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Unix Linux Introduction

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Unix Linux Introduction

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The Unix and GNU / Linux command line

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
Michael Opdenacker
Free Electrons
http://freeelectrons.com

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Shells, filesystem and file handling
Everything is a file
GNU / Linux filesystem structure
Command line interpreters
Handling files and directories
Displaying, scanning and sorting files
Symbolic and hard link
File access rights

Standard I/O, redirections, pipes
Standard input and output, redirecting to files
Pipes: redirecting standard output to other commands
Standard error

Task control
Full control on tasks
Executing in background, suspending, resuming and aborting
List of active tasks
Killing processes
Environment variables
PATH environment variables
Shell aliases, .bashrc file

Miscellaneous
Text editors
Compressing and archiving
Printing files
Comparing files and directories
Looking for files
Getting information about users

System administration basics
File ownership
Setting up networking
Filesystems: creating and mounting
Going further
Getting help, accessing manual pages
Searching the Internet for resources

This presentation included an introduction to Free Software
and Open Source: operating systems, applications, key
projects and rules for success.
It is now available as a separate presentation:
http://freeelectrons.com/articles/freesw

Unix filesystem

Almost everything in Unix is a file!

Regular files Devices and peripherals
Read and write from devices as
Directories
with regular files
Directories are just files
listing a set of files Pipes
Used to cascade programs
Symbolic links
cat *.log | grep error
Files referring to the name of
another file Sockets
Inter process communication

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
© Copyright 20062004, Michael Opdenacker
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12
File names
File name features since the beginning of Unix
Case sensitive
No obvious length limit
Can contain any character (including whitespace, except /).
File types stored in the file (“magic numbers”).
File name extensions not needed and not interpreted. Just used for
user convenience.
File name examples:
README .bashrc Windows Buglist
index.htm index.html index.html.old

A path is a sequence of nested directories with a file or directory at
the end, separated by the / character
Relative path: documents/fun/microsoft_jokes.html
Relative to the current directory
Absolute path: /home/bill/bugs/crash9402031614568
/ : root directory.
Start of absolute paths for all files on the system (even for files on
removable devices or network shared).

Not imposed by the system. Can vary from one system to the other,
even between two GNU/Linux installations!

/ Root directory
/bin/ Basic, essential system commands
/boot/ Kernel images, initrd and configuration files
/dev/ Files representing devices
/dev/hda: first IDE hard disk
/etc/ System configuration files
/home/ User directories
/lib/ Basic system shared libraries

/lost+found Corrupt files the system tried to recover
/mnt/ Mounted filesystems
/mnt/usbdisk/, /mnt/windows/ ...
/opt/ Specific tools installed by the sysadmin
/usr/local/ often used instead
/proc/ Access to system information
/proc/cpuinfo, /proc/version ...
/root/ root user home directory
/sbin/ Administratoronly commands
/sys/ System and device controls
(cpu frequency, device power, etc.)

/tmp/ Temporary files
/usr/ Regular user tools (not essential to the system)
/usr/bin/, /usr/lib/, /usr/sbin...
/usr/local/ Specific software installed by the sysadmin
(often preferred to /opt/)
/var/ Data used by the system or system servers
/var/log/, /var/spool/mail (incoming
mail), /var/spool/lpd (print jobs)...

Shells and file handling

Shells: tools to execute user commands
Called “shells” because they hide the details on the
underlying operating system under the shell's surface.
Commands are input in a text terminal, either a window in a
graphical environment or a textonly console.
Results are also displayed on the terminal. No graphics are
needed at all.
Shells can be scripted: provide all the resources to write
complex programs (variable, conditionals, iterations...)

Most famous and popular shells
sh: The Bourne shell (obsolete)
Traditional, basic shell found on Unix systems, by Steve Bourne.
csh: The C shell (obsolete)
Once popular shell with a Clike syntax
tcsh: The TC shell (still very popular)
A C shell compatible implementation with evolved features (command
completion, history editing and more...)
bash: The Bourne Again shell (most popular)
An improved implementation of sh with lots of added features too.

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
© Copyright 20062004, Michael Opdenacker
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fish: a great new shell
The Friendly Interactive SHell
http://roo.noip.org/fish/
Standard features: history, command and file completion...
Brand new features: command option completion, command
completion with short description, syntax highlighting..
Easier to any open files: open builtin command.
Much simpler and consistent syntax (not POSIX compliant)
Makes it easier to create shell scripts.
Command line beginners can learn much faster!
Even experienced users should find this shell very convenient.

Lists the files in the current directory, in alphanumeric order,
except files starting with the “.” character.

ls a (all) ls S (size)
Lists all the files (including .* Lists the biggest files first
files)
ls r (reverse)
ls l (long) Reverses the sort order
Long listing (type, date, size,
owner, permissions) ls ltr (options can be
combined)
ls t (time) Long listing, most recent files at
Lists the most recent files first the end

Better introduced by examples!
ls *txt
The shell first replaces *txt by all the file and directory names
ending by txt (including .txt), except those starting with .,
and then executes the ls command line.
ls d .*
Lists all the files and directories starting with .
d tells ls not to display the contents of directories.
cat ?.log
Displays all the files which names start by 1 character and end by
.log

./
The current directory. Useful for commands taking a directory
argument. Also sometimes useful to run commands in the current
directory (see later).
So ./readme.txt and readme.txt are equivalent.
../
The parent (enclosing) directory. Always belongs to the . directory
(see ls a). Only reference to the parent directory.
Typical usage:
cd ..

