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 Unit - IV
---------------------------------------------------------
Solid State Physics
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Que.1. Explain Opening of band gap due to
internal electron diffraction and hence
explain formation of bands in solids [6]

When an electron moves through a lattice of

positive ions, it experiences varying potentials.
The potential of an electron at the positive ion
site is zero and is, maximum in between two
ions as shown in figure below. The dotted line is representing the motion for a
free electron. As electron is moving in a
periodic potential, it appears that there are gaps
which open in energy spectrum at an integer of

These gaps correspond to energy bands inside

the solids. Thus, the energy level of electron in
the crystal lattice is discrete.

Formation of Bands:

1. In a single isolated atom, the electrons in

each orbit have definite energy associated with
it. But in case of solids all the atoms are close
to each other, so the energy levels of outermost
orbit electrons are affected by the neighboring
atoms.
2. Band formation is preferred in solids as
atomic spacing is very small. In liquids and
gases as atomic spacing is much larger as
Kronig and Penney approximated these compared to solids so band formation is not
potentials inside the crystal to the shape of preferred.
rectangular steps. 3. When two single or isolated atoms are bring
close to each other, then the outermost orbit
electrons of two atoms are interact or shared
with each other i.e. the electrons in the
outermost orbit of one atom experience an
attractive force from the nearest or neighboring
atomic nucleus. Due to this the energies of the
electrons will not be in same level, the energy
The energies of electrons can be known by levels of electrons are changed to a value which
solving Schrödinger’s wave equation in such a is higher or lower than that of the original
lattice. energy level of the electron.
By solving the Schrödinger’s wave equation 5. However, the energy levels of inner orbit
using Bloch theorem, we get Energy vs electrons are not much affected by the presence
K (momentum) diagram of neighboring atoms.
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Que.2. Explain in brief how free electron theory it can be shown that 𝑘/σ𝑇=1.11x10-8
theory explains electrical conductivity and WΏ/K2.
thermal conductivity of solids, and relation
between electrical and thermal conductivity This number is also known as Lorentz’s
of solids (Wiedemann–Franz law). What are number. This number is based on
the limitations of this theory? [4] calculations as per Maxwell-Boltzman
distribution for electrons. If Fermi-Dirac
The electrons present in the outermost orbitals statistics is applied to electrons, this number
of the atom, determine the electrical properties is modified to 2.45x10-8 WΏ/K2., which
of the solid. The electron theory of solids agrees quite well with experimental
explains the structures and properties of solids findings.
through their electronic structure. The electron 6. Advantages (Success) of Free Electron
theory is applicable to all solids. The theory is Theory
developed in three phases: i) It verified Ohm’s law
ii) It explains electrical and thermal
1. This theory was developed by Drude and conductivities of metals.
Lorentz in 1900 and hence is also known as iii) It derived Wiedemann-Franz law (i.e.
Drude-Lorentz theory. According to this relation between electrical conductivity
theory, a metal consists of electrons which and thermal conductivity.
are free to move about in the crystal like iv) It explains optical properties of metals.
molecules of a gas in a container.
7. Disadvantages (Limitations) of Free
2. Neglecting the electron-electron interaction Electron Theory
and the electron-ion interaction, it appears
i) The phenomenon such as photoelectric
as if the electrons move in a confined box
effect, Compton effect, black body
with periodic collision with ions in the
radiations, etc could not be explained
lattice. This idea is utilized to explain many
properties of metals satisfactorily such as ii) The theoretical values of specific heat
electrical conductivity, Ohm’s law, thermal and electronic specific heat as calculated
conductivity etc. from this theory do not agree with
experimental values
3. Electrical conductivity of metal: It can be iii) Electrical conductivity of
shown that Electrical conductivity = semiconductors or insulators could not be
explained.
𝜎=𝑛𝑒𝜇, where n is electron density, e is
charge on electron and µ is the mobility of iv)Wiedemann-Franz law deviates at low
electrons. temperature.
v) Ferromagnetism could not be explained
4. Thermal Conductivity: Thermal by this theory.
conductivity is the property of material’s vi) The theoretical value of paramagnetic
ability to conduct the heat. From free susceptibility is greater than experimental
electron theory, it can be shown that value.
thermal conductivity𝐾=k𝐵𝑛𝑣λ/2, where kB
is Boltzmann constant. Que.3. Explain terms (a) valence band (b)
conduction band (c) band gap energy. [4]
5. Wiedemann-Franz Law:
The Wiedemann–Franz law states that the There are number of energy bands in solids but
ratio of the electronic contribution to the three of them are very important. These three
thermal conductivity (K) and the electrical energy bands are important to understand the
conductivity (σ) of a metal is proportional behavior of solids. These energy bands are -
to the temperature (T). From free electron
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Valence band, Conduction band, Forbidden
energy gap.  Under the external electric or magnetic
field, a moving electron inside a crystal will
Valance band: experience periodic variation of potential of
The energy band which is formed by grouping ions.
the range of energy levels of the valence  The mass of electron in crystal is different
electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called from mass of free electron in vacuum and is
as valence band. referred to as effective mass of electron. It
The topmost filled band at absolute zero is denoted by m*.
temperature is called as Valance band.  The effective mass of electron depends
heavily on its location in the energy band.
Conduction band:
The energy band which is formed by grouping  In the conduction band, electrons are freely
the range of energy levels of the free electrons moving inside the crystal. When energy of
is called as conduction band. free moving electron is minimum, it is near
the bottom of the conduction band. In this
The band of allowed energy levels higher to the
situation its effective mass is nearly
valence band will be vacant at absolute zero.
identical to the mass of free electron.
 Electrons that are tightly bound to the
Forbidden energy gap/bandgap:
orbits, near the top of valence band, have
The energy gap which is present between the
negative effective mass.
valence band and conduction band by
separating these two energy bands is called as
forbidden band or forbidden gap. Que.6. Derive the expression for
Ideally it is the energy difference between top conductivity of conductors. [6]
of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band. A metal piece consists of large number of
In solids, electrons cannot stay in forbidden gap closely packed atoms. The valence electrons in
because there is no allowed energy state in this these atoms are very loosely bound to the
region. nuclei and are free to move anywhere randomly
within the metal. These free electrons are called
as ‘conduction electrons’. In the absence of
external electric field the free electrons in the
metal moves randomly in all directions as
shown in figure.

