T •ToUAnalyze

How • T • Gear
O • Failures
R • I •(continued)
A • L by Robert Errichello

How To Analyze Gear Failures

Failure Conditions mine when and how to conduct an
When gears fail, there may be in- analysis. It is best to shut down a
centive to repair or replace failed failing gearbox as soon as possible to
components quickly and return the limit damage. To preserve evidence,
gear system to service. However, carefully plan the failure investigation
because gear failures provide valuable and conduct in-situ inspections and
data that may help prevent future plan to become involved in gearbox
failures, a systematic inspection pro- removal, transport, storage, and
cedure should be followed before disassembly. If the gears are damaged Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/tooth
but still functional, the company may end cracks
repair or replacement begins. Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks at end
decide to continue operation and
The failure investigation should be of teeth
monitor damage progression. In this Morphology: Crack origin at end of teeth
planned carefully to preserve evi-
case, be certain to become involved Cause: Misalignment. Stress concentration,
dence. The specific approach can vary
in establishing the gear system moni- flaws, or low fatigue strength at ends of teeth
depending on when and where the Remedy: Improve alignment. Avoid stress
toring process. In most applications,
inspection is made, the nature of the concentration and flaws. Increase fatigue
inspection and monitoring include strength.
failure, and time constraints.
visual inspection and temperature,
When and Where sound, and vibration measurements.
and contaminants, and inspect mag-
Ideally, the analyst should visit the Additionally, for critical applications,
netic plugs for wear debris.
site and inspect failed components as nondestructive inspection of the gears
soon after failure as possible. If an (e.g., magnetic particle inspection) Time Constraints
early inspection is not possible, some- should ensure the absence of cracks The high cost of shutdown freq-
one at the site must preserve the before operation is continued. Before uently limits time available for in-
evidence based on instructions from the system is restarted, be certain to spection. Such cases call for careful
the analyst. collect samples of lubricant for analy- planning. Dividing tasks between two
sis, drain and flush lubricant reser- or more analysts may reduce time
Getting Started
voirs, and replace the lubricant. required and provide varied insight
The failure conditions can deter-
Examine the oil filter for wear debris into the failure analysis task. In most

Class/Mode: Overload/brittle fracture

Definition: Fracture by rapid crack propagation
without appreciable plastic deformation Class/Mode: Overload/ductile fracture Class/Mode: Overload/mixed-mode fracture
Morphology: Bright, flat, granular surface. Definition: Fracture by tearing of metal with Definition: Fracture by both cleavage and
Scanning electron microscopy shows cleavage appreciable plastic deformation microvoid coalescence. Morphology: Surface
facets or intergranular facets. Morphology: Gray, fibrous surface with shear exhibits both ductile and brittle characteristics.
Cause: Stress intensity (tensile stress and flaw lips. Scanning electron microscopy shows shear Cause: High load, low yield strength, or low
size) exceeds fracture toughness. dimples. fracture toughness.
Remedy: Increase toughness. Avoid flaws and Cause: High load, low yield strength, or both. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength.
shock loads. Reduce tensile stress. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Increase fracture toughness.

Excerpted from Gear Failure Analysis: A Textbook for the Gear Failure Analyst, used in the GEARTECH seminar Gear Failure Analysis and Troubleshooting.
Photographs reprinted from Gear Failure Atlas ã (GEARTECH, 1999). Text and photographs used with permission from GEARTECH.