~/
Not a special directory indeed. Shells just substitute it by the
home directory of the current user.
Cannot be used in most programs, as it is not a real directory.
~sydney/
Similarly, substituted by shells by the home directory of the
sydney user.

cd <dir>
Change the current directory to <dir>.
pwd
Displays the current directory ("working directory").

cp <source_file> <target_file>
Copies the source file to the target.
cp file1 file2 file3 ... dir
Copies the files to the target directory (last argument).
cp i (interactive)
Asks for user confirmation if the target file already exists
cp r <source_dir> <target_dir> (recursive)
Copies the whole directory.

rsync (remote sync) has been designed to keep in sync
directories on 2 machines with a low bandwidth connection.
Only copies files that have changed. Files with the same size are compared
by checksums.
Only transfers the blocks that differ within a file!
Can compress the transferred blocks
Preserves symbolic links and file permissions: also very useful for copies on
the same machine.
Can work through ssh (secure remote shell). Very useful to update the
contents of a website, for example.

rsync a /home/arvin/sd6_agents/ /home/sydney/misc/

a: archive mode. Equivalent to rlptgoD... easy way to tell you want
recursion and want to preserve almost everything.
rsync Pav delete /home/steve/ideas/ /home/bill/my_ideas/

P: partial (keep partially transferred files) and progress
(show progress during transfer)
delete: delete files in the target which don't exist in the source.
Caution: directory names should end with / . Otherwise, you get a
my_ideas/ideas/ directory at the destination.

Copying to a remote machine
rsync Pav /home/bill/legal/arguments/ \
[email protected]:/home/legal/arguments/
User bill will be prompted for a password.
Copying from a remote machine through ssh
rsync Pav e ssh
[email protected]/prod/beer/ \
fridge/homer/beer/
User homer will be prompted for his ssh key password.

mv <old_name> <new_name> (move)
Renames the given file or directory.
mv i (interactive)
If the new file already exits, asks for user confirm
rm file1 file2 file3 ... (remove)
Removes the given files.
rm i (interactive)
Always ask for user confirm.
rm r dir1 dir2 dir3 (recursive)
Removes the given directories with all their contents.

mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3 ... (make dir)
Creates directories with the given names.
rmdir dir1 dir2 dir3 ... (remove dir)
Removes the given directories
Safe: only works when directories and empty.
Alternative: rm r (doesn't need empty directories).

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Displaying file contents
Several ways of displaying the contents of files.
cat file1 file2 file3 ... (concatenate)
Concatenates and outputs the contents of the given files.
more file1 file2 file3 ...
After each page, asks the user to hit a key to continue.
Can also jump to the first occurrence of a keyword
(/ command).
less file1 file2 file3 ...
Does more than more with less.
Doesn't read the whole file before starting.
Supports backward movement in the file (? command).

head [<n>] <file>
Displays the first <n> lines (or 10 by default) of the given file.
Doesn't have to open the whole file to do this!
tail [<n>] <file>
Displays the last <n> lines (or 10 by default) of the given file.
No need to load the whole file in RAM! Very useful for huge files.
tail f <file> (follow)
Displays the last 10 lines of the given file and continues to display new lines
when they are appended to the file.
Very useful to follow the changes in a log file, for example.
Examples
head windows_bugs.txt
tail f outlook_vulnerabilities.txt

grep <pattern> <files>
Scans the given files and displays the lines which match the given pattern.
grep error *.log
Displays all the lines containing error in the *.log files
grep i error *.log
Same, but case insensitive
grep ri error .
Same, but recursively in all the files in . and its subdirectories
grep v info *.log
Outputs all the lines in the files except those containing info.

sort <file>
Sorts the lines in the given file in character order and
outputs them.
sort r <file>
Same, but in reverse order.
sort ru <file>
u: unique. Same, but just outputs identical lines once.
More possibilities described later!

A symbolic link is a special file which is just a reference to the
name of another one (file or directory):
Useful to reduce disk usage and complexity when 2 files have the
same content.
Example:
anakin_skywalker_biography > darth_vador_biography

How to identify symbolic links:
ls l displays > and the linked file name.
GNU ls displays links with a different color.

To create a symbolic link (same order as in cp):
ln s file_name link_name
To create a link with to a file in another directory, with the
same name:
ln s ../README.txt
To create multiple links at once in a given directory:
ln s file1 file2 file3 ... dir
To remove a link:
rm link_name
Of course, this doesn't remove the linked file!

The default behavior for ln is to create hard links
A hard link to a file is a regular file with exactly the same
physical contents
While they still save space, hard links can't be distinguished
from the original files.
If you remove the original file, there is no impact on the hard
link contents.
The contents are removed when there are no more files (hard
links) to them.

Makes hard and symbolic (soft) links easier to understand!

