MODULE - 2

Processes
 Outline

•Process Concept
•Process Scheduling
•Operations on Processes
•Interprocess Communication
•IPC in Shared-Memory Systems
•IPC in Message-Passing Systems
•Examples of IPC Systems
 Process Concept

• An operating system handles and allow to executes a variety of

programs that run as a process.
• Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion. No parallel execution of
instructions of a single process
• Multiple parts
• The program code, also called text section
• Current activity including program counter, processor
registers
• Stack containing temporary data
• Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
• Data section containing global variables
• Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run
time
 Process Concept (Cont.)
•Program is passive entity stored on disk
(executable file); process is active
•Program becomes process when an
executable file is loaded into memory
•Execution of program started via GUI mouse
clicks, command line entry of its name, etc.
•One program can be several processes
•Consider multiple users executing the same
program
Process in Memory
Memory Layout of a C Program
 Process State
•As a process executes, it changes state
•New: The process is being created
•Running: Instructions are being executed
•Waiting: The process is waiting for some event
to occur
•Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to
a processor
•Terminated: The process has finished execution
Diagram of Process State
 Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process(also called
task control block)
• Process state – running, waiting, etc.
• Program counter – location of instruction to
next execute
• CPU registers – contents of all process-centric
registers
• CPU scheduling information- priorities,
scheduling queue pointers
• Memory-management information – memory
allocated to the process
• Accounting information – CPU used, clock time
elapsed since start, time limits
• I/O status information – I/O devices allocated to
process, list of open files
 Process Scheduling
• Process scheduler selects among available processes for
next execution on CPU core
• Goal -- Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto
CPU core
• Maintains scheduling queues of processes
• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main
memory, ready and waiting to execute
• Wait queues – set of processes waiting for an event
(i.e., I/O)
• Processes migrate among the various queues
Ready and Wait Queues
Representation of Process Scheduling
 CPU Switch From Process to Process
A context switch occurs when the CPU switches from
one process to another.
 Context Switch
• When CPU switches to another process, the system
must save the state of the old process and load the
saved state for the new process via a context switch
• Context of a process represented in the PCB
• Context-switch time is pure overhead; the system
does no useful work while switching
• The more complex the OS and the PCB  the
longer the context switch
• Time dependent on hardware support
• Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers
per CPU  multiple contexts loaded at once
 Multitasking in Mobile Systems
• Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one
process to run, others suspended
• Due to screen real estate, user interface limits iOS provides for a
• Single foreground process- controlled via user interface
• Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not on
the display, and with limits
• Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events,
specific long-running tasks like audio playback
• Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits
• Background process uses a service to perform tasks
• Service can keep running even if background process is
suspended
• Service has no user interface, small memory use
 Operations on Processes

• Process creation

• Process termination
 Process Creation
• Parent process create children processes, which, in turn
create other processes, forming a tree of processes
• Generally, process identified and managed via a process
identifier (pid)
• Resource sharing options
• Parent and children share all resources
• Children share subset of parent’s resources
• Parent and child share no resources
• Execution options
• Parent and children execute concurrently
• Parent waits until children terminate
 Process Creation (Cont.)
• Address space
• Child duplicate of parent
• Child has a program loaded into it
• UNIX examples
• fork() system call creates new process
• exec() system call used after a fork() to
replace the process’ memory space with a new
program
• Parent process calls wait()waiting for the child
to terminate
A Tree of Processes in Linux
 Process Termination
• Process executes last statement and then asks the
operating system to delete it using the exit() system
call.
• Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())
• Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
• Parent may terminate the execution of children processes
using the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing
so:
• Child has exceeded allocated resources
• Task assigned to child is no longer required
• The parent is exiting, and the operating systems does
not allow a child to continue if its parent terminates
 Process Termination

