Applsci 11 09732
Applsci 11 09732
Applsci 11 09732
Article
A Computational Study on the Aeroacoustics of a Multi‐Rotor
Unmanned Aerial System
Morteza Heydari 1, Hamid Sadat 1,* and Rajneesh Singh 2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76207, USA;
[email protected]
2 US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1‐940‐565‐2078
Abstract: The noise generated by a quadrotor biplane unmanned aerial system (UAS) is studied
computationally for various conditions in terms of the UAS pitch angle, propellers rotating velocity
(RPM), and the UAS speed to understand the physics involved in its aeroacoustics and structure‐
borne noise. The k‐ω SST turbulence model and Ffowcs Williams‐Hawkings equations are used to
solve the flow and acoustics fields, respectively. The sound pressure level is measured using a cir‐
cular array of microphones positioned around the UAS, as well as at specific locations on its struc‐
ture. The local flow is studied to detect the noise sources and evaluate the pressure fluctuation on
the UAS surface. This study found that the UAS noise increases with pitch angle and the propellers’
rotating velocity, but it shows an irregular trend with the vehicle speed. The major source of the
UAS noise is from its propellers and their interactions with each other at small pitch angle. The
propeller and CRC‐3 structure interaction contributes to the noise at large pitch angle. The results
also showed that the propellers and structure of the UAS impose unsteadiness on each other
through a two‐way mechanism, resulting in structure‐born noises which depend on the propeller
RPM, velocity and pitch angle.
Citation: Heydari, M.; Sadat, H.; Keywords: quadrotor‐noise; propeller–wing interaction noise; structure‐borne noise; UAS aeroacoustics
Singh, R. A Computational Study on
the Aeroacoustics of a Multi‐Rotor
Unmanned Aerial System. Appl. Sci.
2021, 11, 9732. https://doi.org/
1. Introduction
10.3390/app11209732
The remarkable progress in manufacturing electric batteries in recent decades has
Academic Editor: Giovanni Bernardini facilitated the development of vertical take‐off and landing (VTOL) multi‐rotor un‐
manned aerial systems (UAS), which may be utilized for a wide range of tasks such as
Received: 13 September 2021 reconnaissance, package delivery, aerial resupply, and surveillance, among others [1–3].
Accepted: 7 October 2021 While such systems have a great range of movement and maneuverability [1], their major
Published: 18 October 2021 issues including efficiency and noise emission have recently grabbed the scientific com‐
munity’s attention. Among these challenges, resolving the noise emission is relatively
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐
more demanding, due to recently raised concerns regarding negative effect on military
tral with regard to jurisdictional
applications, civil usage, and the environment. Some examples are cardiovascular and
claims in published maps and institu‐
metabolic disease [4], sleep disturbance [5], depression and anxiety [6], and chronic stress
tional affiliations.
[7], which are considered side effects of long‐term exposure to the UAS noise [8].
Most studies on the noise signatures in the literature are on an isolated propeller,
focusing on several aspects including geometry effect [9–11], number of blades and spac‐
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li‐
ing effects [12–14], and coaxial rotors [15–17]. Studies have also investigated the effect of
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
operational conditions on noise level [18–20]. For instance, it is known that an increase in
This article is an open access article inflow velocity causes growth in sound pressure level (SPL), which is ascribed to the asym‐
distributed under the terms and con‐ metry between advancing and retreating blades at high velocity [18]. The same effect is ob‐
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐ served for increasing RPM, which results in rise of SPL in tonal and broadband noises [19].
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea‐ Broadband noise is often due to the interaction of rotor blades with turbulence, re‐
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). sulting in random blade loading variations [21]. It is also reported that the vortex
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209732 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 2 of 21
shedding noise and flow separation on the blades manifest as a second hump in the broad‐
band noise of an isolated propeller [22]. Furthermore, increase in the pitch angle decreases
SPL at first and second blade pass frequencies (BPF) [18,20].
While the major source of noise in the UAS is propellers, the propeller interaction
with UAS structures has a significant contribution to the UAS noise signature, particularly
for some of the novel multi‐rotor UAS designs with hybrid configurations (e.g., quadrotor
biplane tail‐sitter VTOL [1]), in which propellers’ wake and tip vortices might even inter‐
act with fixed wings used to enhance the UAS efficiency in forward flight mode. Such an
interaction imposes unsteady loads on the UAS structure (wing and fuselage) and propel‐
ler blades, which are the source of the structure‐born noises and alter the noise level [23–
32]. In an experimental study, Sinnige [29] found that for a tractor configuration of a pro‐
peller–wing–nacelle system, the noise due to the propeller–wing interaction may be re‐
duced by decreasing the propeller loading, because the blade tip vortices are the main
source of structure‐born noise. Sinnige [29] also showed that the noise level increases with
decreasing propeller advance ratio (𝐽 𝑈 /𝑛𝐷 , with 𝑈 , 𝑛 and 𝐷 denoting the inflow
velocity (m/s), rotating speed (rev/s) and propeller diameter (m)) by increasing the pro‐
peller’s rotating speed. Similar finding was also reported in [32]. However, such a rela‐
tionship between noise and propeller advance ratio is not always the case, because the
unsteady loading is not monotonically dependent on 𝐽 [29]. The noise level was also
shown to be correlated with the spacing between the propeller and the wing/fuselage such
that increasing the spacing would reduce the load fluctuation and consequently the cor‐
responding interference noise [29]. Akkermans et al. [32] investigated the effect of pitch
angle on the noise generated by the propeller–wing system and have shown that this effect
is negligible, although it should be noted that the tested range was limited to 5° 𝜃
10°. A similar study was conducted by Boots [33] for three angles of attack, including 𝜃
0°, 3°, and 6°, where results suggested that the noise level at the first BPF remains un‐
changed with increase in 𝜃, while it increases at higher harmonics. This discrepancy be‐
tween the results of the two studies may be due to having different configurations or using
different coordinate systems. Boots [33] has also found that for a configuration of a single
propeller, a wing and a fuselage, the sound emitted from the fuselage surface is smaller
than that of the wing, since it experiences a smaller amount of load and interaction with
the propeller’s wake.