When an external field is applied, the

random motion of electrons becomes directed
Que.4. Explain in brief concept of effective as shown in figure. Such directed motion is
mass of electron. [3] called as ‘drift’ and due to external electric
field, velocity acquired by the electrons is
known as ‘drift velocity’.
When accelerated by an electric field or This drift velocity depends on the applied
magnetic field, an isolated electron freely electric field E.
moving in vacuum has a well-defined mass and
it obeys Newtonian mechanics.
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  vE
or v  e . E      (1) Therefore, conductivity of conductors,
where , e  const.  electron mobility.
 ne  e  e            (6)
1
 e 
v  
E 

Therefore, electron mobility is defined as

‘average drift velocity acquired by the electron Que.6. Derive the expression for
under unit electric field’. conductivity of intrinsic and extrinsic
Consider a conductor of length l and cross semiconductors. [6]
section area A. Let voltage V is applied across
the semiconductor. The current flowing in the Consider a semiconductor of length l and
conductor is due to electrons as shown in cross section area A. Let voltage V is applied
figure. across the semiconductor. The current flowing
l
in the semiconductor is due to charge carriers
A both, electrons and holes as shown in figure.
Let,
n e  electron density in conduction band .

V
n h  hole density inalence band .
 e  electron mobility.
I  h  hole mobility.
v e  drift velocity of electrons .
Let, v h  drift velocity of holes.
e = charge of an electron
l
n = number of free electrons/unit volume = A I
electron density.
Current I is the total charge crossing the
volume per unit time V
n  e  vol
i.e. I  e
t I
ne  e  A  l l
i.e. I  but,  v  drift velocity
t t We have total current in the semiconductor is
 I  ne  e  A  ve          (2) total charge crossing the volume per unit time.
where , ve  drift velocity of electrons In semiconductors both electrons and holes are
charge carriers.
Now, ve   e  E
 equation ( 2) becomes,
 I  ne  e  A  v e  n h  e  A  v h
I  ne  e  A   e  E        (3)
where , ve & v h  drift velocities of electrons &
V
But, E  holes respective ly.
l
i.e. I  e  A (ne  ve  nh  v h )      (2)
V V
 I  ne  e  A  e         (4) Now, ve  e  E  e 
l l
V
V l l and vh  h  E  h 
 R  l
I ne  e  A  e A
 equation (2) becomes,
by Ohm' s law
V V
where ,   resistivit y of conductors. I  e  A( ne  e   nh   h  )
l l
1
             (5) i.e. I  e  A 
V
( ne  e  nh   h )
ne  e  e l