Users

File name interface

Soft link File Hard link

rm
rm

Inode Inode
interface

Filesystem

Use ls l to check file access rights
3 types of access rights 3 types of access levels
Read access (r) User (u): for the owner of the
file
Write access (w)
Group (g): each file also has a
Execute rights (x)
“group” attribute, corresponding
to a given list of users
Others (o): for all other users

x without r is legal but is useless
You have to be able to read a file to execute it.
Both r and x permissions needed for directories:
x to enter, r to list its contents.
You can't rename, remove, copy files in a directory if you don't
have w access to this directory.
If you have w access to a directory, you CAN remove a file even if
you don't have write access to this file (remember that a directory
is just a file describing a list of files). This even lets you modify
(remove + recreate) a file even without w access to it.

rwrr
Readable and writable for file owner, only readable for others
rwr
Readable and writable for file owner, only readable for users
belonging to the file group.
drwx
Directory only accessible by its owner
rx
File executable by others but neither by your friends nor by
yourself. Nice protections for a trap...

chmod <permissions> <files>
2 formats for permissions:
Octal format (abc):
a,b,c = r*4+w*2+x (r, w, x: booleans)
Example: chmod 644 <file>
(rw for u, r for g and o)
Or symbolic format. Easy to understand by examples:
chmod go+r: add read permissions to group and others.
chmod uw: remove write permissions from user.
chmod ax: (a: all) remove execute permission from all.

chmod R a+rX linux/
Makes linux and everything in it available to
everyone!
R: apply changes recursively
X: x, but only for directories and files already executable
Very useful to open recursive access to directories,
without adding execution rights to all files.

chmod a+t /tmp
t: (sticky). Special permission for directories, allowing
only the directory and file owner to delete a file in a
directory.
Useful for directories with write access to anyone,
like /tmp.
Displayed by ls l with a t character.

Standard I/O, redirections, pipes

More about command output
All the commands outputting text on your terminal do it by
writing to their standard output.
Standard output can be written (redirected) to a file using the
> symbol
Standard output can be appended to an existing file using the
>> symbol

ls ~saddam/* > ~gwb/weapons_mass_destruction.txt
cat obiwan_kenobi.txt > starwars_biographies.txt
cat han_solo.txt >> starwars_biographies.txt
echo “README: No such file or directory” > README
Useful way of creating a file without a text editor.
Nice Unix joke too in this case.

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Standard input
More about command input
Lots of commands, when not given input arguments, can take their
input from standard input.
sort
windows sort takes its input from
linux the standard input: in this case,
[Ctrl][D] what you type in the terminal
linux (ended by [Ctrl][D])
windows
sort < participants.txt
The standard input of sort is taken from the given file.

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Pipes

Unix pipes are very useful to redirect the standard output of a
command to the standard input of another one.
Examples
cat *.log | grep i error | sort
grep ri error . | grep v “ignored” | sort u \
> serious_errors.log
cat /home/*/homework.txt | grep mark | more
This one of the most powerful features in Unix shells!

tee [a] file
The tee command can be used to send standard output
to the screen and to a file simultaneously.
make | tee build.log
Runs the make command and stores its output to
build.log.
make install | tee a build.log
Runs the make install command and appends its
output to build.log.

Error messages are usually output (if the program is well written)
to standard error instead of standard output.
Standard error can be redirected through 2> or 2>>
Example:
cat f1 f2 nofile > newfile 2> errfile
Note: 1 is the descriptor for standard output, so 1> is equivalent to
>.
Can redirect both standard output and standard error to the same
file using &> :
cat f1 f2 nofile &> wholefile

Useful to fill standard input with always the same string.
yes <string> | <command>
Keeps filling the standard input of <command> with
<string> (y by default).
Examples
yes | rm r dir/
bank> yes no | credit_applicant
yes "" | make oldconfig
(equivalent to hitting [Enter] to accept all default settings)

Device files with a special behavior or contents
/dev/null
The data sink! Discards all data written to this file.
Useful to get rid of unwanted output, typically log information:
mplayer black_adder_4th.avi &> /dev/null
/dev/zero
Reads from this file always return \0 characters
Useful to create a file filled with zeros:
dd if=/dev/zero of=disk.img bs=1k count=2048
See man null or man zero for details

/dev/random
Returns random bytes when read. Mainly used by cryptographic
programs. Uses interrupts from some device drivers as sources of
true randomness (“entropy”).
Reads can be blocked until enough entropy is gathered.
/dev/urandom
For programs for which pseudo random numbers are fine.
Always generates random bytes, even if not enough entropy is
available (in which case it is possible, though still difficult, to
predict future byte sequences from past ones).
See man random for details.

Task control

Since the beginning, Unix supports true preemptive
multitasking.
Ability to run many tasks in parallel, and abort them even if
they corrupt their own state and data.
Ability to choose which programs you run.
Ability to choose which input your programs takes, and
where their output goes.

“Everything in Unix is a file
Everything in Unix that is not a file is a process”
Processes
Instances of a running programs
Several instances of the same program can run at the same time
Data associated to processes:
Open files, allocated memory, stack, process id, parent, priority, state...

Same usage throughout all the shells
Useful
For command line jobs which output can be examined later,
especially for time consuming ones.
To start graphical applications from the command line and
then continue with the mouse.
Starting a task: add & at the end of your line:
find_prince_charming cute clever rich &

jobs
Returns the list of background jobs from the same shell
[1] Running ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life withoutgod &
[2]+ Running make mistakes &

fg
fg %<n>
Puts the last / nth background job in foreground mode
Moving the current task in background mode:
[Ctrl] Z
bg
kill %<n>
Aborts the nth job.