Apart from the noise generated due to interaction of the propeller with wing‐nacelle‐
fuselage, some recent studies have focused on the sound generated by multirotor config‐
urations, which is a common configuration for recent UAS [3]. It is observed that the SPL
generated by two counter‐rotating propellers is higher than that of a single propeller, and
the increase is dominant at BPF, suggesting mainly increase in tonal noise [34,35]. Addi‐
tionally, tilting the propellers shifts the location of maximum SPL downstream. Increasing
the number of propellers to four, leads to a significant growth in noises at high‐frequency
or broadband noise [22], in addition to manifestation of a low‐frequency disturbance,
which is not present in the isolated propeller noise spectra [36]. When the spacing between
the tip of the adjacent propellers in a quadrotor is small, the level of fluctuations they
impose on each other’s loads becomes significant [35]. Studies have also shown the rota‐
tion direction of multiple rotors affects the noise generation when lifting surfaces such as
wings are immersed in the propeller wakes. For instance, the CFD analysis of two counter‐
rotating propellers interacting with a wing, conducted by Chirico et al. [37] showed that
the top‐in layout results in lower noise generation while the top‐out layout provides a
better aerodynamic efficiency due to the swirl effect.
Although, the UAS noise signature has been investigated in several studies as men‐
tioned earlier, these studies are often not for a fully appended UAS and limited to a nar‐
row range of operational conditions. The aim of the present work is to provide a compre‐
hensive acoustics analysis around a biplane tailsitter quadrotor that initially takes off ver‐
tically, in hover mode, and then changes its pitch angle and flies horizontally to use wings
for the forward mode flight to enhance its performance. To understand the acoustic
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 3 of 21
signature of such a quadrotor, a wide range of pitch angles covering hover and transition
modes, as well as different vehicle velocity and propeller RPM are considered. The phys‐
ics involved in the acoustics performance of the vehicle is discussed by comparing SPL at
various locations and their correlations with local flow characteristics. In addition, the role
of different interaction mechanisms on the CRC‐3 noise level as well as the structure‐born
noise due to unsteady loadings are discussed.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. CFD Method
Our in‐house code CFDFOAM is used for the simulations [38,39]. The CFDFOAM
solver has been developed around OpenFOAM for hydrodynamic and aerodynamic ap‐
plications using either absolute or relative inertial coordinate systems with non‐deform‐
ing and deforming control volumes. It utilizes conventional body‐fitted methods as well
as immersed boundary methods for moving/morphing boundaries based on the cell‐cen‐
tered finite volume method. In the present work, absolute inertial earth‐fixed coordinates
are employed with k‐ω SST turbulence model, where the coupled pressure and velocity
are solved using PISO. Second order linear upwind and central‐differencing schemes are
employed for discretization of convective and diffusion terms of the governing equations,
respectively, and the Euler scheme is used for time discretization.
2.2. Acoustics Method
The libacoustics solver, implemented for OpenFOAM [40], is used for acoustics sim‐
ulations in which the Ffowcs Williams‐Hawkings (FW‐H) formulation developed by
Ffowcs Williams and Hawkings [41] is employed to predict the sound pressure level. The
FW–H method is a generalized form of Lighthill’s acoustic analogy [42] to include general
motion types and surfaces effects. It is an inhomogeneous wave equation form of the Na‐
vier–Stokes equations, with three source terms, including thickness and loading on the body
surface and quadrupole in the volume surrounding the body, and may be written as [43]:
𝜕̅ 𝜕̅ 𝜕̅
⧠ 𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜌 𝑣 𝛿 𝑓 𝑙 𝛿 𝑓 𝑇 𝐻 𝑓 (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
where ⧠ is the D’Alembertian operator in the three‐dimensional space, 𝑣 is the local
velocity of the body normal to the surface defined by 𝑓 0, 𝛿 𝑓 and 𝐻 𝑓 are the Dirac
delta function and the Heaviside step functions, 𝑙 is components of the local force on the
surface and 𝑇 is the Lighthill’s stress tensor. The first, second and third term on the
right‐hand side of Equation (1) represent thickness, loading and quadrupole source terms,
respectively.