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
V
 R  resis tan ce
k = Boltzmann constant. = 1.38  10 23 J / 0 K
I
l l P(E) is called Fermi Dirac Probability
 
e  A  ( ne  e  nh   h ) A Distribution Function and kT is the thermal
where ,   resistivit y of semiconduc tors. energy of the electron at temperature T 0K.
1
  Fermi Level: It is the highest possible level of
e  ( ne  e  nh  h )
an electron at absolute zero temperature. It
need not be the energy level of an electron. It is
Therefore, conductivity of semiconductors, a statistical concept given for our
 e  ( ne  e  nh  h )      (3)
1
  understanding. (It is a reference energy level
 between valence band and conduction band to
understand weather the energy levels above it
Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors: or below it are occupied or not.)
The shape of F-D distribution is as shown
In intrinsic semiconductors, ne  nh  ni say below in figure.
 i  e  ni  (e  h )      (4) P(E)
At T= 0 0K
Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors: 1
At T1  0 0K

i) P-type: 0.5 At T2  T1 0K
For P-type semiconductors,
ne  n h  neglecting ne
0
 h  nh  e  h        (5) Ef E

ii) N-type: At T=0 K, probability that all the energy levels

For N-type semiconductors, below fermi-level are occupied by electrons is
n h  ne  neglecting n h 1 and that above fermi-level is 0.
 E  Ef 
 e  ne  e  e        (6) if E  E f  exp 0
  P( E )  1
 kT 
Thus at absolute zero temperature the
Que.7. What is Fermi level? Explain Fermi- probability of finding an electron with energy
Dirac probability distribution function less than Fermi energy is 1. i.e. all the levels
specifying the meaning of each symbol. [4] below Fermi level are occupied by the
OR electrons.
Write the formula for the Fermi Dirac  E  Ef 
if E  E f  exp 
  P( E )  0
probability distribution function. Draw in  kT 
the same figure the Fermi Dirac probability Thus at absolute zero temperature the
versus electron energy at T=0 K, T1 and T2 probability of finding an electron with energy
(where T2> T1> 0K). Explain the significance greater than Fermi energy is 0. i.e. all the levels
of the figure. [4] above Fermi level are empty.
The probability that an energy level E is
occupied by an electron, at temperature T is At T > 0 K,
given by, As we increase the temperature above 0 K, the
1
P( E )       (1) probability of occupancy of levels above fermi-
 E  Ef 
exp  1 level increases and that of below Fermi-level
 kT 
  decreases.
Where,
Ef = Fermi Energy (Energy of Fermi level)
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  E  Ef  We know,
if E  E f  exp  1
  P( E )  0.5 nC
 kT  P( E C ) 
N
Thus for any finite temperature T, Ef is the N
energy level for which probability of finding an  nC  P( EC ).N  nC 
 EC  E f 
electron is 0.5. It means that there is equal exp   1
 kT 
 
probability that energy levels above and below nV
Fermi level are occupied by electrons. P( EV ) 
N
N
 nV  P( EV ).N  nV 
Que.8. Using Fermi-Dirac probability  EV  E f 
exp   1
distribution function, derive an expression  kT 
 
for the position of Fermi energy level in the  N  nC  nV
intrinsic semiconductor. [6]
OR 
N
+ N
Using Fermi-Dirac probability distribution  EC  E f   EV  E f 
exp   1 exp   1
function, prove that the position of Fermi  kT   kT 
   
energy level in the intrinsic semiconductor is
  EC  E f     EV  E f  
at the center of forbidden energy gap. [6] i.e. exp    1 exp    1 
      
  kT     kT  
We assume that,   EC  E f     EV  E f  
exp    1  exp 
   
  1
 
i) The widths of conduction band and   kT     kT  
valence band are small in comparison  EC  E f   E Ef   E Ef   E Ef 
i.e. exp  exp V   exp C   exp V  1 
with band gap. 
 kT 