8 Volume 2(6) December 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

cases the old saying “time is money” person. Try to interview those in-
is worth remembering. volved in design, installation, startup,
operation and maintenance, and
Prepare for Inspection anyone present when failure of the
Before visiting the failure site, the gearbox occurred or was discovered.
analyst should interview a contact Encourage the interviewees to share
person and explain the failure analysis ever ything they know about the
process and outline specific needs. gearbox and associated systems even
Work to develop a good relationship if they feel it is not important.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/cold
with the contact person, avoid any flow External Examination
perception that you might be Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature
Before removing and disassembling
attempting to place blame, and em- lower than the recrystallization temperature
Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth the gearbox, take photographs and
phasize the need to inspect the gear-
Cause: High load, low yield strength, or thoroughly inspect the exterior. Use
box, interview personnel, examine inadequate lubrication an inspection form to ensure that
equipment, and assess working con- Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. important data (data that may be lost
ditions. Improve lubrication.
once disassembly begins) is recorded.
A skilled technician should be re- For example, the condition of seals
quested to disassemble the equip- and keyways should be recorded
ment under the direction of the before disassembly or it may be im-
analyst. However, if safety permits, it possible to determine when these
is best if no work is done on the gearbox parts were damaged.
until the analyst arrives. This means
Before cleaning the exterior of the
no disassembly, cleaning, or draining
gear housing, inspect for signs of over-
oil. Other wise, a well-meaning
heating, corrosion, contamination, oil
technician could inadvertently Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/hot
leaks, and damage, and photograph
destroy evidence. Emphasize that flow
the areas of interest. Photographic
failure investigation is different from Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature
higher than the recrystallization temperature documentation is frequently a key to
a gearbox rebuild, and the dis-
Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth any good failure analysis, including a
assembly process may reveal signi- covered with black ferrous oxide gear failure analysis.
ficant facts to a trained observer. Cause: Overheating. Lubrication starvation
Remedy: Reduce heat input. Improve cooling. Gear Tooth Contact Patterns
Verify that gearbox drawings, dis-
Increase flow of lubricant.
assembly tools, and adequate facilities To observe the condition of the
are available. Inform the contact per- gears, shafts, and bearings, clean the
son that privacy is required to conduct inspection port cover and the imme-
the investigation, and access to all diate area around it, and then remove
available information is necessary. the cover. Be careful not to contam-
Ask for as much background infor- inate the gearbox during cleaning or
mation as possible, including speci- during the removal of the port cover.
fications of the manufacturer, service The way gear teeth contact indi-
history, load data, and lubricant anal- cates how they are aligned. Record
yses. Send a questionnaire to the con- Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/
indentation
tooth contact patterns under loaded
tact person to help expedite infor- Definition: Local plastic deformation of active or unloaded conditions. No-load
mation gathering. tooth surface due to subsurface yielding patterns are not as reliable as loaded
Morphology: Shallow scattered dents or shallow patterns for detecting misalignment,
Inspect In Situ grooves along lines of contact
because marking compound is rela-
Cause: Foreign material trapped between gear
Before starting the inspection, tively thick and no-load tests do not
teeth. High stress due to tooth impact
review background information and Remedy: Remove foreign material. Avoid tooth include misalignment caused by load,
ser vice histor y with the contact impact. Avoid vibration resonance. speed, or temperature. Therefore, fol-

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 9

 How To Analyze Gear Failures (continued)

low no-load tests with loaded tests

whenever possible.
See ANSI/AGMA 2000 Appendix
D for information regarding contact
pattern tests.