2.3. CRC‐3 Geometry
The geometry considered in the present study belongs to the common research con‐
figuration (CRC) group, which refers to a set of tail‐sitter hybrid quadrotors designed by
the Army Research Lab (ARL). The CRC geometries are comprised of four identical pro‐
pellers, two identical wings, and fuselage, as shown in Figure 1. The rotors are mounted
in a tractor configuration with a canting angle of 10° and their rotation directions are
shown in Figure 1. CRC is designed at different sizes and the one with the smallest size is
employed for this study, which has a weight of 3 lbs (1.36 kg) and a design speed of 40
mph (17.88 m/s), named CRC‐3 [3]. The propellers for CRC‐3 are RAYCorp 8045 propel‐
lers with a diameter (𝐷 ) of 0.205 𝑚. The wing type is Wortmann FX 63‐137A4 with an
aspect ratio of 2.8.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 4 of 21
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Geometry of CRC‐3: (a) isometric view; (b) side view.
Table 1. The main parameters of CRC3.
Propellers
Type No. Axis Direction COR(m) 1
RAYCorp 8045 1 (0.99, 0, 0.17) CCW (−0.003, −0.22, 0.128)
2 (−0.99, 0, −0.17) CW (−0.003, 0.22, 0.128)
3 (0.99, 0, −0.17) CCW (−0.003, 0.22, −0.128)
4 (−0.99, 0, 0.17) CW (−0.003, ‐0.22, −0.128)
Wings
Type Size
Wortmann FX 63‐137 87.28 × 490 mm (Chord × Span)
Fuselage/Structure
Size (fuselage, mm) Weight (structure)
𝑅 107, 𝑅 45, 𝑅 44 12 (N)
1
Center of Rotation.
2.4. Simulation Conditions
Fully appended CRC‐3 simulations were carried out to investigate the effects of
RPMs, velocities, and pitch angles on noise signature. Table 2 summarizes the CFD test
matrix for simulations on CRC‐3 with the label of each case to be used throughout the
manuscript. Simulations were also conducted for other configurations including isolated
propeller, only four propellers and only one propeller‐one wing configuration for com‐
parison. Moreover, several simulations are conducted for validation purposes using an
isolated propeller, for which experimental data is available.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 5 of 21
Table 2. Test matrix.
To evaluate the acoustic signature, a set of eight microphones positioned on a circle
with a radius of 1.5 𝐷 from the CRC‐3′s center of mass, on a plane passing through the
rotation center of propellers 3 and 4 (see Figure 1), as shown in Figure 2a. The two limits
of the pitch angle applied by changing the inflow velocity directions are also shown in
this figure. In addition to the circular array of microphones, for each wing, two micro‐
phones are placed on the location of their interaction with the propeller’s tip vortices, and
two microphones are also positioned on the fuselage, as demonstrated in Figure 2b.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Microphone positions: (a) circular array; (b) on the CRC‐3 body.
2.5. Computational Domain, Grids, and Boundary Conditions
For all of the simulations discussed in Section 2.4, the computational domain is a
sphere with a diameter of 18𝐷 , with the geometry located at center of the domain, as
depicted in Figure 3. The grid of fully appended CRC‐3 consists of five blocks, four circu‐
lar blocks for four propellers, and one block for the rest of the computational domain. The
sliding mesh technique is employed for rotating the propeller block in the computational
domain. The CRC‐3 grid has 16 million tetrahedral volume elements, of which around
80% of grid elements are packed near CRC‐3 within a small sphere of radius 2𝐷 . To cap‐
ture the acoustic waves, the grid is designed to resolve the first three harmonics of the
acoustic wave. Since the 1st BPF is 200 Hz in simulations, the maximum frequency re‐
quired to be resolved was assigned as 600 Hz with a wavelength of 𝜆 𝑐/𝑓 0.57 m,
with 𝑐 343 m/s for the standard speed of sound in air. Therefore, the maximum grid size
was assigned 0.055 m in the region surrounding the geometry and microphones, which
gives at least 10 grid points in acoustic wavelength, as recommended by Junger [44]. It
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 6 of 21
should be noted that although the grid is not designed to spatially resolve higher than third
harmonics, those harmonics may still be compared between cases to discuss trends.
Figure 3. Computational domain for CRC‐3 simulations.
Regarding the temporal discretization, the designed time step resulted in no more
than 0.54 degree of rotation per time step for propellers for all RPM values, corresponding
to time steps of 1.5 10 s and 0.75 10 s for cases with RPM 6000 and RPM
12,000, respectively. Since the shortest period should be discretized with 10 to 20 steps
through time [44], the aforementioned time‐step values are small enough to temporally
resolve noises up to 16th harmonic.
