11 About Part 2: static structures

11.1 Scope
The designer's guide to wind loading of building structures attempts to bring to the
disposal of the designer the optimum methods and data for the design of buildings
and allied structures to resist wind loads. The Guide is organised into three main
Parts and, by making the divisions at natural boundaries within the subject, each
Part is individually useful. To assist busy designers, the design data have been
collated into separate chapters which can be accessed directly, independently of the
chapters giving background, theory and discussion. For most static structures the
data chapters of the Guide, Chapter 9 of Part 1 and Chapter 20 in this Part, contain
all the instructions and data required to complete an assessment.
The first Part of the Guide, Part I : Background, damage survey, wind data and
structural classification divides the problem into three fundamental aspects:
(a) the wind climate;
(b) the atmospheric boundary layer; and
(c) the building structure.
Part 1 covers the first two meteorological aspects completely, giving methods and
data which enable the designer to assess those wind characteristics at a particular
site necessary for the assessment of any building structure. The third aspect of the
building structure is introduced by a procedure to classify the building structure
according to its expected response, which acts as a signpost to the second and third
Parts. Part 1 also gives background information which is helpful to understanding
the problem of wind loading, but is not essential in implementing the assessment
procedures.
This Part of the Guide, Part2: Static structures, covers the third aspect when the
building structure can be assessed as if it were static. The designer is directed to this
Part when the building structure is in one of the following classes:
Class A - small static structures,
Class B - moderate static structures,
Class C - large static structures, or
Class D1 - mildly dynamic structures (for ultimate limit states),
defined by the classification procedure in Chapter 10 of Part 1. In this Part of the
Guide the assessment methods for static structures are introduced, their accuracy is
assessed and their application in design is described. A format of loading coefficient
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2 About Part 2:static structures

data is defined and calibrated which is compatible with the equivalent steady gust
approach adopted by many codes of practice worldwide. Enough loading
coefficient data are provided to enable the wind loading of the most common forms
of static building structure to be assessed when used in conjunction with the data on
wind characteristics at the site given in Part 1. Advice is given for dealing with the
less common forms of static structure by means of wind-tunnel tests.
The third Part of the Guide, Part 3: Dynamic structures, covers the third aspect
when the building structure must be assessed as being dynamic. The designer is
directed to this Part when the building structure is potentially in one of the
following classes:
Class D1 - mildly dynamic structures (for serviceability limit states),
Class D2 - fully dynamic structures, or
Class E - aeroelastic structures,
defined by the classification procedure in Chapter 10 of Part 1. In this Part of the
Guide the assessment methods for dynamic structures are introduced, their
accuracy is assessed and their application in design is described. The alternative
approach of experimental testing at model scale is discussed and guidelines are
given. The aspects of ultimate limits for safety and serviceability limits for
structural distress and the tolerance of human occupants to motion of the structure
are covered. The remainder of Part 3 is given over to the assessment of the loading
and response of a range of typical dynamic structures, with data and worked
examples.

11.2 Correspondencewith international codes

In specifying performance standards for buildings, the International Organisation
for Standardisation (ISO) has defined a series of technical terms for the physical
parameters affecting the building structure [l]. The scope of the Guide is
encompassed by the following I S 0 terms:
Agent - whatever acts on a building or part of a building - in this context, the wind;
Action - the influence of an agent - in this context, normal pressures and shear
stresses on the surface of the building structure due to the wind;
Effect - the result of an action - in this context, all the effects of wind pressures
acting on the building structure, such as strain, deflection, and damage, including
the action effects, below;
Action effect - any force, set of forces or moment, resulting from the effect of
actions or combinations of actions exerted on a building - in this context, the
wind-induced forces and moments acting on all or part of the building structure;
The definition of action effect is intermediate between action and effect, describing
the direct or first effect of the action in the loading chain, here corresponding to the
integration of the pressures over the surface of the building structure to give forces
and moments.
The way that the scope of the Guide corresponds to these I S 0 terms is shown in
Figure 11.1.The characteristics of the agent wind is covered in Part 1.Wind loading
of static structures is covered in Part 2 by the combination of actions and action
effects, the structural effects being secondary. Wind loading of dynamic structures
 Correspondence with international codes 3