• Some operating systems do not allow child to exists if its

parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its
children must also be terminated.
• cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc.,
are terminated.
• The termination is initiated by the operating system.
• The parent process may wait for termination of a child process
by using the wait()system call. The call returns status
information and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);
• If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a
zombie
• If parent terminated without invoking wait(), process is an
orphan
 Android Process Importance Hierarchy
•Mobile operating systems often have to
terminate processes to reclaim system resources
such as memory. From most to least important:
•Foreground process
•Visible process
•Service process
•Background process
•Empty process
•Android will begin terminating processes that are
least important.
 Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser
• Many web browsers ran as single
process (some still do)
• If one web site causes trouble,
entire browser can hang or
crash
• Google Chrome Browser is
multiprocess with 3 different types
of processes:
• Browser process manages user
interface, disk and network I/O
• Renderer process renders web
pages, deals with HTML,
Javascript. A new renderer
created for each website
opened
• Runs in sandbox restricting
disk and network I/O,
minimizing effect of
security exploits
• Plug-in process for each type of
plug-in
 Interprocess Communication
• Processes within a system may be independent or
cooperating
• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other
processes, including sharing data
• Reasons for cooperating processes:
• Information sharing
• Computation speedup
• Modularity
• Convenience
• Cooperating processes need interprocess communication
(IPC)
• Two models of IPC
• Shared memory
• Message passing
 Communications Models
(a) Shared memory. (b) Message passing.
 Producer-Consumer Problem
• Paradigm for cooperating processes:
• producer process produces information that is consumed
by a consumer process
• Two variations:
• unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of
the buffer:
• Producer never waits
• Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume
• bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
• Producer must wait if all buffers are full
• Consumer waits if there is no buffer to consume
 IPC – Shared Memory

•An area of memory shared among the

processes that wish to communicate
•The communication is under the control of
the users processes not the operating
system.
•Major issues is to provide mechanism that
will allow the user processes to synchronize
their actions when they access shared
memory.
 What about Filling all the Buffers?
• Suppose that we wanted to provide a solution to the
consumer-producer problem that fills all the buffers.
• We can do so by having an integer counter that
keeps track of the number of full buffers.
• Initially, counter is set to 0.
• The integer counter is incremented by the producer
after it produces a new buffer.
• The integer counter is and is decremented by the
consumer after it consumes a buffer.
 Race Condition
• counter++ could be implemented as

register1 = counter
register1 = register1 + 1
counter = register1
• counter-- could be implemented as

register2 = counter
register2 = register2 - 1
counter = register2

• Consider this execution interleaving with “count = 5” initially:

S0: producer execute register1 = counter {register1 = 5}
S1: producer execute register1 = register1 + 1 {register1 = 6}
S2: consumer execute register2 = counter {register2 = 5}
S3: consumer execute register2 = register2 – 1 {register2 = 4}
S4: producer execute counter = register1 {counter = 6 }
S5: consumer execute counter = register2 {counter = 4}
 Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution

• Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
. . .
} item;

item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;

• Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1

elements
 Producer

while (true) {
/* produce an item in next
produced */

while (counter == BUFFER_SIZE)

; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
counter++;
}
 Consumer

while (true) {
while (counter == 0)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;

counter--;
/* consume the item in next
consumed */
}
 IPC – Message Passing

•Processes communicate with each other

without resorting to shared variables

•IPC facility provides two operations:

•send(message)
•receive(message)

•The message size is either fixed or variable

 Message Passing (Cont.)

• If processes P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:

• Establish a communication link between them
• Exchange messages via send/receive
• Implementation issues:
• How are links established?
• Can a link be associated with more than two processes?
• How many links can there be between every pair of
communicating processes?
• What is the capacity of a link?
• Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed
or variable?
• Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?
Implementation of Communication Link

•Physical:
•Shared memory
•Hardware bus
•Network
•Logical:
• Direct or indirect
• Synchronous or asynchronous
• Automatic or explicit buffering
 Direct Communication
• Processes must name each other explicitly:
• send (P, message) – send a message to process P
• receive(Q, message) – receive a message from
process Q
• Properties of communication link
• Links are established automatically
• A link is associated with exactly one pair of
communicating processes
• Between each pair there exists exactly one link
• The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-
directional
 Indirect Communication

• Messages are directed and received from mailboxes

(also referred to as ports)
• Each mailbox has a unique id
• Processes can communicate only if they share a
mailbox
• Properties of communication link
• Link established only if processes share a common
mailbox
• A link may be associated with many processes
• Each pair of processes may share several
communication links
• Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
 Indirect Communication (Cont.)