Figure 4 shows grid distribution on the surface of CRC‐3 and on a slice in the com‐
putational domain and Table 3 lists more details of the grid distribution. On propeller and
wing surfaces, the grid was designed with an average 𝑦 2.6 to resolve the turbulent
boundary layer, while on other solid surfaces (fuselage and rest of appendages) larger
grid spacing along with wall‐functions were used to minimize the computational cost for
modeling the turbulent boundary layer. The average values of 𝑦 for propeller and wing
surfaces for all CRC‐3 cases are provided in Table 4. Each side of the propeller’s blade
consists of 80 grid elements on the chord and 220 on the span, resulting in a total of 64 K
cells on the propeller surface. The wing’s surface poses 300 K grid elements with 600 on
its chord and 1100 on its span. Finally, there are 44 K cells on the fuselage, with 94 in the
vertical direction and 86 in the horizontal direction.
Figure 4. Grid representation of CRC‐3.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 7 of 21
Table 3. Surface grid description.
Part Surface Mesh
Propeller 1, 2, 3, 4 64 thousand (80 on the chord and 220 on the span)
Wing 1, 2 300 thousand (600 on the chord and 1100 on the span)
Other appendages 44 thousand (94 in vertical direction and 86 in horizontal direction on the fuselage)
Table 4. Average 𝑦 values on propeller and wing for all cases
The boundary conditions consist of uniform velocity with zero pressure gradient on
the far‐field boundary and no‐slip walls on the solid surfaces. Details of boundary condi‐
tions are provided in Table 5.
Table 5. Boundary conditions.
2.6. Grid Verification Study
Grid verification study is conducted for the fully appended CRC‐3 advancing at
𝑈 16 m/s with a pitch angle of 𝜃 0° and propellers rotating at RPM 12,000. For
this purpose, coarse and fine grid systems are generated, where the average cell size of
the aforementioned grid, which can be considered as a medium grid, is increased/reduced
by a factor of 𝑟 √2 in any direction to generate the coarse/fine grid system. The coarse
and fine grids consist of about 3 million and 22 million elements, respectively.
Grid uncertainty is estimated using the factor of safety method [45] by identifying
the convergence type of the simulation using the coarse (S3), medium (S2), and fine grid
solutions (S1):
0 𝑅 1 ∶ Monotonic Convergence
𝜖 𝑆 𝑆 1 𝑅 0 ∶ Oscillatory Convergence
𝑅 (2)
𝜖 𝑆 𝑆 𝑅 1 ∶ Monotonic Divergence
𝑅 1 ∶ Oscillatory Divergence
When monotonic convergence is achieved, the grid uncertainty is computed as:
9.6 1 𝐶𝐹 1.1 |𝛿| |1 𝐶𝐹| 0.125
𝑈 (3)
2|1 𝐶𝐹| 1 |𝛿| |1 𝐶𝐹| 0.125
where
𝑟 1
𝐶𝐹 (4)
𝑟 1
where 𝑝 is the theoretical order of accuracy (𝑝 2) and 𝑝 is the numerical order of
accuracy, defined as:
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 8 of 21
𝑝 ln 𝑅 /ln 𝑟 (5)
In addition, the error estimation, 𝛿 is computed as:
𝜖
𝛿 (6)
𝑟 1
When oscillatory convergence is achieved, the range of variation in the solutions is
computed as the level of uncertainty. The obtained uncertainty values are normalized by
the solution for the fine grid 𝑆 .
Figure 5 shows the predicted time histories of thrust coefficient 𝐶 for propeller and lift
coefficient 𝐶 on the wing as well as directivity of the overall sound pressure level (OASPL)
for all of the grids. OASPL is calculated for the first 3 harmonics using Equation (7):
It should be noted that grid study is conducted for a half‐domain case with a sym‐
metric boundary condition passing through the center of the geometry and normal to the
z direction, to decrease computational cost, as the full CRC‐3 case is symmetric with re‐
spect to the described plane. Mean parameters are computed and listed in Table 6, which
indicate monotonic convergence for 𝐶 , 𝐶 and average OASPL with 𝑅 0.47, 𝑅
0.68 and 𝑅 0.48, respectively. The average of the numerical accuracy is about 2.24,
close to the theoretical accuracy of the second order discretization scheme used for the
spatial terms in governing equations. More importantly, the estimated grid uncertainty
𝑈 %𝑆 for mean 𝐶 , mean 𝐶 and OASPLave is 1.75% 𝑆 , 4.4%𝑆 , and 4.4% 𝑆 , respec‐
tively, which confirms that grid uncertainty is reasonably small for the designed grids.
90
0.08 5 120 60
4.5
0.06 150 30
4 [deg]
0.04
Cl
Coarse
CT
Medium 3.5
0.02 Fine 180 0
60 75 90 105 120
3
OASPL [dB]
0 2.5
210 330
-0.02 2
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
240 300
t/U0Dp t/U 0 D p
270
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. Grid study results: (a) time history of 𝐶 ; (b) time history of 𝐶 ; (c) directivity of OASPL.