> jobs
[1] Running ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life withoutgod &
[2]+ Running make mistakes &

> fg
make mistakes

> [Ctrl] Z
[2]+ Stopped make mistakes

> bg
[2]+ make mistakes &
> kill %1
[1]+ Terminated ~/bin/find_meaning_of_life withoutgod

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Listing all processes
... whatever shell, script or process they are started from
ps ux
Lists all the processes belonging to the current user
ps aux (Note: ps edf on System V systems)
Lists all the processes running on the system
ps aux | grep bart | grep bash
USER       PID %CPU %MEM   VSZ  RSS TTY      STAT START   TIME COMMAND
bart      3039  0.0  0.2  5916 1380 pts/2    S    14:35   0:00 /bin/bash
bart      3134  0.0  0.2  5388 1380 pts/3    S    14:36   0:00 /bin/bash
bart      3190  0.0  0.2  6368 1360 pts/4    S    14:37   0:00 /bin/bash
bart      3416  0.0  0.0     0    0 pts/2    RW   15:07   0:00 [bash]

PID: Process id
VSZ: Virtual process size (code + data + stack)
RSS: Process resident size: number of KB currently in RAM
TTY: Terminal
STAT: Status: R (Runnable), S (Sleep), W (paging), Z (Zombie)...

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Live process activity
top Displays most important processes, sorted by cpu percentage
top 15:44:33 up  1:11,  5 users,  load average: 0.98, 0.61, 0.59
Tasks:  81 total,   5 running,  76 sleeping,   0 stopped,   0 zombie
Cpu(s): 92.7% us,  5.3% sy,  0.0% ni,  0.0% id,  1.7% wa,  0.3% hi,  0.0% si
Mem:    515344k total,   512384k used,     2960k free,    20464k buffers
Swap:  1044184k total,        0k used,  1044184k free,   277660k cached

  PID USER      PR  NI  VIRT  RES  SHR S %CPU %MEM    TIME+  COMMAND
3809 jdoe      25   0  6256 3932 1312 R 93.8  0.8   0:21.49 bunzip2
2769 root      16   0  157m  80m  90m R  2.7 16.0   5:21.01 X
3006 jdoe      15   0 30928  15m  27m S  0.3  3.0   0:22.40 kdeinit
3008 jdoe      16   0  5624  892 4468 S  0.3  0.2   0:06.59 autorun
3034 jdoe      15   0 26764  12m  24m S  0.3  2.5   0:12.68 kscd
3810 jdoe      16   0  2892  916 1620 R  0.3  0.2   0:00.06 top

You can change the sorting order by typing
M: Memory usage, P: %CPU, T: Time.
You can kill a task by typing k and the process id.

kill <pids>
Sends an abort signal to the given processes. Lets processes save
data and exit by themselves. Should be used first. Example:
kill 3039 3134 3190 3416
kill 9 <pids>
Sends an immediate termination signal. The system itself
terminates the processes. Useful when a process is really stuck
(doesn't answer to kill 1).
kill 9 1
Kills all the processes of the current user. 1: means all processes.

killall [<signal>] <command>
Kills all the jobs running <command>. Example:
killall bash
xkill
Lets you kill a graphical application by clicking on it!
Very quick! Convenient when you don't know the application
command name.

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Recovering from stuck graphics
If your graphical session is stuck and you can no longer type in your
terminals, don't reboot!
It is very likely that your system is still fine. Try to access a text console by
pressing the [Ctrl][Alt][F1] keys
(or [F2],[F3] for more text consoles)
In the text console, you can try to kill the guilty application.
Once this is done, you can go back to the graphic session by pressing
[Ctrl][Alt][F5] or [Ctrl][Alt][F7] (depending on your
distribution)
If you can't identify the stuck program, you can also kill all your processes:
kill 9 1
You are then brought back to the login screen.

Can type the next command in your terminal even when the
current one is not over.
Can separate commands with the ; symbol:
echo “I love thee”; sleep 10; echo “ not”
Conditionals: use || (or) or && (and):
more God || echo “Sorry, God doesn't exist”
Runs echo only if the first command fails

ls ~sd6 && cat ~sd6/* > ~sydney/recipes.txt
Only cats the directory contents if the ls command succeeds
(means read access).

Double (") quotes can be used to prevent the shell from interpreting
spaces as argument separators, as well as to prevent file name pattern
expansion.
> echo "Hello World"
Hello World
> echo "You are logged as $USER"
You are logged as bgates
> echo *.log
find_prince_charming.log cosmetic_buys.log
> echo "*.log"
*.log

Single quotes bring a similar functionality, but what is between
quotes is never substituted
> echo 'You are logged as $USER'
You are logged as $USER
Back quotes (`) can be used to call a command within another
> cd /lib/modules/`uname r`; pwd
/lib/modules/2.6.91.6_FC2
Back quotes can be used within double quotes
> echo "You are using Linux `uname r`"
You are using Linux 2.6.91.6_FC2

time find_expensive_housing near
<...command output...>
real    0m2.304s (actual elapsed time)
user    0m0.449s (CPU time running program code)
sys     0m0.106s (CPU time running system calls)

real = user + sys + waiting
waiting = I/O waiting time + idle time (running other tasks)

Shells let the user define variables.
They can be reused in shell commands.
Convention: lower case names
You can also define environment variables: variables
that are also visible within scripts or executables called
from the shell.
Convention: upper case names.
env
Lists all defined environment variables and their value.