No-Load Contact Patterns

For no-load tests, paint the teeth
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ of one gear with soft marking com- Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/subcase fatigue
rolling Definition: Cracking in case-hardened gears in
pound and roll the teeth through
Definition: Plastic deformation and displace- transition zone between case and core
ment of tooth surface material mesh so compound transfers to the Morphology: Fine longitudinal cracks.
Morphology: Groove at pitchline and burrs at unpainted gear. Turn the pinion by Longitudinal craters with sharp, perpendicular
tips and roots of driver. Ridge at pitchline of hand while applying a light load to edges
driver the gear shaft by hand or brake. Lift Cause: Contact stress exceeds subsurface fatigue
Cause: High contact stress. Inadequate strength. Inclusions near case/core
lubrication
transferred patterns from the gear Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase case
Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield with clear tape and mount the tapes hardness, case depth, and core hardness.
strength. Improve lubrication. on white paper to form a permanent
record.
The compound P T-650 Tooth
Marking Grease (available from
Products/Techniques, Inc., Rialto,
CA; tel: 909/877-3951) works best.
Scotch No. 845 Book Tape (2 in.
wide) works well for lifting contact
patterns. Class/Mode: Wear/adhesion
Class/Mode: Wear/erosion Definition: Material transfer between mating
Definition: Removal of surface material due to
Loaded Contact Patterns tooth surfaces due to microwelding and tearing
repeated impact of small, solid particles For loaded tests, paint several teeth Morphology: Teeth appear undamaged.
Morphology: Smooth, longitudinal craters near on one or both gears with machinist’s Scanning electron microscopy shows smooth
microplateaus between furrows.
ends of teeth layout lacquer (DYKEM, ITW Dy-
Cause: Relative motion between tooth surface Cause: Normal wear on asperities during run-in
kem Dymon, Olathe, KS; 800/443- Remedy: Use smooth surfaces. Run-in new
and a fluid containing hard particles
Remedy: Remove abrasives. 9536). Thoroughly clean teeth with gears. Drain, flush, and replace oil after run-in.
solvent and acetone, and brush paint
with a thin coat of lacquer. Run the
gears under load for sufficient time
to wear off the lacquer and establish
the contact patterns. Photograph
patterns to obtain a permanent record.
Record loaded contact patterns
under several loads, for example, 25,
50, 75, and 100% load. Inspect Class/Mode: Wear/abrasion
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ Definition: Removal and displacement of surface
ridging patterns after running approximately material by hard particles or hard asperities
Definition: Deformation on active tooth surface 1 h at each load to monitor how Morphology: Scratches or gouges in direction of
in the form of peaks and valleys patterns change with load. Ideally, the sliding. Scanning electron microscopy shows
Morphology: Pronounced ridges and grooves on patterns should not change much smooth, clean, furrows.
active tooth surface in direction of sliding Cause: Contamination by hard, sharp particles
Cause: Scuffing followed by polishing
with load. Optimum contact patterns (3-body). Hard asperities on mate (2-body)
Remedy: Use high viscosity antiscuff oil. cover nearly 100% of the active face Remedy: Remove abrasives. Use surface-
Improve cooling. Reduce load. of gear teeth under full load, except hardened teeth and smooth surfaces.

10 Volume 2(6) December 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

 at extremes of teeth along tips, roots,
and ends, where contact is lighter as
evidenced by traces of lacquer.

Endplay and Backlash

Inspect endplay and radial move-
ment of the input and output shafts
and gear backlash.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/root
Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface Remove Gearbox fillet yielding
fragments due to cyclic Hertzian stresses Mounting Alignment Definition: Permanent bending of teeth due to
Morphology: Pits on active tooth surface. yielding in root fillets
Measure alignment of shaft coupl-
Cracks at boundaries of pits. Beach marks in Morphology: Initial yielding may not be visible.
craters ings before removing the gearbox. Large yielding causes tip-to-root interference.
Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue Note the condition and loosening Cause: Bending stress exceeds yield strength.
strength. Inadequate specific film thickness torque of all fasteners including Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase yield
Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue coupling and mounting bolts. To strength.
strength. Increase specific film thickness.
check for possible twist of the gear
housing, measure movement of the
mounting feet as mounting bolts are
loosened. Install four dial indicators,
one at each corner of the gearbox.
Each indicator will record the same
vertical movement if there is no twist.
If not, calculate the twist from rela-
tive movements.
Class/Mode: Cracking/hardening cracks Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/tip-
Definition: Cracking in gears during or after Transport Gearbox to-root interference
heat treating Definition: Interference between tips of one gear
Fretting corrosion is a common
Morphology: Intergranular cracks running from and roots of mate
surface toward center of mass problem that may occur during ship-
Morphology: Plastic deformation, adhesion, or
Cause: Thermal stresses due to nonuniform ping. Ship the gearbox on an air-ride abrasion on tips of one gear and roots of mate
heating or cooling truck, and support the gearbox on Cause: Geometric errors. Inadequate tip/root
Remedy: Use proper heat treatment. Avoid vibration isolators to help avoid relief. Short center distance
stress concentrations. Remedy: Improve geometry. Improve accuracy.
fretting corrosion. If possible, ship
Increase center distance.
the gearbox with oil. To minimize
contamination, remove the breather
and seal the opening, seal labyrinth
seals with silicone rubber, and cover
the gearbox with a tarpaulin.