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝒍 OASPLave Average
𝑅 0.47 0.68 0.48 0.54
𝑃 2.16 2.45 2.12 2.24
𝜀 , %𝑆 1.75 4.4 4.4 3.5
𝑈 %𝑆 1.23 1.86 3.34 2.14
2.7. Validation
Simulations for an isolated propeller of CRC‐3 at static condition at various rotating
velocities are conducted to validate the results against experimental data of Anudeep et
al. [46]. The predicted thrust values show a close agreement with experimental data with
an average error of 4.5%, as shown in Figure 6a. Since there is not any acoustic data avail‐
able for CRC‐3, the solver is validated for another isolated propeller, the APC 10 × 7E
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 9 of 21
propeller for which acoustic data is reported by Schenk [47]. The SPL spectrum for the APC
propeller is calculated on a microphone located on a plane passing through the propeller
center and normal to its disk plane, at a radial distance of 6𝐷 and an angle of 30° with
respect to the horizontal direction, as shown in Figure 6b. Dimensions in the figure are ad‐
justed to make the propeller visible. A comparison between the present work and that of
Schenk [47] demonstrated in Figure 6c shows a good agreement at BPF and its harmonics.
8
60
7
Anudeep et al. [46] Schenk [47]
6 Present Work Present Work
40
SPL [dB]
5
Thrust (N)
4
20
3
2
0
1
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 1 2 3 4
RPM f/BPF
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Validation: (a) Thrust for CRC‐3 propeller; (b) position of the microphone in acoustics validation simulation; (c)
SPL spectrum for APC 10 × 7E at RPM = 4660 and static condition.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Sound Pressure Level
3.1.1. Interaction Effects
The noise sources of CRC‐3 include propeller‐tip vortices and the interaction of the
four propellers with each other as well as with the wings and the fuselage. In order to
clarify how each of these sources contribute to the noise, simulations at 𝑈 7 m/s and
RPM 6000 were carried out for four different configurations as follows: (i) isolated pro‐
peller, (ii) a single propeller–wing system, (iii) only four propellers and (iv) CRC‐3, for
two pitch angles of 𝜃 0° and 𝜃 75°. A comparison is made between the four config‐
urations on their SPL spectra at a microphone located in the downstream 𝛷 180° (de‐
fined in Figure 2), SPL directivity at the first harmonic and the OASPL directivity, as
shown in Figure 7. The isolated propeller spectrum shows peaks at BPF harmonics as ex‐
pected, with some humps in the broadband noise part of the spectra, which is ascribed to
the vortex shedding noise and flow separation on the blades [22]. It should be noted that,
in the present work, the relative position of the microphones and the configurations stud‐
ied were kept fixed with the changing pitch angle (𝜃), as shown in Figure 2. The isolated
propeller spectrum in Figure 7 is independent from the pitch angle in BPF and experiences
a slight growth in broadband noise as 𝜃 increases. For the propeller–wing configuration,
increase in 𝜃 results in 3 dB increase in noise level at BPF, which is in contrast with the
finding of Boots [33], in whose work the noise at BPF was not affected by the interaction
between the propeller tip vortex and the wings. This is probably because the microphones
were located at a distance of about 4𝐷 in that study comparing to 1.5𝐷 in this study.
With increase in the pitch angle, case (ii) also experiences a larger increase in some other
tonal harmonics, but broadband noise decreases. In addition, a new peak at BPF/2 ap‐
pears. The appearance of this peak agrees with the findings Bernardnini [36] reported to
the literature. The case with four‐propellers also experiences 4–5 dB noise increase at BPF
and a smaller level of increase in other tonal harmonics, except BPF/2, in which a 6–7 dB
growth may be observed. The case with four‐propellers also shows a negligible increase
in broadband harmonics. Nevertheless, the noise level is significantly higher in the case
of four propellers than that of the isolated propeller. It was previously reported that when
the spacing between the tip of the adjacent propellers in a quadrotor is small, the degree
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 10 of 21
of fluctuation they impose on each other’s loads becomes significant [35]. Unlike the first
three configurations, CRC‐3 experiences a large growth in noise by increasing pitch angle,
i.e., a 21 dB increase in noise at BPF and BPF/2 and almost the same at other harmonics.
The major cause of growth in CRC‐3 noise from 𝜃 0° to 𝜃 75° is due to the interac‐
tion of the propellers with the wings and the fuselage.
120 =75
=0
100
100
80
80
SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]
60
60
40
40
20
Isolated Propeller 20
Propeller+Wing Isolated Propeller
Four Propellers Propeller+Wing
0 CRC-3 Four Propellers
0 CRC-3
100 101 102 100 101 102
f/BPF f/BPF
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100 120
SPL [dB] SPL [dB]
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100 120
OASPL [dB] OASPL [dB]
3.1.2. Effect of Pitch
Figure 8 compares the SPL spectra on the microphone located downstream (𝛷
180°) for the isolated propeller case and CRC‐3 at several pitch angles. The results for
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 11 of 21
some of these pitch angles were not presented in Figure 7 for the sake of brevity. As pre‐
viously shown in Figure 2, while the inflow velocity angle changes to evaluate the pitch
effect, the relative position of microphones and propeller‐3 (see Figure 1) remains un‐
changed. The isolated propeller experiences little to no change at BPF, while it experiences
a slight increase in broadband noise. The rate of increase decreases at large 𝜃. In contrast,
for CRC‐3, the fluctuation on propeller loads increases substantially with 𝜃, which results
in gradual increase in the noise level from 𝜃 0° to 𝜃 75°. The additional peak at 𝑓
BPF/2 in the spectrum of CRC‐3 exists in all pitch angles, and the rate of change in its
magnitude follows the same trend as the one occurring at BPF. In fact, at both harmonics,
the noise level increases with 𝜃, while its growth rate decreases. Such a similar growth
rate at the two aforementioned harmonics confirms that the change in the CRC‐3 noise
level with 𝜃 does not originate solely from the propeller‐tip vortices.
