directly, it is often

amplified before interfacing to processors.

• Induced e.m.f due to external sources cause noise and care

must be exercised in using them.

• Thermocouples can be used as thermometers, however, the

signal is used to take some action (turn on or off a furnace,
detect pilot flame before turning on gas, etc.

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 Thermocouple Operation
• The main principle upon which the thermocouple function is based on is
the difference in the conductivities of the two wire materials that the
thermocouple is made of, at a given temperature.
• This conductivity difference increases at higher temperatures and
conversely, the conductivity difference decreases at lower temperatures.
• This disparity results in the thermocouples being more efficient and
useful at higher temperatures.
• Since the conductivity difference is small at lower temperatures and thus
more difficult to detect, they are inefficient and highly unreliable at low
temperatures.
• The conductivity difference between the two wires, along with a
temperature difference between the two junctions, creates an electrical
current that flows through the thermocouple.
• The first junction point, which is the point at which the two wires are
connected, is placed within the medium whose temperature is being
measured.

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• The second junction point is constantly held at a known reference
temperature.
• When the temperature of the medium differs from the reference temperature,
a current flows through the circuit.
• The strength of this current is based upon the temperature of the medium, the
reference temperature, and the materials of the metal wires.
• Since the reference temperature and materials are known, the temperature of
the medium can be determined from the current strength.
• Error associated with the thermocouple occurs at lower temperatures due to
the difficulty in detecting a difference in conductivities.
• Therefore, thermocouples are more commonly used at higher temperatures
(above -125oC) because it is easier to detect differences in conductivities.
Thermocouples are operable over a wide range of temperatures, from -200oC
to 2600oC, which indicates its robustness and vast applications.
• Thermocouples operate over this wide range of temperatures, without needing
a battery as a power source.
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• It should be noted that, the wire insulation might wear out over time by
heavy use, thus requiring periodical checks and maintenance to preserve
the accuracy of the thermocouple.

• To determine the temperature of the medium from the current strength,

the e.m.f. or voltage values of the current and of the wire materials at
the reference temperatures must be known.

• Often, the measured temperature can be found by using standard

thermocouple tables.

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 Thermocouple Applications

➢ Plastic injection molding machinery

➢ Food processing equipment

➢ Deicing

➢ Semiconductor processing

➢ Heat treating

➢ Medical equipment

➢ Industrial heat treating

➢ Packaging equipment

➢ Rotary Kilns

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 Thermocouples

Advantages Disadvantages
➢ Simple, Rugged ➢ Least stable, least repeatable
➢ High temperature operation ➢ Low sensitivity to small temperature
➢ Low cost changes

➢ No resistance lead wire problems ➢ Extension wire must be of the same

➢ Point temperature sensing thermocouple type

➢ Fastest response to temperature ➢ Wire may pick up radiated electrical

changes noise if not shielded

➢ Lowest accuracy

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Types of thermocouples

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 Photoelectric Sensors
• While limit switches require actual physical contact with an object in
order to provide detection, photoelectric sensors are capable of sensing
objects without physical contact.
• A photoelectric sensor is essentially a switch-like device, connecting or
disconnecting parts of an electrical circuit.
• The main difference is that the function of the switch actuator is now
replaced by a light beam.
• Photoelectric sensors contain two main components: the emitter and the
receiver.
• The emitter and the receiver can either be contained in the same housing
or in separate housings.
• Regardless, the functionality of all photoelectric sensors are essentially
the same: emit a beam of light and respond to the changes in light
intensity.

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Emitter

• The emitter contains a light source, which is often either an LED or a laser.

• LEDs are more ideal since they can operate over a wide range of
temperatures and tend to be cheaper and more resistant to damage than
lasers.

• Typical LEDs used as the light source include: infrared, visible red, green,
and blue.

Receiver

• The receiver contains a photo-detector which detects light from the emitter
and triggers an electronic circuit.

• This circuit then determines whether or not to give an output signal in the
form of an electrical voltage depending on the detected light intensity.

• The sensitivity of the receiver can be adjusted on many photoelectric sensors.

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 Principles of Photoelectric Sensors
• Sensing Modes
• Different sensing methods (or sensing modes) are possible with
photoelectric sensors.
• The most common methods are transmitted beam, retro reflective,
and diffuse.
• Transmitted beam (often referred to as through-beam) contains separate
housings for the emitter and the receiver.
• The emitter and receiver must be lined up.
• When an object blocks the beam, the sensor is triggered.

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• Retro reflective (or reflex) mode is the most used sensing method.

• Retro reflective sensors contain both the emitter and receiver in the
same housing.

• The emitted light beam simply reflects off a special reflective object
(such as a mirror) back to the receiver.

• As with the transmitted beam mode, the sensor is triggered when an

object blocks the beam.

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• Diffuse (or proximity) mode is often used when it is difficult or
impossible to have access to opposite sides of the object to be sensed.

• In this case, a light beam is directed towards the target position.

• When an object reaches the target position, the light beam is reflected
off the object.

• The light is scattered by the surface at all angles and only a small
portion is reflected back to the receiver.

• The sensor is triggered when this small reflected portion is detected in

the receiver.

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 Pyrometers
• Unlike the thermometer, RTD and the thermocouple, pyrometers (non-contact
temperature sensors) measures the amount of heat radiated, rather than the
amount of heat conducted and converted to the sensor.
• Various types of pyrometers, such as total radiation and photoelectric
pyrometers, exist.
• These pyrometers differ in the type of radiation they measure.
• There are many factors that influence the amount of radiated heat detected, thus
there are many assumptions that must be made regarding the emissivity, or the
measure of the manner in which heat is radiated, of the object.
• These assumptions are based upon the manner in which heat is radiated as well
as the geometry of the object.
• Because temperature is dependent on the emissivity of a body, these
assumptions regarding the emissivity introduce uncertainties and inaccuracies in
the temperature readings.
• Therefore, because of the error associated with them, pyrometers are not often
used in industry.
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 Types
• There are a few different types of pyrometers. There are optical and
radiation pyrometers.
How Optical Pyrometers Work:
• Compares the colour of visible light given off by the object with that of a
electrically heated wire
• The wire can be pre-set to a certain temperature
• The wire can be manually adjusted to compare the two objects
How Radiation Pyrometers Work:
• This sensor works by measuring the radiation (infrared or visible light)
that an object gives off
• The radiation heats a thermocouple in the pyrometer which in turn
induces a current
• The larger the current induced, the higher the temperature is

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 Self Study

• Write short notes on:

• Flow measurement

• Pressure measurement

• Translational Motion, Vibration, and Shock

Measurement

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