Agent Actions- Action effects--Effects

shear stress moments strains

damage

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3

Figure 11.1 Wind loading chain

requires the structural effects to be included, and this is covered in

Part 3.
I S 0 recommend a limit-state approach in conjunction with a partial-factor
format for codes. This is the aim in the current process towards harmonisation of
the European codes. The two concepts of ‘limit states’ and ‘partial factors’ are often
regarded as being linked, whereas they are quite separate and distinct.
A limit-state approach is a formalised method of identifying the critical states
which require analysis. In the context of wind loads, there are two main categories
of limit states:
1. Ultimate limit states - the limit states corresponding to the maximum
load-carrying capacity or where exceedance would result in structural failure,
overturning or collapse.
2. Serviceability limit states - the limit states which are related to the criteria
governing normal use, where exceedence would result in unsatisfactory service
but not structural failure or collapse.
The first category is mostly concerned with safety and the second with economics of
use.
Load-factor and permissible-stress formats are two opposing ways of
approaching the principal aim in design, that of ensuring that the design strength or
resistance exceeds the design loading by a suitable factor of safety. In the
load-factor format, the design loads are multiplied by factors greater than unity to
give larger factored loads which must be less than the design strength. In the
permissible-stress format, the design strengths are multiplied by factors less than
unity to give smaller factored strengths which must remain greater than the design
loads. In both these cases, a single safety factor is applied to one side or the other of
the load-resistance equation. This factor must cover the uncertainties on both sides
of the equation: the uncertainties in load and in resistance, as well as the overall
uncertainties of the assessment process. Since these uncertainties are lumped
together, it is impossible to decide what part of the global factor covers each
individual source of uncertainty.
The partial-factor format is aimed at overcoming the disadvantages of the two
older formats, by breaking down the global factor into its component parts. In the
simplest form, two factors are used: one increases the design loads to cover the
uncertainties in their values; while the other decreases the design strengths to cover
I
their component of uncertainty. The main advantage of this partition is that the
partial factor on load can be adjusted for the type of applied load, independently of
I the partial factor on resistance that can be adjusted for the type of material used.
There remains the uncertainty inherent in the design process which depends on
how well the mathematical models represent the real structural behaviour. In the
two-factor format this additional uncertainty must be absorbed into one or both of
4 About Pari 2: static structures

the load and resistance factors. An alternative three-factor format has been
suggested by Armer and Mayne [2] in which the uncertainty of the design process is
treated by a third factor. The value of this factor can then be adjusted as the
mathematical models of structural behaviour improve. Further references to the
philosophy and implementation of the partial-factor format are given in [3].
The assessment of wind loading in this Guide is directed towards estimation of
the design wind loads identified through a limit-state approach. The theory and
application of the design loads through partial-factor, load-factor or permissible-
stress formats are not directly addressed, since these are subjects in their own right,
and are outside the scope of the Guide.

11.3 Philosophy
The philosophy of Part 2 remains that of the Guide as a whole, established in
Chapter 4 of Part 1 by the division of the problem into the three fundamental
aspects, the wind climate, the atmospheric boundary layer and the building
structure. Its implementation is essentially that of finding the optimum compromise
between accuracy and complexity through the use of analytical, numerical,
semi-empirical and empirical engineering models, as described in Chapter 1 of Part
1. However, in Part 2 the balance between these models is, by necessity, distinctly
different than in Part 1. Empiricism in Part 1 is largely confined to the assessment
of the characteristics of the wind climate and the effects of topography from
meteorological measurements, while the statistical risk and recurrence model is an
analytical model and the boundary-layer model is a semi-empirical fit to a
numerical model. On the other hand, despite the application of some analytical and
numerical models in the assessment process, the loading data presented here in
Part 2 are largely empirical and derived directly from measurements. This reflects
the lag in the development of practical theories for the complex flows around the
range of building shapes encountered. Accordingly, the user will find that some
subjects are covered in detail because they have been extensively researched and
large amounts of empirical data are available, while other subjects are covered
partially or not at all because little or no relevant data exist.
Knowledge and understanding of every subject improves with time. In the case
of a young subject like wind engineering, this improvement is rapid. Sometimes it is
found that earlier assumptions do not hold and the design advice previously based
on these assumptions is not sound and must be modified. In such cases, the flaws in
the earlier assumptions are explained and the consequences for design assessments
are discussed. In this way the user will be able to recognise and avoid the rare cases
of unsound advice in earlier publications. This is not a criticism of earlier work:
change is a natural consequence of improved understanding. A key philosophy of
this Guide is to encourage the user to develop an understanding of the problem and
so avoid pitfalls. The fact that advice has appeared in print does not automatically
make it sound. This Guide aims to give the best advice based on current
understanding, but this too will be improved upon.