120
60
110
50
100
40 90
SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]
30 80
70
20
= 0 [deg] 60 = 0 [deg]
= 15 [deg] = 15 [deg]
10 = 35 [deg] = 35 [deg]
= 75 [deg] 50 = 55 [deg]
= 75 [deg]
0 0 1 2 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
f/BPF f/BPF
(a) (b)
Figure 8. SPL spectra at BPF, downstream: (a) isolated propeller; (b) CRC‐3.
Figure 9 demonstrates change in the directivity of SPL at 1st harmonic and the overall
SPL with change in pitch angle for the two cases. The trend of directivity at BPF is almost
the same as the one shown in Figure 8. For the isolated propeller, the difference between
trends of SPL and OASPL is minimum. For CRC‐3, the difference between the OASPL and
SPL at small pitch angle is much larger than that of the larger pitch angle, indicating that
the ratio of the noise at higher harmonics to the one at BPF decreases with 𝜃, which may
also be seen in the spectra depicted in Figure 7. This confirms that the contribution of
propeller–propeller interaction to the overall noise decreases with increase in pitch, since
it is the main source of noise at harmonics larger than BPF.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 12 of 21
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
60 80 100 80 90 100 110 120
SPL [dB] SPL [dB]
210 330
210 330
240 300
240 300
= 0 [deg] 270 = 0 [deg]
= 35 [deg] = 35 [deg] 270
= 75 [deg] = 75 [deg]
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
60 80 100 90 100 110 120
OASPL [dB] OASPL [dB]
3.1.3. Effect of Velocity and RPM
Directivity plots of SPL and OASPL are provided in this section to evaluate the inflow
velocity and RPM effects on the CRC‐3 emitted noise. The left side of Figure 10 compares
three cases at fixed RPM 6000 and 𝜃 15°, but variable velocities of 𝑈 4, 7, 13 m/s
and the right side compares two cases with 𝜃 15° and 𝑈 7 m/s, but variable propel‐
ler rotating velocities of RPM 6000, 12,000. The results show that the OASPL does not
change regularly with increase in 𝑈 or the advance ratio. It should also be mentioned
that the trend at BPF is dependent on the microphone location on the circular array (𝛷),
similar to that reported by Akkermans et al. [32]. To understand the predicted trend, one
should notice that one of the major sources of CRC‐3 noise is the loading noise, while the
thickness noise becomes important only if the blade‐tip speed’s Mach number (𝑀𝑎) ex‐
ceeds 0.7. In all cases studied in the present work, 𝑀𝑎 0.37, which means the thickness
noise is negligible for CRC‐3. In addition, the quadrupole noise source is also important
for transonic speed range, where 0.8 𝑀𝑎 1.2 [48], which is not the case here. Splitting
the loading noise (second term in Equation (1)) into steady and unsteady components [21],
the steady loading contribution to the noise is larger at low 𝐽 or low 𝑈 . As 𝐽 increases,
the unsteady loading contributes to the noise, but its contribution does not necessarily
increase by increasing 𝐽 [29], which results in the irregular pattern of velocity impact on
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 13 of 21
the noise level. Later, in the local flow section it will be shown that among the three cases
with different velocity, the level of unsteadiness on the propellers is highest at 13 m/s
and lowest at 7 m/s, which agrees with the OASPL trend shown at the bottom left of Fig‐
ure 10. Comparing SPL and OASPL dependence on velocity, it can be realized that the
noise level at higher harmonics is considerably affected by velocity.
Regarding the RPM effect on the right side of the figure, as expected, doubling the
tip speed of the propeller results in significant increase in the generated noise, which
agrees with the similar studies reported before [29]. Increase in RPM in fact results in
growth of both steady and unsteady loading noise sources at all frequencies, but SPL at
BPF experiences a smaller increase comparing to OASPL (14% versus 18%), which indi‐
cates that having a larger RPM results in slightly further growth in broadband noise com‐
pared to tonal noise.
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
70 80 90 100 110 75 90 105 120
SPL [dB] SPL [dB]
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
[deg] [deg]
180 0 180 0
75 90 105 120 90 105 120 135
OASPL [dB] OASPL [dB]
3.1.4. Noise on the Wings and Fuselage
In this section, the noise level on the wings and the fuselage is evaluated, using the
microphones shown in Figure 2b. The propeller phases γ are shown in Figure 11 to be
linked to the discussion. The acoustic pressure fluctuation over one propeller rotation and
SPL for the probes on the wings are shown in Figure 12.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 14 of 21
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 11. Propeller phases: (a) 𝛾 0°; (b) 𝛾 45°; (c) 𝛾 90°; (d) 𝛾 135°.