 kT 


 kT 


 kT 

ii) Because of small widths, for all practical  EC  E f   EV  E f 
exp   exp 2
purposes, all energy levels in a band have 
 kT 


 kT 

same energy.  EC  E f  E Ef 
iii) At 00K the valence band is completely i.e. exp  exp V  1
 kT   kT 
filled and the conduction band is    
completely empty, the solid acts as a  EC  EV  2 E f 
insulator. i.e. exp  1

 kT 
Let,
EC  EV  2E f
Ec = Energy of conduction band. but exp(0)  1  0
kT
Ev = Energy of valence band.
nc = Number of electrons in conduction band  EC  EV  2E f  0
at T 0K.
EC  EV
nv = Number of electrons in valence band at  Ef 
2
T 0K.
N = nc + nv = Total number of electrons in This proves that Fermi energy is exactly
valence band and conduction band at T 0K. midway between EC and EV. i.e. Ef is at the
center of forbidden energy gap as shown in the
We know that, the probability that an
figure.
energy level E is occupied by an electron, at
temperature T is given by Fermi Dirac C. B.
probability distribution function, EC
Eg
1
P( E )  Efi
 E  Ef 
exp  1
 V. B. EV
 kT 

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Que.9. What is Fermi level? Show the When atoms of penta-valent impurity are added
position of Fermi level in P-type and N-type to a pure semiconductor, there will be excess
semiconductor at T=0K and T>0 K [4] electrons at absolute zero temperature which
stays at donor level just below the bottom of
Fermi Level: It is the highest possible level of conduction band. At T = 00K, Fermi level is
an electron at absolute zero temperature. It midway between Ed and Ec, as shown in figure
need not be the energy level of an electron. It is 2 (a). As temperature increases (i.e. at T > 00K)
a statistical concept given for our the electrons at Ed get excited to the conduction
understanding. (It is a reference energy level band and Ef moves below Ed but remains close
between valence band and conduction band to to valence band than the conduction band as
understand weather the energy levels above it shown in figure 2 (b).
or below it are occupied or not.)

Position of fermi-level in P-type

semiconductor:
Que.10. With the help of neat labeled
energy level diagram, explain the working of
C. B. C. B. diode in forward bias and reverse bias in
EC EC
Eg Eg comparison with unbiased diagram. [6]
Efi Efi OR
Ea Efp Que.10. Explain the working of PN
Efp Ea junction diode in (a) zero bias (b) forward
EV EV
V. B. V. B. bias (c) reverse bias on the basis of energy
(a) (b) level diagram. [6]
Figure 1
Unbiased: The energy band picture of an
When atoms of trivalent impurity are added to unbiased diode is as shown in figure 1.
a pure semiconductor, there will be vacancies p n
(holes) at absolute zero temperature which C.B
EC .
stays at accepter level just above the top of eVB
EC
valence band. At T = 00K, Fermi level is p n Efn Ef
midway between Ea and EV, as shown in EV
V.B
figure 1 (a). As temperature increases (i.e. at T . EV
> 00K) Ea gets saturated by the electrons and
Equilibrium
more electrons gets excited to the conduction
Figure 1
band and Ef moves above Ea but remains close
to valence band than the conduction band as In p-type semiconductor the Fermi-level is
shown in figure 1 (b). closer to the valence band and in n-type it is
closer to conduction band. When p-n junction
Position of Fermi-level in N-type is formed the bands on either side shift to
semiconductor: equalize the Fermi levels and attain
equilibrium. The shift in the conduction and
valence band is equal to eVB, where VB is the
barrier potential across the depletion region.
C. B. C. B.
EC EC Forward Bias: When a d. c. source is
Efn Ed
Ed Efn connected across the diode such that the
Efi Efi positive terminal is connected to p-region and
Eg Eg
negative terminal is connected to n-region then
EV V. B.
EV
V. B. the diode is said to be in forward bias as shown
(a) (b) in figure 2.
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 p n p n

C. B. e (VB – V)
C. B.
EC p n
p n EC
e (VB + V)
E
Ef Ef
ECV
EV V
V. B. V. B.
V E
Reduced V
Figure 2 barrier Increased
Figure 3 barrier