Store Gearbox
It is best to inspect the gearbox as
Class/Mode: Cracking/grinding cracks
soon as possible. However, if the
Definition: Cracking of tooth surfaces during or gearbox must be stored, store it in-
after grinding doors in a dry, temperature-controlled Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/low-cycle
Morphology: Fine shallow cracks in parallel or environment. Definition: Fatigue dominated by plastic strain
crazed mesh pattern with failure in less than 10,000 cycles
Cause: Excessive heat or stress due to grinding. Morphology: Rough fracture surface
Sensitive microstructure.
Disassemble Gearbox Cause: High bending stress. Low toughness
Remedy: Use proper grinding technique. Use Explain analysis objectives to the Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase
proper microstructure. attending technician. Review the toughness. Use proper microstructure.

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 11

 How To Analyze Gear Failures (continued)

After the external examination,

thoroughly clean the exterior of the
gearbox to avoid contaminating the
gearbox when opening it. Disassem-
ble the gearbox and inspect all com-
ponents, both failed and undamaged.

Inspect Components
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle Inspect Before Cleaning Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/profile
Definition: Fatigue dominated by elastic strain cracks
M ark relative positions of all
with failure in more than 10,000 cycles Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks on
Morphology: Smooth fracture surface with components before removing them. active surface of teeth
beach or ratchet marks. Scanning electron Do not throw away or clean any parts Morphology: Crack on active profile. Origin at
microscopy may show striations. until they are examined thoroughly. stress concentration or flaw
Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue If there are broken components, do Cause: Stress concentration due to macropits,
strength material flaws, or preexisting cracks
Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue
not touch fracture surfaces or fit
Remedy: Avoid stress concentration. Reduce
strength. Use proper microstructure. broken pieces together. If fractures contact stress. Increase fatigue strength.
cannot be examined immediately, coat
them with oil and store the parts so • Gear failure often follows bearing
gearbox assembly drawings with the
fracture surfaces are not damaged. failure.
technician, checking for potential
disassembly problems. Verify that the Examine functional surfaces of gear Document Observations
work will be done in a clean, well- teeth and bearings and record their Identify and mark each component
lighted area, protected from the ele- condition. Before cleaning the parts, (including gear teeth and bearing
ments, and that all necessary tools are look for signs of corrosion, contami- components) so it is clearly identified
available. If working conditions are nation, and overheating. in written descriptions, sketches, and
not suitable, find an alternate location photographs. It is especially impor-
Inspect After Cleaning
for gearbox disassembly. tant to mark all bearings, including
After the initial inspection, wash
Because technicians usually are the components with solvents and re- inboard and outboard sides, so their
trained to work quickly, it is wise to examine them. This examination locations and positions in the gearbox
remind him or her that disassembly should be as thorough as possible are identified.
must be done slowly and carefully. because it is often the most important Describe components consistently.
phase of the investigation and may yield For example, always start with the
valuable clues. A low-power magni-
fying glass and 30´ pocket microscope
are helpful tools for this examination.
It is important to inspect bearings
because they often provide clues to
the cause of gear failure. For example:
• Bearing wear can cause excessive
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/root radial clearance or endplay that
fillet cracks misaligns gears. Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropittting/
Definition: High-cycle fatigue with cracks in nonprogressive
root fillets
• Bearing damage may indicate Definition: Macropits that arrest after high
Morphology: Crack across base of tooth. Origin corrosion, contamination, electrical asperities are removed and load is more uniform
on root fillet at point of max bending stress discharge, or lack of lubrication. Morphology: Localized pits less than 1 mm
Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue diam.
strength
• Plastic deformation between rollers Cause: Load concentration on high asperities
Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue and raceways may indicate over- Remedy: Self limiting. To avoid, improve
strength. loads. accuracy and reduce surface roughness.