•Operations
•Create a new mailbox (port)
•Send and receive messages through mailbox
•Delete a mailbox
•Primitives are defined as:
•send(A, message) – send a message to
mailbox A
•receive(A, message) – receive a message
from mailbox A
 Indirect Communication (Cont.)
•Mailbox sharing
•P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
•P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
•Who gets the message?
•Solutions
•Allow a link to be associated with at most two
processes
•Allow only one process at a time to execute a
receive operation
•Allow the system to select arbitrarily the
receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver
was.
 Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking

• Blocking is considered synchronous

• Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is
received
• Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message is
available
• Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
• Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and
continue
• Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
• A valid message, or
• Null message
• Different combinations possible
• If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous
 Producer-Consumer: Message Passing
• Producer
message next_produced;
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next_produced */

send(next_produced);
}

• Consumer
message next_consumed;
while (true) {
receive(next_consumed)

/* consume the item in next_consumed */

}
 Buffering

•Queue of messages attached to the link.

•Implemented in one of three ways
1.Zero capacity – no messages are queued on a
link.
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2.Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3.Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits
 Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX

• POSIX Shared Memory

• Process first creates shared memory segment
shm_fd = shm_open(name, O CREAT | O
RDWR, 0666);
• Also used to open an existing segment
• Set the size of the object
ftruncate(shm_fd, 4096);
• Use mmap() to memory-map a file pointer to the
shared memory object
• Reading and writing to shared memory is done by
using the pointer returned by mmap().
 Examples of IPC Systems - Mach
• Mach communication is message based
• Even system calls are messages
• Each task gets two ports at creation - Kernel and Notify
• Messages are sent and received using the mach_msg()
function
• Ports needed for communication, created via
mach_port_allocate()
• Send and receive are flexible; for example four options if
mailbox full:
• Wait indefinitely
• Wait at most n milliseconds
• Return immediately
• Temporarily cache a message
 Mach Messages

#include<mach/mach.h>

struct message {
mach_msg_header_t header;
int data;
};

mach port t client;

mach port t server;
 Examples of IPC Systems – Windows
• Message-passing centric via advanced local procedure call
(LPC) facility
• Only works between processes on the same system
• Uses ports (like mailboxes) to establish and maintain
communication channels
• Communication works as follows:
• The client opens a handle to the subsystem’s
connection port object.
• The client sends a connection request.
• The server creates two private communication ports
and returns the handle to one of them to the client.
• The client and server use the corresponding port
handle to send messages or callbacks and to listen
for replies.
Local Procedure Calls in Windows
 Pipes
• Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate
• Issues:
• Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional?
• In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full-
duplex?
• Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child)
between the communicating processes?
• Can the pipes be used over a network?
• Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the
process that created it. Typically, a parent process creates
a pipe and uses it to communicate with a child process
that it created.
• Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child
relationship.
 Ordinary Pipes
• Ordinary Pipes allow
communication in standard
producer-consumer style
• Producer writes to one end
(the write-end of the pipe)
• Consumer reads from the
other end (the read-end of
the pipe)
• Ordinary pipes are
therefore unidirectional
• Require parent-child
relationship between
communicating processes
• Windows calls these
anonymous pipes
 Named Pipes
•Named Pipes are more powerful than ordinary
pipes
•Communication is bidirectional
•No parent-child relationship is necessary
between the communicating processes
•Several processes can use the named pipe for
communication
•Provided on both UNIX and Windows systems