The majority carrier electrons in the n- In this case the electrons in the n-side move
region are repelled by the negative terminal of away from the junction towards the positive
the battery. Therefore the electrons gain some terminal of the d. c. source and the holes in the
excess energy to cross over the energy barrier. p-side also move away from the junction
As soon as it reaches the p-side, it encounters a towards the negative terminal of the d. c.
large number of holes. Somewhere close to the source. They leave behind ions and the width of
junction the electron is trapped by a hole so that the depletion region increases, until the barrier
it becomes a valance electron in the p-side. potential equals the applied voltage. Thus
There is large number of holes in p-side so that reverse bias should not lead to any flow of
the electron will hop from one hole to other, current. However thermal energy continuously
towards the positive terminal of the battery as it creates electron-hole pairs near the junction on
is attracted by it. Finally leaving the crystal both sides. A small current exists because of
from the p-side it will enter the positive flow of minority carriers in both p and n
terminal. Thus the applied d. c. voltage helps regions. This reverse current depends more on
the flow of electrons through the junction diode temperature and less on voltage. This reverse
and therefore large forward current flows. current is very small. In this case Fermi-level
As the forward bias leads to increase the moves down and the bands adjust their
energy of electrons in n-region of the crystal positions accordingly as shown in figure 3.
the Fermi-level on n-side is raised by energy
equal to eV. Where V is applied d.c. voltage.
The bands adjust their positions to suite the Que.11. What is Fermi energy in a
elevation of the Fermi-level as shown in figure semiconductor? With the help of a labeled
2. energy level diagram, show the position of
Fermi level in case of a diode that is
connected in forward bias. [3]
OR
Reverse Bias:
Que.11. What is Fermi energy in a
When a d.c. source is connected across the semiconductor? With the help of a labeled
diode such that the positive terminal is energy level diagram, show the position of
connected to n-region and negative terminal is Fermi level in case of a diode that is
connected to p-region then the diode is said to connected in reverse bias. [3]
be in reverse bias as shown in figure 3.
Fermi Energy: Fermi energy is the energy of
fermi-level. Fermi-level is the highest possible
level of an electron at absolute zero
temperature.

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Forward Bias: When a d. c. source is elevation of the Fermi-level as shown in figure
connected across the diode such that the 2. The energy difference between conduction
positive terminal is connected to p-region and band in p and n region will be e (VB+V).
negative terminal is connected to n-region then
the diode is said to be in forward bias as shown
Que.12. Derive the expression for barrier
in figure 1.
potential for a PN junction. [4]
p n
EV The internal potential barrier VB can be calculated
C. B.
EC from the electron concentrations in p and n regions
p n e (VB – V)
of the diode.
Ef
EV
V. B.
V
Reduced
Figure 1 barrier

As the forward bias leads to increase the energy

of electrons in n-region of the crystal the
Fermi-level on n-side is raised by energy equal
to eV. Where V is applied d.c. voltage. The
bands adjust their positions to suite the The electron concentration in the conduction
elevation of the Fermi-level as shown in figure band on the n-side can be written as,
1. The energy difference between conduction ( )/
𝑛 𝑒 1
band in p and n region will be e (VB-V).
Due to the barrier potential VB, the band gap
OR
energy on p-region increases by (Eg+VB). The
Reverse Bias: electron concentration on p-side can be written
When a d.c. source is connected across the as,
diode such that the positive terminal is 𝑛 𝑒{ ( ) }/
connected to n-region and negative terminal is
connected to p-region then the diode is said to Dividing the two equations, we get
be in reverse bias as shown in figure 2.
⁄
𝑒
p n

C. B.
p n
EC
Above equation shows that at thermal
e (VB + V) equilibrium, concentrations of electrons on
E both sides of the junction are related through
Ef
C
EV Boltzmann factor.
V
V. B.
E Taking log of both sides,
V
Increased
Figure 2 barrier 𝑛

As the reverse bias leads to decrease the energy This equation can be written as
of electrons in n-region of the crystal the
Fermi-level on n-side is drop down by energy 𝑛
equal to eV. Where V is applied d.c. voltage.
The bands adjust their positions to suite the
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At room temperature, all the impurities are The total current density across the forward bias
ionized, hence: 𝑛 junction is the sum of electron and hole current
density components. Thus,
Also, 𝑛 𝑛 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝑒 1 𝐽 𝑒 1
Thus, equation (5) can be written as,