Shell variables (bash)
projdir=/home/marshall/coolstuff
ls la $projdir; cd $projdir
Environment variables (bash)
cd $HOME
export DEBUG=1
./find_extraterrestrial_life
(displays debug information if DEBUG is set)

The Unix and GNU / Linux command line
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Main standard environment variables
Used by lots of applications! MANPATH
LD_LIBRARY_PATH Manual page search path
Shared library search path PATH
DISPLAY Command search path
Screen id to display X PRINTER
(graphical) applications on. Default printer name
EDITOR SHELL
Default editor (vi, emacs...) Current shell name
HOME TERM
Current user home directory Current terminal type
HOSTNAME USER
Name of the local machine Current user name

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PATH environment variables
PATH
Specifies the shell search order for commands
/home/acox/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/kerberos/bin
:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/bin:/usr/bin
LD_LIBRARY_PATH
Specifies the shared library (binary code libraries shared by
applications, like the C library) search order for ld
/usr/local/lib:/usr/lib:/lib:/usr/X11R6/lib
MANPATH
Specifies the search order for manual pages
/usr/local/man:/usr/share/man

It is strongly recommended not to have the “.” directory in your PATH
environment variable, in particular not at the beginning:
A cracker could place a malicious ls file in your directories. It would
get executed when you run ls in this directory and could do naughty
things to your data.
If you have an executable file called test in a directory, this will
override the default test program and some scripts will stop working
properly.
Each time you cd to a new directory, the shell will waste time updating
its list of available commands.
Call your local commands as follows: ./test

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Alias
Shells let you define command aliases: shortcuts for commands you use
very frequently.
Examples
alias ls='ls la'
Useful to always run commands with default arguments.
alias rm='rm i'
Useful to make rm always ask for confirmation.
alias frd='find_rambaldi_device asap risky'
Useful to replace very long and frequent commands.
alias cia='. /home/sydney/env/cia.sh'
Useful to set an environment in a quick way
(. is a shell command to execute the content of a shell script).

Before you run a command, which tells you where it is found
bash> which ls
alias ls='ls color=tty'
/bin/ls
tcsh> which ls
ls: aliased to ls color=tty
bash> which alias
/usr/bin/which: no alias in
(/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin)
tcsh> which alias
alias: shell builtin command.

~/.bashrc
Shell script read each time a bash shell is started
You can use this file to define
Your default environment variables (PATH, EDITOR...).
Your aliases.
Your prompt (see the bash manual for details).
A greeting message.

You can use the left and right arrow keys to move the cursor
in the current command.
You can use [Ctrl][a] to go to the beginning of the line,
and [Ctrl][e] to go to the end.
You can use the up and down arrows to select earlier
commands.

history
Displays the latest commands that you ran and their number.
You can copy and paste command strings.
You can recall the latest command:
!!
You can recall a command by its number
!1003
You can recall the latest command matching a starting string:
!cat

You can make substitutions on the latest command:
^more^less
You can run another command with the same arguments:
more !*

Miscellaneous
Text editors

Graphical text editors
Fine for most needs
nedit
Emacs, Xemacs
Textonly text editors
Often needed for sysadmins and great for power users
vi
nano

http://www.nedit.org/
Best text editor for non vi or emacs experts
Feature highlights:
Very easy text selection and moving
Syntax highlighting for most languages and formats. Can be
tailored for your own log files, to highlight particular errors
and warnings.
Easy to customize through menus
Not installed by default by all distributions

Emacs and Xemacs are pretty similar
(up to your preference)
Extremely powerful text editor features
Great for power users
Less ergonomic than nedit
Non standard shortcuts
Much more than a text editor
(games, email, shell, browser).
Some power commands have to be
learnt.

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vi

Textmode text editor available in all Unix systems. Created
before computers with mice appeared.
Difficult to learn for beginners used to graphical text editors.
Very productive for power users.
Often can't be replaced to edit files in system administration
or in Embedded Systems, when you just have a text console.

vi implementation now found in most GNU / Linux
host systems
Implements lots of features available in modern
editors: syntax highlighting, command history, help,
unlimited undo and much much more.
Cool feature example: can directly open compressed
text files.
Comes with a GTK graphical interface (gvim)
Unfortunately, not free software (because of a small
restriction in freedom to make changes)

Though vi is extremely
powerful, its main 30
commands are easy to learn
and are sufficient for 99% of
everyone's needs!

You can also take the quick
tutorial by running
vimtutor.

Get our vi memento sheet if you didn't get it with this course:
http://freeelectrons.com/training/intro_unix_linux

http://www.nanoeditor.org/
Another small textonly, mouse free text editor.
An enhanced Pico clone (non free editor in Pine)
Friendly and easier to learn for beginners thanks to on screen
command summaries.
Available in binary packages for several platforms.
An alternative to vi in embedded systems.
However, not available as a busybox builtin.

Miscellaneous
Compressing and archiving

Caution: different from file size!
du h <file> (disk usage)
h: returns size on disk of the given file, in human readable
format: K (kilobytes), M (megabytes) or G (gigabytes), .
Without h, du returns the raw number of disk blocks used
by the file (hard to read).
Note that the h option only exists in GNU du.
du sh <dir>
s: returns the sum of disk usage of all the files in the given
directory.

df h <dir>
Returns disk usage and free space for the filesystem containing
the given directory.
Similarly, the h option only exists in GNU df.
Example:
> df h .
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda5 9.2G 7.1G 1.8G 81% /

df h
Returns disk space information for all filesystems available in
the system. When errors happen, useful to look for full
filesystems.

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Compressing
Very useful for shrinking huge files and saving space
g[un]zip <file>
GNU zip compression utility. Creates .gz files.
Ordinary performance (similar to Zip).
b[un]zip2 <file>
More recent and effective compression utility.
Creates .bz2 files. Usually 2025% better than gzip.
Using 7zip
Much better compression ratio than bzip2 (up to 10 to 20%).
See the 7zip page for details.