The acoustic pressure fluctuation is obviously dependent on the propeller phase, as
the unsteadiness imposed on the wing’s load is due to the propeller’s rotation. 𝑡 0.03 s
corresponds to the propeller phase angle of 𝛾 45°.
1000 1000
0 0
p' [pa]
p' [pa]
Wing‐1
-1000 -1000
= 0 [deg] = 0 [deg]
= 35 [deg] = 35 [deg]
-2000 = 15 [deg] -2000 = 75 [deg]
0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
Time [s] Time [s]
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
p' [pa]
p' [pa]
0 0
Wing‐2
-1000 -1000
120
120
SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]
105
105
Wing‐1
90
90
75
75
2 3 4 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
f [Hz] f [Hz]
144 144
126 126
SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]
= 0 [deg] = 0 [deg]
90 = 35 [deg] 90 = 35 [deg]
= 75 [deg] = 75 [deg]
2 3 4 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
f [Hz] f [Hz]
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Acoustic pressure fluctuation and sound pressure level on the wings close to: (a) wing tip; (b) fuselage.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 15 of 21
4000
6000
3000
4000
2000
1000 2000
p' [pa]
p' [pa]
0 0
-1000 -2000
-2000
= 0 [deg] -4000 = 0 [deg]
-3000 = 35 [deg] = 35 [deg]
= 75 [deg] -6000 = 75 [deg]
-4000
0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04 0.03 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.04
Time [s] Time [s]
150 150
135 135
120 120
SPL [dB]
SPL [dB]
105 105
90 90
75 75
60 2 3 4 60 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
f [Hz] f [Hz]
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Acoustic pressure fluctuation and sound pressure level on the fuselage: (a) on the nose; (b) on the side.
3.2. Local Flow
3.2.1. Noise Sources
In order to identify the noise sources, contours, and iso‐surfaces of time, the deriva‐
tive of pressure (𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑡) equivalent to the dilatation field is demonstrated in Figure 14 and
Figure 15, respectively. The results for CRC‐3 are provided at phase angles of 𝛾
45°, 135° along with the iso‐surface for the isolated propeller at an arbitrary phase angle.
The results correspond to the case with 𝜃 0°, RPM 6000 and 𝑈 7 m/s. The con‐
tours show that the noise mainly propagates from the propeller tips through the field, the
location of which will be altered as the propellers rotate.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 16 of 21
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Snapshot of dilatation field on a slice passing through the propeller hub: (a) 𝛾 45; (b) 𝛾 135°.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 15. Snapshot of iso‐surface of pressure time‐derivative: (a) CRC‐3 at 𝛾 45°; (b) CRC‐3 at 𝛾 45°; (c) Isolated
propeller at an arbitrary phase angle.
3.2.2. Level of Unsteadiness
As mentioned before, for aerial systems relying on propulsion, the periodic motion
of the propellers transmits noise through the system by exciting the skin panels of the
structure [33], which eventually results in structure‐born noise. To evaluate the level of
unsteadiness on various conditions, the distribution of root–mean–square (RMS) of the
static pressure (𝑝 on propeller‐3, wings and the fuselage of CRC‐3 are represented in
this section. The labels assigned to the eight cases in Table 2 are used in the pressure RMS
figures. Figure 16 demonstrates 𝑝 on propeller‐3 for various conditions and as ex‐
pected, the blade tips experience the maximum unsteadiness. From C1 to C5, the level of
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 17 of 21
unsteadiness increases on the propeller as 𝜃 grows. Interestingly, the percentage of in‐
crease at high 𝜃 range is smaller than that of the low 𝜃 range (~28% versus ~50%),
which is consistent with the trend depicted in Figure 7.
C5 C6 C7 C8
Figure 16. Dimensionless 𝑃 contour on propeller‐3 of CRC‐3 for various cases: C1 (RPM=6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 0),
C2 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 15), C3 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 35), C4 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 55), C5
(RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 75), C6 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 4 m/s, 𝜃 15), C7 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 13 m/s, 𝜃 15), C8
(RPM = 12,000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 15).
The same agreement may be found on the inflow velocity effect on noise by compar‐
ing the level of unsteadiness between cases C2 (𝑈 7 m/s), C6 (𝑈 4 m/s) and C7 (𝑈
13 m/s) with Figure 10. Based on the OASPL trend shown in Figure 10, 𝑂𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐿
𝑂𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐿 𝑂𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐿 , and the maximum level of unsteadiness shows 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑅𝑀𝑆 . This confirms the importance of unsteady loading noise over steady loading noise
in the CRC‐3′s noise generation mechanism, as mentioned in the discussion of Figure 10.