𝑛 𝐽 is current density. Thus, above equation can

be written as,
The factor is of the dimensions of voltage
and is denoted by VT, Thus, 𝑒 1

𝑛
where, 𝑛
Thus, the barrier potential equation indicates The above equation is known as ideal diode
that barrier potential in a junction diode equation where, VF is forward voltage. In
depends on the equilibrium concentration of the reverse bias it will be replaced by -VR and I0
impurities in p and n regions and does not denotes reverse saturation current.
depend on the charge density in the depletion
region.
Que.14. What is photovoltaic effect?
Que.13. Derive the ideal diode equation for a Explain construction and working of solar
PN junction. [4] cell. Draw IV characteristics of solar cell and
define fill factor. [6]
When the diode is forward biased with potential VF,
the potential barrier is lowered by an amount of When light falls on a p-n junction produces a
energy eVF and the probability of a majority carrier potential difference across it. This potential
crossing the junction and diffusion current density difference is capable of driving a current
is increased by a factor of 𝑒 / through an external circuit, producing useful
Thus, diffusion current density components 𝐽*ℎ and work. This phenomenon is called the
𝐽*𝑒 in forward bias diode are given by, ‘photovoltaic effect’.
/ / As thermal energy produces electron-hole pairs
𝐽 𝐽 𝑒 𝐽 𝑒 and in the depletion region to contribute to the
𝐽 𝐽 𝑒 /
𝐽 𝑒 / reverse current in a diode, current can also be
made to flow by illuminating the diode with
Where, 𝐽ℎ and 𝐽𝑒𝑛 are diffusion current light of energy greater than the energy gap of
densities in unbiased diode. the semiconductor used for making a diode.
The drift current density components have not The light energy too creates electron-hole pairs
changed and have the same magnitude as in and therefore leads to flow of current.
equilibrium case.
Therefore, the net hole current density across Construction:
the forward bias junction is, The construction of solar cell is as shown in
figure 5.21. A single crystal Silicon solar cell
/
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝑒 -1) consists of an n-type Silicon wafer with a very
Similarly, the net electron current density across the thin (in microns) diffused p-type region at the
forward bias junction is surface to form a p-n junction. An ohmic
contact is made at the bottom of n-type wafer.
/
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝑒 -1) Another contact is made at the top of the p-type
surface in such a way that the maximum

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possible area of the p-layer can remain p-type
exposed. This surface is used to catch the
C.B.
sunlight. An antireflection coating is applied to light n-type
reduce the amount of light lost by reflection EC

form the surface. The cell is also covered at the C.B.

top by glass quartz or sapphire plate, with EC
additional antireflection and uv-rejection filters. Ef
Ef
EV
The uv photons can degrade the cell
performance by damaging it.
V.B.
EV
Figure 2 V.B.

Working:
When light falls on the P-region and When the voltage is measured between the
reaches at the junction or absorbed by the two ends of the cells, it will be maximum,
junction, the electron-hole pairs are generated. which is called ‘open circuit voltage’ (VOC). If
They are generated as a minority carriers i.e. the load is connected to cell, then carriers move
electrons in the P-region and holes in N-region. in the circuit creating current and when value
When they come at the junction they face the of load is minimum, current will be maximum
built in voltage (barrier potential) which which is called ‘short circuit current’ (ISC).
separates them. The electrons moves from P- I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell:
region to N-region (and the holes from N-
region to P-region) because there are number of When the solar cell is exposed to the light
lower energy levels are available in N-region. its IV characteristics is as shown in figure 3.
This is shown in figure 1. This leads to an
Isc (Isc,Voc)
increase in the number of holes in P-region and
electrons in N-region. The accumulation of I Im
charges on the two sides of the junction
produces a voltage or emf known as photo emf.
It is known as open circuit voltage and is
proportional to the illumination as well as the
illuminated area. When an external circuit is (0,0)
Vm Voc
connected across the solar cell terminals, V
current flows through it. Thus solar cell Figure 3
behaves as battery with N side as a negative Figure 5.23
The product I SC  VOC gives
the theoretical
terminal and P side as a positive terminal.
(ideal) maximum power output from the solar
NGATIVE CONTACT
cell. However, the actual maximum power is
µA
CURRENT SUN LIGHT less than this and is given by the product
COLLECTION GRID
I m  Vm .