12 Volume 2(6) December 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

 • Document what is visible. List all
obser vations even if some seem
insignificant or if the failure mode
is not easily recognizable. Remem-
ber there is a reason for everything,
and some details may become im-
portant later when all the evidence
is considered.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ • Document what is not visible. This Class/Mode: Scuffing
rippling step is helpful to eliminate certain Definition: Severe adhesion and transfer of
Definition: Periodic, wavelike deformation on metal between teeth due to welding and tearing
failure modes and causes. For ex-
active tooth surface Morphology: Rough, matte streaks along
Morphology: Fish-scale appearance. Peaks of ample, if there is no scuffing, it can direction of sliding in addenda, dedenda, or both
waves perpendicular to direction of sliding be concluded that gear tooth contact Cause: Tooth contact temperature exceeds
Cause: Subsurface yielding due to high contact temperature was less than the scuff- scuffing temperature of lubricant.
stress and boundary lubrication ing temperature of the lubricant. Remedy: Reduce contact temperature. Use high-
Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield viscosity antiscuff oil. Improve cooling.
strength. Increase specific film thickness. • Search the bottom of the gearbox.
Often, this is where the best-
same part of a bearing and progress • Gear housing center distance
preserved evidence is found, such
through the parts in the same se- as when a tooth fractures and falls • Whole depth of teeth
quence. This helps to avoid over- free without secondary damage. • Tooth thickness (both span and
looking any evidence. topland thickness)
• Use time efficiently. Be prepared for the
Describe important observations in inspection. Plan work carefully to Specimens for Laboratory Tests
writing using sketches and photo- obtain as much evidence as possible. During inspection, the analyst will
graphs where needed. The following Do not be distracted by anyone. begin to formulate hypotheses regard-
guidelines help maximize the chances
• Control the investigation. Watch ing the cause of failure. With these
for obtaining meaningful evidence:
every step of the disassembly. Do hypotheses in mind, select specimens
• Concentrate on collecting evidence, not let the technician proceed too for laboratory testing. Take broken
not on determining cause of failure. quickly. Disassembly should stop parts for laboratory evaluation or, if
Regardless of how obvious the cause while the analyst inspects and this is not possible, preserve them for
may appear, do not form conclusions documents the condition of a com- later analysis.
until all evidence is considered. ponent; then move on to the next
component.
• Insist on privacy. Do not let anyone
distract attention from the investi-
gation. If asked about conclusions,
answer that conclusions are not
formed until the investigation is
complete.
Gather Gear Geometry Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/
The load capacity of the gears should progressive
Class/Mode: Cracking/rim and web cracks be calculated. For this purpose, obtain Definition: Macropits that grow in size and
Definition: Cracking in rim or web of gear body number with operation
Morphology: Radial cracks through gear rim or
the following geometry data from the Morphology: Pits larger than one mm covering
in web. Usually start at stress concentration gears and housing or drawings: a significant area of active tooth surface
Cause: Rim or web too thin. Stress concentra- • Number of teeth Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue
tion. Resonance of gear body strength. Inadequate specific film thickness
Remedy: Use proper rim and web thickness. • Outside diameter Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue
Avoid stress concentration. Avoid resonance. • Face width strength. Increase specific film thickness.