Useful to backup or release a set of files within 1 file
tar: originally “tape archive”
Creating an archive:
tar cvf <archive> <files or directories>
c: create
v: verbose. Useful to follow archiving progress.
f: file. Archive created in file (tape used otherwise).
Example:
tar cvf /backup/home.tar /home
bzip2 /backup/home.tar

Viewing the contents of an archive or integrity check:
tar tvf <archive>
t: test
Extracting all the files from an archive:
tar xvf <archive>
Extracting just a few files from an archive:
tar xvf <archive> <files or directories>
Files or directories are given with paths relative to the
archive root directory.

tar = gtar = GNU tar on GNU / Linux
Can compress and uncompress archives on the fly. Useful to
avoid creating huge intermediate files
Much simpler to do than with tar and bzip2!
j option: [un]compresses on the fly with bzip2
z option: [un]compresses on the fly with gzip
Examples (which one will you remember?)
gtar jcvf bills_bugs.tar.bz2 bills_bugs
tar cvf bills_bugs | bzip2 > bills_bugs.tar.bz2

http://www.7zip.org/
Now the best solution for your archives!
License: GNU LGPL
7zip compresses much better than bzip2 (up to 10 or 20%)
and of course zip (30 to 50 %).
Benchmark compressing Knoppix 5.0.1: 22% (vs. bzip2)!
Caution: 7zip cannot replace tar for archiving on Unix.
It doesn't keep file owner and group information,
but of course keeps file permissions.
Use it to compress tar archives!

7zip supports strong AES256 encryption.
No need to encrypt in a separate pass.
At last a solution available for Unix and Windows!
The tool supports most other compression formats:
zip, cab, arj, gzip, bzip2, tar, cpio, rpm and deb.

Archive files are usually created with a .7z extension
Creating an archive: (a: add)
7z a <archive> <files or directories>
List files in archive: (l: list)
7z l <archive>
Extracting from a 7zip archive: (e: extract)
7z x <archive>
Backup a directory (keeping owner and group information):
tar cf <dir> | 7z a si dir.tar.7z
standard input
Restore this backup:
7z x so dir.tar.7z | tar xf
standard output
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Checking file integrity

Very low cost solution to check file integrity
md5sum FC3i386disk*.iso > MD5SUM
Computes a MD5 (Message Digest Algorithm 5) 128 bit checksum of the
given files. Usually redirected to a file.
Example output:
db8c7254beeb4f6b891d1ed3f689b412 FC3i386disc1.iso
2c11674cf429fe570445afd9d5ff564e FC3i386disc2.iso
f88f6ab5947ca41f3cf31db04487279b FC3i386disc3.iso
6331c00aa3e8c088cc365eeb7ef230ea FC3i386disc4.iso
md5sum c MD5SUM
Checks the integrity of the files in MD5SUM by comparing their actual MD5
checksum with their original one.

Miscellaneous
Printing

Multiuser, multijob, multiclient, multiprinter
In Unix / Linux, printing commands don't really print. They send jobs
to printing queues, possibly on the local machine, on network printing
servers or on network printers.
Printer independent system:
Print servers only accept jobs in PostScript
or text. Printer drivers on the server take
care of the conversion to each printers own format.
Robust system:
Reboot a system, it will continue to print pending jobs.

Useful environment variable: PRINTER
Sets the default printer on the system. Example:
export PRINTER=lp
lpr [P<queue>] <files>
Sends the given files to the specified printing queue
The files must be in text or PostScript format. Otherwise, you only
print garbage.
a2ps [P<queue>] <files>
“Any to PostScript” converts many formats to PostScript and send
the output to the specified queue. Useful features: several pages /
sheet, page numbering, info frame...

lpq [P<queue>]
Lists all the print jobs in the given or default queue.

lp is not ready
Rank    Owner   Job     File(s)                         Total Size
1st     asloane 84      nsa_windows_backdoors.ps        60416 bytes
2nd     amoore  85      gw_bush_iraq_mistakes.ps        65024000 bytes

cancel <job#> [<queue>]
Removes the given job number from the default queue.

Viewing a PostScript file
PostScript viewers exist, but their quality is pretty poor.
Better convert to PDF with ps2pdf:
ps2pdf decss_algorithm.ps
xpdf decss_algorithm.pdf &
Printing a PDF file
You don't need to open a PDF reader!
Better convert to PostScript with pdf2ps:
pdf2ps rambaldi_artifacts_for_dummies.pdf
lpr rambaldi_artifacts_for_dummies.ps

Miscellaneous
Comparing files and directories

diff file1 file2
Reports the differences between 2 files, or nothing if the files
are identical.
diff r dir1/ dir2/
Reports all the differences between files with the same name in
the 2 directories.
To investigate differences in detail, better use graphical tools!

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tkdiff
http://tkdiff.sourceforge.net/
Useful tool to compare files and merge differences

Another nice tool to compare files and merge differences
Part of the kdesdk package (Fedora Core)

Another nice tool to view differences in files

Available in most
distributions with gvim
Apparently not using
diff.
No issue with files with
binary sections!

Miscellaneous
Looking for files

Better explained by a few examples!
find . name “*.pdf”
Lists all the *.pdf files in the current (.) directory or
subdirectories. You need the double quotes to prevent the shell
from expanding the * character.
find docs name "*.pdf" exec xpdf {} ';'
Finds all the *.pdf files in the docs directory and displays
one after the other.
Many more possibilities available! However, the above 2
examples cover most needs.