LOAD
mV The fill factor is defined as the ratio of
actual maximum power to the ideal power.
I V
i.e. FF  m m
0.2 µm N-REGION I SC  VOC
P-REGION
300 µm
BASE MATERIAL
DIFFUSED LAYER
METAL CONDUCTOR

Figure 1

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Que.15. State measures to improve Solar Charge Controls: Since the solar panel
efficiency of solar cell. [4] may not have the correct voltage to charge a
battery, it must be controlled via a solar charge
controller to prevent battery overcharge. The
There are number of technologies being
excess power needs to be dissipated using heat
developed for improving efficiency of solar
sink.
cells. The efficiency of solar cell could be upto
45% depending on the technology used for its
development. Higher the efficiency higher is Que.16. Explain Hall Effect. Derive the
the production cost or problem of scaling to equation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient.
mass level. The solar cells that are used for [6]
commercial purpose are developed using
crystalline silicon technology with efficiencies Hall observed that, when a strip of
ranging from 15 to 21.5%. Following are the semiconductor carrying current is placed in a
ways of improving efficiency of solar cell: transverse magnetic field, a potential difference
Fill factor: Fill factor refers to the utilization was developed across the strip perpendicular to
of available surface area and it ranges from both direction of current and the magnetic field.
about 70 to 90%. The fill factor of solar panels The direction of electric field developed
depends on their shape e.g. round or moon because of induced potential depends on
shaped (lower fill factor), square cells (more whether the current is due to electrons or holes.
fill factor). In order to understand Hall Effect consider a
rectangular strip of n-type semi-conductor
Solar Cells Glazing: For long life, solar cells
material. Under the application of some
must be protected from the elements (rain,
potential difference, let current I flow through
snow, hail, bird dropping etc). Polycarbonate or
it along positive X-direction. Let the magnetic
low-iron glass is generally used due to high
field B act along the positive Z-direction as
optical transmissivity (around 90%). Surface
shown in figure.
coating treatments reduce reflections for even
higher transmissivity.
Y
Solar Panel Orientation: For highest output,
solar panels must be perpendicular to the sun’s Side 2
rays. However, for roof-top installations solar d
panels are fitted as per the roof pitch and
orientation. For other types of fixed w
X
installations, the azimuth is oriented to the I
south and tilt adjusted for the winter period sun B Side 1
as intensity is low in winter.
Z
Solar tracker: Solar tracker is the rotation of
the panel or array of solar cells so that they As the magnetic field is applied, the
always directly face the sun. However, the magnetic force acts along negative Y-
larger the array, the more difficult will be the direction. As the semiconductor is n-type, the
mechanics. The optimum tilt angle changes charge carriers are electrons.
slowly as the earth rotates on its axis. The magnitude of force is given by,
Light Concentrators: Solar panel output
F1  B.e.v        (1)
power may be increased to almost 50% via a
light concentrator such as a Fresnel lens or Where, v  drift velocity.
mirror. However, installing concentrators for a e = charge on electron.
large array of solar cells and orientation of the Thus due to this force the electrons are
mirror creates an additional tracking problem. forced to move in negative Y-direction and
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soon obstructed by the walls of specimen and electrons. (n- type semiconductor). If the side 2
get accumulated there. Because of charge is negative w. r. t. side 1 then the charge
accumulation towards side 1, it becomes carriers are holes i.e. the semiconductor is p-
negatively charged w. r. t. side 2. The electric type.
field is developed between side 1 and side 2 Thus measurement of Hall Voltage helps us
directed along negative Y-direction. This to identify whether the given semiconductor is
electric field opposes further movement of p-type or n-type.
electrons towards side 1. In equilibrium In equation (8) B, I, w, and VH can be
condition the force due to electric field is measured and then the charge density n.e can
balanced to the force due to magnetic field and be determined and from that the carrier
the current flows in the positive X-direction concentration (n) can be determined.
only. At this stage a steady potential difference 1
is produced between side 1 and side 2 called as In equation (8) the quantity is the
n.e
‘Hall Voltage’, VH. property of the material of the specimen and is
Let E be the electric field intensity due to called as ‘Hall coefficient’ ‘RH’
Hall Voltage then, 1
F2 eE              (2) RH           (9)
n.e
From equations (1) and (2) we get,  equation (8) becomes,
B.I
VH  RH
eE  Bev w
 E  B.v          (3)  RH 
VH .w
         (10)
V B.I
But, E  H    (4)
d
We know that,
where , d  dis tan ce between side 1& side 2.
1
From equations (3) and (4) we get,   n.e. as RH 
n.e
VH 1
 B.v or  .
d RH