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 13

 How To Analyze Gear Failures (continued)

Class/Mode: Wear/electric discharge Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/

Definition: Damage due to electric arc discharge spall flake
across oil film between active tooth surfaces Definition: Progressive macropitting with pits Definition: Progressive macropitting causing
Morphology: Pitted surface. Scanning electron that coalesce thin flakes of material to break out
microscopy shows small hemispherical craters Morphology: Irregular craters covering a Morphology: Large, shallow pits. Fan-shaped
and melted metal spheres. significant area of active tooth surface cracks grow from origin and separate thin flakes.
Cause: Electric current through the gear mesh Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue
Remedy: Use electrical insulation or grounding. strength. Inadequate specific film thickness strength. Inadequate specific film thickness
Avoid welding near gears. Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue
strength. Increase specific film thickness. strength. Increase specific film thickness.
After the inspection is completed, the bottom. These samples can un-
be sure all parts are coated with oil cover problems such as excessive water It is best to devote two days mini-
and stored properly so that corrosion in the oil due to improper storage. mum for the failure inspection. This
or damage will not occur. affords time after the first-day in-
Ask whether there are new, unused
Oil samples can be very helpful. spection to review the inspection and
components. These parts are helpful
However, an effective analysis depends analyze collected data. Often, the
to compare with failed parts. Simi-
on how well the sample represents the initial inspection discloses a need for
larly, compare a sample of fresh
operating lubricant. To take samples other data, which can be gathered on
lubricant to used lubricant.
from the gearbox drain valve, first the second day.
discard stagnant oil from the valve. Do You Have It All?
Then, take a sample at the start, mid- Before leaving the site, be sure that Determine Failure Mode
dle, and end of the drain to avoid all necessary items—completed in- Now it is time to examine all infor-
stratification. To sample from the spection forms, written descriptions mation and determine how the gears
storage drum or reservoir, draw sam- and sketches, photos, and test speci- failed.
ples from the top, middle, and near mens—have been collected.

Class/Mode: Wear/cavitation Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/micropitting

Class/Mode: Cracking/case-core separation Definition: Deformation and detachment of Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface
Definition: Internal cracks that cause corners, surface fragments due to collapsing vapor asperities
edges, or tips of teeth to separate bubbles Morphology: Frosted, matte or gray-stained
Morphology: Fracture surfaces exhibit Morphology: Pitted as if sandblasted. Scanning active tooth surface. Scanning electron
characteristics of brittle fracture. electron microscopy shows deep, rough, clean, microscopy shows pits <20 mm deep.
Cause: High residual tensile stress at case-core honeycomb craters. Cause: Inadequate specific film thickness. Oil
interface due to excessive case depth Cause: Nucleation and implosion of gas-filled with inadequate micropitting resistance
Remedy: Use proper case depth. Temper bubbles within lubricant Remedy: Increase specific film thickness. Use oil
immediately after quenching. Avoid sharp edges. Remedy: Reduce speed. Avoid vibration. with high micropitting resistance.