Much faster regular expression search alternative to find
locate keys
Lists all the files on your system with keys in their name.
locate “*.pdf”
Lists all the *.pdf files available on the whole machine
locate “/home/fridge/*beer*”
Lists all the *beer* files in the given directory (absolute path)
locate is much faster because it indexes all files in a dedicated
database, which is updated on a regular basis.
find is better to search through recently created files.

Miscellaneous
Various commands

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Getting information about users
who
Lists all the users logged on the system.
whoami
Tells what user I am logged as.
groups
Tells which groups I belong to.
groups <user>
Tells which groups <user> belongs to.
finger <user>
Tells more details (real name, etc) about <user>
Disabled in some systems (security reasons).

You do not have to log out to log on another user account!
su hyde
(Rare) Change to the hyde account, but keeping the
environment variable settings of the original user.
su jekyll
(More frequent) Log on the jekyll account, with exactly
the same settings as this new user.
su
When no argument is given, it means the root user.

Instead of downloading files from your browser, just copy and paste
their URL and download them with wget!
wget main features
http and ftp support
Can resume interrupted downloads
Can download entire sites or at least check for bad links
Very useful in scripts or when no graphics are available
(system administration, embedded systems)
Proxy support (http_proxy and ftp_proxy env. variables)

wget c \
http://microsoft.com/customers/dogs/winxp4dogs.zip
Continues an interrupted download.
wget m http://lwn.net/
Mirrors a site.
wget r np http://www.xml.com/ldd/chapter/book/
Recursively downloads an online book for offline access.
np: "noparent". Only follows links in the current directory.

sleep 60
Waits for 60 seconds
(doesn't consume system resources).
wc report.txt (word count)
438 2115 18302 report.txt
Counts the number of lines, words and characters in a
file or in standard input.

bc ("basic calculator?")
bc is a handy but fullfeatured calculator. Even includes
a programming language! Use the l option to have
floating point support.
date
Returns the current date. Useful in scripts to record when
commands started or completed.

System administration basics

chown R sco /home/linux/src (R: recursive)
Makes user sco the new owner of all the files in
/home/linux/src.
chgrp R empire /home/askywalker
Makes empire the new group of everything in
/home/askywalker.
chown R borg:aliens usss_entreprise/
chown can be used to change the owner and group at the
same time.

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Shutting down
shutdown h +5 (h: halt)
Shuts the system down in 5 minutes.
Users get a warning in their consoles.
shutdown r now (r: reboot)
init 0
Another way to shutdown (used by shutdown).
init 6
Another way to reboot (used by shutdown).
[Ctrl][Alt][Del]
Also works on GNU/Linux (at least on PCs!).

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Network setup (1)
ifconfig a
Prints details about all the network interfaces available
on your system.
ifconfig eth0
Lists details about the eth0 interface
ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.100
Assigns the 192.168.0.100 IP address
to eth0 (1 IP address per interface).
ifconfig eth0 down
Shuts down the eth0 interface
(frees its IP address).

route add default gw 192.168.0.1
Sets the default route for packets outside the local network.
The gateway (here 192.168.0.1) is responsible for
sending them to the next gateway, etc., until the final
destination.
route
Lists the existing routes
route del default
route del <IP>
Deletes the given route
Useful to redefine a new route.

ping freshmeat.net
ping 192.168.1.1
Tries to send packets to the given machine and get acknowledgment
packets in return.

PING 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1) 56(84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from 192.168.1.1: icmp_seq=0 ttl=150 time=2.51 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.1: icmp_seq=1 ttl=150 time=3.16 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.1: icmp_seq=2 ttl=150 time=2.71 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.1.1: icmp_seq=3 ttl=150 time=2.67 ms

When you can ping your gateway, your network interface works fine.
When you can ping an external IP address, your network settings are
correct!

Only for simple cases with 1 interface, no dhcp server...
Connect to the network (cable, wireless card or device...)
Identify your network interface:
ifconfig a
Assign an IP address to your interface (assuming eth0)
ifconfig eth0 192.168.0.100 (example)
Add a route to your gateway (assuming 192.168.0.1) for
packets outside the network:
route add default gw 192.168.0.1

Your programs need to know what IP address corresponds to a
given host name (such as kernel.org)
Domain Name Servers (DNS) take care of this.
You just have to specify the IP address of 1 or more DNS
servers in your /etc/resolv.conf file:
nameserver 217.19.192.132
nameserver 212.27.32.177
The changes takes effect immediately!

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Creating filesystems
Examples
mkfs.ext2 /dev/sda1
Formats your USB key (/dev/sda1: 1st partition raw data) in ext2 format.
mkfs.ext2 F disk.img
Formats a disk image file in ext2 format
mkfs.vfat v F 32 /dev/sda1 (v: verbose)
Formats your USB key back to FAT32 format.
mkfs.vfat v F 32 disk.img
Formats a disk image file in FAT32 format.
Blank disk images can be created a in the below example:
dd if=/dev/zero of=disk.img bs=1024 count=65536

To make filesystems on any device (internal or external storage)
visible on your system, you have to mount them.
The first time, create a mount point in your system:
mkdir /mnt/usbdisk (example)
Now, mount it:
mount t vfat /dev/sda1 /mnt/usbdisk
/dev/sda1: physical device
t: specifies the filesystem (format) type
(ext2, ext3, vfat, reiserfs, iso9660...)