VH  B.v.d          (5)  Mobility    RH .        (11)

We know that, Thus measurement of conductivity and Hall

I  n.e.v. A coefficient determines mobility of charge
I carriers.
 v          (6) Thus Hall Effect can be used for,
n.e. A
 Equation (5) becomes,  Determination of type of semiconductor
 Determination of carrier concentration.
B.I .d 1 B.I .d
VH        (7 )  Determination of mobility of carriers.
n.e. A n.e A
where , n  carrier concentration
A  cross sec tion area of the material Problems:
 d .w 1. The mobilities of carriers in intrinsic
d 1 germanium sample at room temperature are
 
A w  e  3600 cm 2 / V . sec and  h  1700 cm 2 / V . sec . If
Equation (7) becomes, the density of electrons is same as holes and is
1 B.I equal to 2.5 1013 / cm3 , calculate the
VH               (8)
n.e w conductivity. (Ans: 2.12 mho/m) [4]

Here, VH is positive at side 2 w. r. t. side 1

as we considered the conduction is due to
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 2. Calculate the number of acceptors to be of electrons in copper. Given: conductivity of
added to a germanium sample to obtain the copper  5.8  107 mho/ m . [4]
resistivity of 10 Ω cm. [4] 11 3 3 2
(Ans: RH  7.4  10 m / C,   4.3  10 m / V .sec ]
Given,   1700 cm / V . sec
2
9. Calculate the conductivity of Ge specimen
(Ans: 3.676 1014 / cm 3 ) Calculate the if a donor impurity is added to the extent of one
conductivity of pure silicon at room part in 108 Ge atoms at room temperature. [4]
temperature when the concentration of charge densityof Ge  10.5 gm / cm3 , Atomic wt. of Ge  108 gm,
carriers is 1.6  1010 / cm3 . [4] (Ans:   0.268 mho / cm
Given: e  1500 cm / V .sec and h  500 cm / V .sec
2 2

(Ans: 5.12  106 mho/ cm )

3. Determine the mobility of electrons in
copper assuming that each atom contributes
one free electron for conduction. [4]
6
Given: For Cu,   1.7  10  cm,
density  8.96 gm / cm3 Atomic wt.  63.5
(Ans: ne  8.496  10 22 / cm3 , e  43.273 cm2 / V .sec )
4. An N-type semiconductor is to have a
Resistivity 10 Ω.cm, calculate the number of
donor atoms which must be added to achieve
this. [4]
Given: d  500 cm / V .sec
2

(Ans: nd  1.25  1015 / cm3 )

5. Calculate the energy gap in silicon, given
that it is transparent to radiation of wavelength
greater than 11000 A0. [2]
(Ans: Eg  1.29 eV )
6. In an N-type semiconductor the fermi-level
lays 0.3 eV below the conduction band at room
temperature. If the temperature is increased to
330 K, find the position of Fermi-level. [4]
(Ans: 0.33 eV)
7. A silver wire is in the form of ribbon 0.5
cm wide and 0.1 mm thick. When a current of 2
amp passes through the ribbon perpendicular to
0.8 Tesla magnetic field, calculate the Hall
voltage produced. Given: For Silver, [4]
density  10 .5 gm / cm3 , Atomic wt.  108 gm,
AvagadroNo.  6.02  10 23 / gm.mole
(Ans: ne  6  10 28 / m3 ,VH  0.333  10 7V ]
8. A copper specimen having length 1 m,
width 1 cm & thickness 1 mm is conducting 1
amp current along its length and is applied with
a magnetic field of 1 Tesla along its thickness.
Hall voltage of 0.1 μV is developed across its
width. Calculate Hall coefficient and mobility

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