14 Volume 2(6) December 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

Modes of Failure scopes and scanning electron micro-
Several failure modes may be pres- scopes (SEM) are useful for this pur-
ent, and the primary mode and secon- pose. A SEM with energy-dispersive x-
dary modes (modes that are conse- ray is especially useful for identifying
quences of the primary mode, and corrosion, contamination, or inclusions.
which may or may not have contri-
If the primary failure mode is like-
buted to the failure) must be iden-
ly to be influenced by gear geometry
tified.
or metallurgical properties, check for
Six general classes of gear failure Class/Mode: Wear/corrosion any geometric or metallurgical defects
Definition: Chemical or electrochemical reaction
modes are: between a gear and its environment that may have contributed to the
• Overload Morphology: Stained or rusty surfaces with failure. For example, if tooth contact
reddish-brown deposits. Scanning electron patterns indicate misalignment or
• Bending fatigue microscopy shows etch pits. interference, inspect the gear for
• Hertzian fatigue Cause: Contamination by acid or water. Overly
accuracy on gear inspection machines.
reactive antiscuff additives
• Wear Conversely, where contact patterns
Remedy: Remove contaminants. Drain, flush,
• Scuffing and replace oil. indicate good alignment and loads are
• Cracking within rated gear capacity, check teeth
for metallurgical defects.
An understanding of these modes
will enable identification of the cause Conduct nondestructive tests be-
of failure. fore any destructive tests. These non-
destructive tests, which aid in detect-
Tests and Calculations ing material or manufacturing defects
In many cases, failed parts and in- and provide rating information,
spection data do not yield enough infor- include:
mation to determine the cause of fail-
ure. When this happens, gear design Class/Mode: Wearing/fretting corrosion • Surface hardness and roughness
Definition: Deterioration of active tooth surface
calculations and laboratory tests are caused by minute vibratory motion • Magnetic particle inspection
necessary to develop and confirm a Morphology: Ruts along lines of contact. • Acid etch inspection
hypothesis for the probable cause. Reddish-brown wear debris. X-ray diffraction
• Gear tooth accuracy inspection
shows a -Fe2O3.
Gear Design Calculations Cause: Vibration during non-rotation Then, conduct destructive tests to
Gear geometry data aids in esti- Remedy: Avoid vibration or rotate gears.
evaluate material and heat treatment.
mating tooth contact stress, bending These tests include:
stress, lubricant film thickness, and
• Microhardness survey
gear tooth contact temperature based
on transmitted loads. Calculate values • Microstructural determination
according to American Gear Manu- using acid etches
facturers Association (AGMA) stan- • Determination of grain size
dards such as ANSI/AGMA 2001. • Determination of nonmetallic
Compare calculated values with inclusions
AGMA allowable values to help Class/Mode: Wear/polishing • Scanning electron microscopy to
determine risks of micropitting, Definition: Fine-scale abrasion promoted by study fracture surfaces
macropitting, bending fatigue, and chemically reactive antiscuff additives
scuffing. Morphology: Mirrorlike finish. Smooth or wavy
surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows fine Form and Test Conclusions
Laboratory Examination and Tests scratches. When all calculations and tests are
Cause: Formation of additive films and removal
Microscopic examination may con- of films by fine abrasives
completed, the analyst should form
firm the failure mode or find the Remedy: Use less chemically active additives. one or more hypotheses for the
origin of a fatigue crack. Light micro- Remove abrasives. probable cause of failure, then deter-

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(6) December 2002 15

 How To Analyze Gear Failures (continued)

mine whether the evidence supports Finally, after thoroughly testing the changes in equipment design, manu-
or disproves the hypotheses. Evaluate hypotheses against the evidence, a con- facturing, or operation to prevent
all evidence that was gathered, clusion will be reached regarding the future failures.
including: most probable cause of failure. In
• Documentary evidence and service addition, secondary factors that con- Selected References
history tributed to the failure may be identified. • R. Errichello and J. Muller: “How to
Analyze Gear Failures,” Power Trans-
• Statements from witnesses mission Design, March 1994, 36(3), pp. 35-
Report Results 40.
• Written descriptions, sketches, and
The failure analysis report should
photos • R. Errichello: “Analysis Techniques End
describe all relevant facts found Gear Damage,” Power Transmission Design,
• Gear geometry and contact patterns during analysis, inspections and tests, March 1995, 37(3), pp. 23-26.
• Gear design calculations weighing of evidence, conclusions, and
• Laboratory data for materials and recommendations. Present data suc-
lubricant cinctly, preferably in tables or figures.
Results of this evaluation may make Good photos are especially helpful for Robert Errichello, GEARTECH,
it necessary to modify or abandon portraying failure characteristics. 100 Bushbuck Road, Townsend, MT
initial hypotheses or pursue new lines If possible, include recommendations 59644. Contact e-mail: RLEgears@
of investigation. for repairing equipment or making aol.com.

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16 Volume 2(6) December 2002 Practical Failure Analysis