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Mounting devices (2)
Lots of mount options are available, in particular to choose permissions or the
file owner and group... See the mount manual page for details.
Mount options for each device can be stored in the /etc/fstab file.
You can also mount a filesystem image stored in a regular file (loopback
devices)
Useful to access the contents of an ISO cdrom image without having to
burn it.
Useful to create a Linux partition on a hard disk with only Windows
partitions
cp /dev/sda1 usbkey.img
mount o loop t vfat usbkey.img /mnt/usbdisk

Just use the mount command with no argument:
/dev/hda6 on / type ext3 (rw,noatime)
none on /proc type proc (rw,noatime)
none on /sys type sysfs (rw)
none on /dev/pts type devpts (rw,gid=5,mode=620)
usbfs on /proc/bus/usb type usbfs (rw)
/dev/hda4 on /data type ext3 (rw,noatime)
none on /dev/shm type tmpfs (rw)
/dev/hda1 on /win type vfat (rw,uid=501,gid=501)
none on /proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc type binfmt_misc (rw)
Or display the /etc/mtab file
(same result, updated by mount and umount each time they are run)

umount /mnt/usbdisk
Commits all pending writes and unmounts the given device,
which can then be removed in a safe way.
To be able to unmount a device, you have to close all the
open files in it:
Close applications opening data in the mounted partition
Make sure that none of your shells have a working directory in
this mount point.
You can run the lsof command (list open files) to view
which processes still have open files in the mounted partition.

GNU / Linux: distribution packages

Debian packages: http://www.debian.org/distrib/packages
Search by package or file name
rpmfind: http://rpmfind.net/
Lots of RPM packages for Red Hat, Mandriva, Suse...

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Identifying packages
What package does a file belong to?
Useful to get more information, get the code, find newer
versions, report issues...
Distribution with RPM packages:
(Red Hat, Fedora, Mandriva, Suse...)
> rpm qf /bin/ls
coreutils5.2.17
Debian:
> dpkg S /bin/ls
fileutils: /bin/ls

Access package description, version number, sources, etc.
RPM based distributions:
rpm qi <packagename>
Debian:
dpkg s <packagename>

Going further

Some Unix commands and most GNU / Linux commands offer
at least one help argument:
h
( is mostly used to introduce 1character options)
help
( is always used to introduce the corresponding “long”
option name, which makes scripts easier to understand)
You also often get a short summary of options when you input
an invalid argument.

man <keyword>
Displays one or several manual pages for <keyword>
man man
Most available manual pages are about Unix commands, but some
are also about C functions, headers or data structures, or even about
system configuration files!
man stdio.h
man fstab (for /etc/fstab)
Manual page files are looked for in the directories specified by the
MANPATH environment variable.

In GNU, man pages are being replaced by info pages. Some
manual pages even tell to refer to info pages instead.
info <command>
info features:
Documentation structured in sections (“nodes”) and subsections
(“subnodes”)
Possibility to navigate in this structure: top, next, prev, up
Info pages generated from the same texinfo source as the HTML
documentation pages

Investigating issues
Most forums and mailing list archives are public, and are
indexed on a very frequent basis by Google.
If you investigate an error message, copy it verbatim in the
search form, enclosed in double quotes (“error message”). Lots
of chances that somebody else already faced the same issue.
Don't forget to use Google Groups: http://groups.google.com/
This site indexes more than 20 years of newsgroups messages.

Looking for documentation
Look for <tool> or <tool> page to find the tool or project
home page and then find the latest documentation resources.
Look for <tool> documentation or <tool> manual in
your favorite search engine.
Looking for generic technical information
WikiPedia: http://wikipedia.org
Lots of useful definitions in computer science. A real
encyclopedia! Open to anyone's contributions.

Training labs are also available from the same location:
http://freeelectrons.com/training/intro_unix_linux
They are a useful complement to consolidate
what you learned from this training. They don't tell
how to do the exercises. However, they only rely
on notions and tools introduced by the lectures.
If you happen to be stuck with an exercise, this proves that you missed
something in the lectures and have to go back to the slides to find what
you're looking for.

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Related documents
This document belongs to the more than 1000 page materials of an embedded GNU /
Linux training from Free Electrons, available under a free documentation license.

http://freeelectrons.com/training Linux on TI OMAP processors
Introduction to Unix and GNU/Linux Free Software development tools
Embedded Linux kernel and driver development Introduction to uClinux
Free Software tools for embedded Linux systems Realtime in embedded Linux systems
Audio in embedded Linux systems What's new in Linux 2.6?
Multimedia in embedded Linux systems Java in embedded Linux systems
How to port Linux on a new PDA
http://freeelectrons.com/articles
Embedded Linux optimizations
Embedded Linux from Scratch... in 40 min!

If you support this work, you can help ...
By sending corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations
By asking your organization to order training sessions performed by
the author of these documents (see http://freeelectrons.com/training)
By speaking about it to your friends, colleagues
and local Free Software community.
By adding links to our online materials on your website,
to increase their visibility in search engine results.

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Thanks
To the OpenOffice.org project, for their presentation and
word processor tools which satisfied all my needs.
To the Handhelds.org community, for giving me so much
help and so many opportunities to help.
To the members of the whole Free Software and Open
Source community, for sharing the best of themselves: their
work, their knowledge, their friendship.
To people who sent comments and corrections:
Laurent Thomas, Jeff Ghislain, Leif Thande, Frédéric
Desmoulins, Przemysław Ciesielski

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Embedded Linux Training Free Electrons services
Unix and GNU/Linux basics
Linux kernel and drivers development
Realtime Linux
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