11.4 Sources
The development, testing and application of the engineering models used in this
Guide are the result of more than two decades of research in the field now known
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as wind engineering. This field is so large that it cannot all be covered adequately
by any one individual or even any one research organisation. The philosophy of this
Guide has been to select and implement the optimum engineering models and data
appropriate to each particular problem, irrespective of source. Most of the content
of Part 1 came directly from BRE’s own research programme, from research in
house or from work performed directly under contract, with the remainder coming
from already published data. Again, much of the content of Part 2 has come
directly from BRE’s research programme, but a greater reliance has been placed on
externally published data and on unpublished data obtained directly from other
expert sources in Australia, Br‘azil, Canada, Switzerland, West Germany and the
I
USA. All the engineering models and data adopted for use in the Guide have been
calibrated and shown to fit observations to the required accuracy.

11.5 Structure
The system which was adopted in Part 1 to number individual chapters, sections,
sub-sections, etc., has been continued through this Part, so that the first chapter of
this Part is Chapter 11. The system enables accurate cross-referencing within the
Guide as a whole. Whenever a concept, equation or parameter is re-introduced in
the text after an appreciable interval, the reader is pointed to its original
introduction or definition by a cross-reference in the text. Thus 014.1.2.2 refers to
the paragraph ‘Denmark’ in the section on ‘Head codes’ of Chapter 14 in this Part,
whereas 42.2.8.5 refers back to the paragraph ‘Induced forces’ of Chapter 2 in Part
1. All references to other publications made in this Part are listed at the end of the
book and are denoted in the text by reference numbers in square brackets, thus [l]
refers to the first reference in the list.
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Material that is not suitable for inclusion in the main chapters because it is too
detailed or complex, but is nevertheless considered relevant, has been included in a
number of appendices. The lettering sequence of the appendices in Part 1 has been
retained. Appendix A , Nomenclature, has been amended to include the additional
nomenclature of Part 2 and reproduced in full. The first new appendix of this Part is
Appendix I. From time to time, newly obtained data which fills gaps in the main
Parts, rapid aids to design in the form of simplified ‘ready-reckoner’ tables or
programs for business or personal computer, or material that is considered too
specialised for the majority of designers, will be published separately in a series of
Supplements. A list of the Supplements currently available appears on page ii,
opposite the title page.
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11.6 Content
The first half of Part 2, Chapters 11-15, can be regarded as background and theory
to the assessment of wind loading, helpful to the understanding of the whole
problem but not essential to implementing the design procedures. Chapter 11,
‘About Part 2: static structures’, summarises the scope, use, structure and content
of this Part of the Guide. Chapter 12, ‘Assessment methods for static structures’,
defines the loading coefficients for pressure, shear stress, forces and moments, then
introduces the assessment methods for wind loads established over the last several
decades. Chapter 13, ‘Measurement of loading data for static structures’,
6 About Part 2 : static structures