In fact, the unsteadiness on propellers is significantly influenced by their interaction with
the structure, which confirms that the wings and fuselage are the major cause of increase
in noise due to increasing pitch angle. The RPM effect on unsteadiness of the propeller
may be evaluated by comparing cases C2 and C8 which have similar condition except
different RPM values of 6000 and 12,000, respectively. Although RPM results in doubling
the maximum pressure fluctuation level, it can be seen that the cases with 𝜃 55°, 75° at
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 18 of 21
C4 C5 C6
C7 C8
Figure 17. Dimensionless P_RMS contour on CRC‐3 structure for various cases: C1 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 0), C2
(RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 15), C3 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 35), C4 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 55), C5
(RPM = 6000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 75), C6 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 4 m/s, 𝜃 15), C7 (RPM = 6000, 𝑈 13 m/s, 𝜃 15), C8
(RPM = 12,000, 𝑈 7 m/s, 𝜃 15).
Unlike the RMS contours on propellers, in which the case with maximum pitch (C5)
demonstrates the maximum unsteadiness on the propeller, here the case with RPM
12,000 (C8) experiences the maximum unsteadiness on the rest of the structure. This is in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9732 19 of 21
agreement with the fact that structure‐born noise is mainly due to the propeller loading
[29], which is maximal for the case C8. In addition, this indicates existence of a two‐way
unsteady mechanism between the propellers and the structure of CRC‐3. The body im‐
poses maximum unsteadiness on the propellers at large pitch, while the propellers cause
maximum fluctuation on the body at large RPM. Focusing on the case C2, the upper wing
(wing‐2) undergoes larger pressure fluctuations than wing‐1 and therefore experiences a
higher level of noise, which is consistent with the local acoustics pressure fluctuation re‐
ported in Figure 12. In addition, on the fuselage, the maximum pressure fluctuation occurs
close to its nose rather than the side, similar to that shown in Figure 13.
The level of unsteadiness on the body of CRC‐3 grows as 𝜃 increases, similar to that
observed for its propeller in Figure 16. In all cases, the footprint of the propeller tip and
blade‐passage vortices may be seen at the location of maximum unsteadiness, which is ei‐
ther on the wings, fuselage, or other appendages of CRC‐3, being altered by the motion pa‐
rameters, which shows that the tip and blade‐passage vortices of the propellers are always
a determinant source of structure‐borne noise. The pattern of change in 𝑝 distribution
from C1 to C5 reveals that the location of maximum unsteadiness tends to alter from being
concentrated at the region between the propellers at low 𝜃 and spread to other locations at
high 𝜃. For this reason, in the OASPL directivity shown in Figure 9, at 𝜃 0°, the observer
located at 𝛷 0 experiences significant noise level, while the directivity tends to become
uniform at high 𝜃. Another interesting observation is that the rate of increase in unsteadi‐
ness becomes larger as 𝜃 increases, similar to noise level on the wings (Figure 12), but op‐
posite to the noise around CRC‐3 (Figure 7). Regarding the velocity effect on pressure fluc‐
tuation on the wings and fuselage, comparing cases C2, C6, and C7 to each other, an irreg‐
ular effect on RMS can be observed. It is known that the value of propeller thrust decreases
with increasing velocity, which is an indicator of steady loading. However, unsteady load‐
ing does not show a monotonic change with 𝑈 or 𝐽, as reported in the literature and also
observed in the 𝑝 distribution on the propeller in Figure 16. Therefore, it can be inferred
that the irregular effect of velocity on structure‐borne noise is due to the changing balance
between the steady and unsteady loading of the propeller with its advance ratio.
4. Conclusions
The aeroacoustics of a quadrotor biplane tailsitter (CRC‐3) were studied numerically
for various conditions with different pitch angles, propeller rotating velocities and vehicle
speeds. Comparison of the sound pressure level around CRC‐3 with an isolated propeller
case showed significantly larger noise for CRC‐3, which was found to be altered by pitch
angle, unlike the isolated propeller case. This results in a 20% increase in noise from pitch
angle 𝜃 0° to 𝜃 75° at both BPF and OASPL. The studies showed that the major
source of CRC‐3 noise at 𝜃 0° is the noise generated by the four propellers and their
interactions. The increase of pitch adds noise due to the interaction of the propellers and
the CRC‐3 structure. The rate of increase in SPL with 𝜃 decreases as 𝜃 grows. Doubling
the RPM of CRC‐3 results in about a 14% increase in the noise at BPF and 18% increase
in overall noise, which is smaller than the increase due to changing the pitch angle from
𝜃 0° to 𝜃 75°. Additionally, the noise around CRC‐3 was found to alter irregularly
with increase in inflow velocity, due to changes in balance between steady and unsteady
loading effects with propellers’ advance ratio.
Studying unsteadiness on CRC‐3 by calculating the pressure fluctuation on the pro‐
peller and the structure indicated a two‐way mechanism through which the propellers
and the structure impose unsteadiness on each other. The unsteadiness on the propellers
was found to have a more dependence on the pitch angle rather than RPM. In contrast,
the trend of pressure fluctuation on the structure showed that it is more affected by RPM.
writing—review and editing, H.S., R.S. and M.H.; visualization, M.H.; supervision, H.S.; project ad‐
ministration, H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at
The University of Texas at Austin and University of North Texas High‐Performance Computing
Services for providing HPC resources that have contributed to the research results reported within
this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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