introduces the methods and equipment by which wind loading data are acquired at
full and model scale, then reviews the principles and development of methods for
simulating the atmospheric boundary layer, and its effects on structures at model
scale in the wind tunnel. Chapter 14, ‘Review of codes of practice and other data
sources’, describes the implementation of wind loading data in codes of practice by
reviewing the ‘head code’ of five nations, two specialised UK codes and several
other published sources of design data. Chapter 15, ‘A fully probabilistic approach
to design’, introduces the probability model adopted as the basis for this Part of the
Guide which accounts for the joint variability of the loading due to the wind
climate, atmospheric boundary layer and structure, in a manner which complies
with the ‘ideal approach’ given in Chapter 4 of Part 1, and then defines the
‘pseudo-steady format’ used to implement the design data.
The second half of Part 2, Chapters 16-20, discusses the characteristics of the
wind loading of a variety of building structures and presents the design loading
coefficients for these forms. The variety of building form is divided into the
categories line-like, lattice, plate-like and bluff-body models established in Chapter
8 of Part 1. Chapter 16, ‘Line-like, lattice and plate-like structures’ describes the
characteristics of these forms in terms of forces and moments. Chapter 17, ‘Bluff
building structures’, describes the characteristics of the external pressures on
bluff-body forms of most conventional buildings, splitting the range by form into
curved structures and flat-faced structures, and not forgetting the hybrid forms that
occur when the individual forms are combined together. Chapter 18, ‘Internal
pressure’, describes the characteristics of pressures inside bluff-body forms of
structure, caused by the external pressure field acting on openings and porosity in
the external skin, and modified by the position and porosity of internal divisions.
Chapter 19, ‘Special considerations’ reviews some particular aspects omitted from
earlier chapters and other design guides. Some of these aspects are difficult to
implement as design rules, like the shelter effects caused by groups of buildings and
the negative-shelter effects caused by neighbouring tall buildings. Most have been
studied only recently, and the range of data is not sufficient for general guidance. A
few are merely conceptual, such as strategies for optimising the design or for
reducing wind loads. Several are quite specialised, like variable-geometry and
air-supported structures. One is potentially very important, that is, the question of
fatigue which played a major part in the failures in Australia due to cyclones Althea
and Tracy, and may become more important in temperate regions with the current
trend towards steel-framed, steel-sheet clad light industrial buildings. All the
design data currently available which meets the requirements of the Guide for
scope and accuracy have been collated and are presented in the standard design
format in the last chapter, Chapter 20, ‘Design loading coefficient data’, together
with the rules for applying them with the design wind data of Chapter 9 of Part 1.
There are five appendices to Part 2, containing more specialised data or advice.
Appendix A , ‘Nomenclature’, is the first appendix of Part 1 defining the symbols
used in the Guide, updated to include the new symbols used in Part 2. The
remaining appendices are all new and continue the sequence from Part 1. Appendix
I , ‘Bibliography of modelling accuracy comparisons for static structures’, is a list of
references to published studies illustrating how well contemporary model-scale
simulation techniques are able to represent the real world. Appendix J, ‘Guidelines
for ad-hoc model-scale tests’ gives guidance to assist the designer to commission a
wind-tunnel test and obtain the form of data he needs for design with confidence.
Appendix K, ‘A model code of practice for wind loads’ gives the principal data of
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Parts 1 and 2 of the Guide, simplified into a code format in the form of a series of
BRE Digests which replaced the venerable Digest 119 ‘The assessment of wind
loads’ during 1989. The form and content of Appendix K is in line with the draft
UK wind loading code BS6399 Pt2 which is due to replace the 1972 wind loading
code, CP3 ChV Pt 2[4]. Appendix L, ‘Mean overall loading coefficients for
i cuboidal buildings’ presents a self-consistent set of overall force and base moment
data discussed in Chapter 17 in more detail than is given in Chapter 20. Appendix
M, ‘A semi-empirical model for pressures on flat roofs’, introduces a prototype
mathematical model based on vortex dynamics for predicting the external pressure
distribution over flat roofs. This model has the potential for development as a more
general model to account for roof pitch and other architectural-features such as
parapets, as well as for walls of buildings, enabling more accurate computer-based
design methods to be devised. At least this is the current hope at BRE. In the
meantime, however, the tabulated forms of design data as presented in this Guide
must serve.