1.

Equations and inequalities

Rational inequalities
Approach

Step 1: Make one side of the inequality 0 by addition/subtraction. Do not cross multiply!
Step 2: Combine into a single fraction and factorize as much as possible.
Step 3: If a quadratic has no real roots, complete the square to conclude it is always positive/negative.
Step 4: Use a number line to obtain the solution.

Step 4:
Step 2,3: Step 3:
Example Step 1:
x2 + 2x + 3 Since (x + 1)2 + 2 + − +
3x + 5 >0
> −1 x2 − x − 2 is always positive for all x ∈ R,
3x + 5 x2 − x − 2 x
Solve > −1. 3x + 5 (x + 1)2 + 2 1 −1 2
x2 − x − 2 +1>0 >0 >0
x2 − x − 2 (x + 1)(x − 2) (x + 1)(x − 2) Solution: x < −1 or x > 2

Modulus inequalities
Formula
The discriminant
Let k be a positive real number. Approach

|x| < k ⇒ −k < x < k Step 1: Cross multiply and form a quadratic equation in terms of x.
|x| > k ⇒ x < −k or x>k Step 2: For the set of values that y can take, the discriminant
b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.

Graphing calculator techniques Example

Approach
x+1
y= .
x2 + x + 1
We can use the ”PlySmlt2” app to solve systems of linear equations. Use an algebraic method to find the set of values that y can take.
The ”Plysmlt2” app can also be used to solve polynomials like 2x3 − x2 + 2x − 1 = 0.
We can use the graph of a curve and the ”zero” solver to solve equations like Step 1: Step 2:
x+1 For set of values that y can take,
ln x − x2 = 0. y= 2
x +x+1 (y − 1)2 − 4(y)(y − 1) ≥ 0
We can use the graph of two curves and the ”intersect” solver to solve equations like (x2 + x + 1)y = x + 1 −3y 2 + 2y + 1 ≥ 0
ln x = x2 . yx2 + yx + y − x − 1 = 0 (3y + 1)(−y + 1) ≥ 0
For non-rational inequalities like ex > 3x, we can use a GC to sketch two curves and yx2 + (y − 1)x + (y − 1) = 0 Solution: − 13 ≤ y ≤ 1
locate the region(s) where one curve is higher than the other.
Alternatively, we can sketch one curve by rearranging the inequality to ex − 3x > 0.

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2. Functions
Basics Set and interval notation
Definition Example

The domain, Df , of a function, f , refers to the set of all possible We can refer to the set of all real numbers using R, {x : x ∈ R} or (−∞, ∞).
”inputs” (typically ”x”). We can refer to all the real numbers from -5 (inclusive) to 3 (non-inclusive) by
The range, Rf , of a function, f , refers to the set of all possible {x ∈ R : −5 ≤ x < 3} or [−5, 3).
”outputs” (typically ”y”). We can refer to all the real numbers except 1 by R \ {1} or {x ∈ R : x 6= 1} or
Drawing graphs is very useful in finding the range of functions. (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Composite functions
Inverse functions
Theory
Theory

The composite function f g consists of first applying g followed by f .

A function has an inverse, denoted by f −1 , if f is one-one. f g exists if Rg ⊆ Df . f g does not exist if Rg 6⊆ Df .
We can determine if f is one-one by employing the horizontal line test.
To find the rule for f −1 , we let y = f (x) and make x the subject. Df g = Dg .

Df −1 = Rf , Rf −1 = Df . To find Rf g , we draw the graphs of y = f (x) and y = g(x) separately.

Find Rg first, and then use Rg as the domain of f to obtain Rf g .
The graph of y = f −1 (x) can be obtained by reflecting the graph of y = f (x) in
the line y = x.
Example

Example The horizontal line y = 1 cuts the curve of Rg ⊆

6 Df ⇒ f g does not exist
y = f (x) more than once. Hence f is not f : x 7→ ln x, x ∈ R, 0 < x < 2 Rf ⊆ Dg ⇒ gf exists
one-one and f −1 does not exist. g : x 7→ x2 − 1, x∈R
gf (x) = g(ln x) = (ln x)2 − 1
f : x 7→ x2 + 2x − 2, x∈R
g : x 7→ x2 + 2x − 2, x ∈ R, x ≤ −1 All horizontal lines y = k, k ∈ R cut the Rg = [−1, ∞), Df = (0, 2). Dgf = Df = (0, ∞)
curve of y = g(x) at most once. Hence g is Rf = (−∞, ln 2), Dg = (−∞, ∞). Rgf = [−1, ∞)
y one-one and g −1 exists.
y=k
y = x2 + 2x − 2 Special examples
y=x y = (x + 1)2 − 3
y = g(x) f f −1 (x) = x, f −1 f (x) = x, f 2 (x) = f f (x), periodic function: f (x + a) = f (x).
(x + 1)2 =√y + 3
O x x+1=± y+3 y
Since x ≤ √
−1, A piecewise function
(−3, −1) 1.5
x = −1 − y + 3. 1 y = f (x)

Dg−1 = Rg = [−3, ∞). 2
x
 for x − 1 ≤ x < 1
√
y = g −1 (x) g −1 : x 7→ −1 − x + 3, x ∈ R, x ≥ −3. f (x) = 2.5 − x for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.5 x
(−1, −3) 

0 otherwise −1 1 2.5

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3. Graphs and transformations
Asymptotes Conics
Theory
Ellipse y
x2
1 22 + y2 = 1
b d
y =a+ has asymptotes x = − and y = a . (x − h)2 (y − k)2
cx + d c + =1
a2 b2 O x
E −2 2
y = Ax + B +
Cx + D Center (h, k), −1
D horizontal radius a,
has a vertical asymptote x = − and an oblique asymptote y = Ax + B .
C vertical radius b.
y
Long division is a useful technique to obtain the forms above. y − 2 = − 34 (x + 1)

Hyperbola
Modulus transformations
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 (−1, 2)
(x+1)2 (y−2)2
Theory − =1 − =1
a2 b2 4 4 42 32
2 2
(y − k) (x − h)
− =1
To sketch y = |f (x)| , reflect the parts of y = f (x) that are below the x-axis. b2 a2 x
O
Center (h, k).
To sketch y = f (|x|) , y − 2 = 43 (x + 1)
Step 1: Remove the parts of y = f (x) to the left of the y-axis.
Step 2: Reflect the parts of the graph to the right about the y-axis. Completing the square is a useful technique to obtain the forms above.

 
Basic transformations (translation, scaling, reflection) Further transformations y = 1 0
f (x) , y = f (x)
Transformation Equation
Approach
replace x with x − a
translate a units in positive x-axis direction
f (x) → f (x − a)
replace x with xb
scale with scale factor b parallel to the x-axis y = f (x) y= 1
y = f 0 (x)
f (x) → f ( xb ) f (x)

reflect in y-axis
replace x with −x horizontal asymptote y = k horizontal asymptote y = k1 horizontal asymptote y = 0
f (x) → f (−x) oblique asymptote y = mx + c horizontal asymptote y = 0 horizontal asymptote y = m
vertical asymptote x = a x-intercept (a, 0) vertical asymptote x = a
replace y with y − A
translate A units in positive y-axis direction x-intercept (b, 0) vertical asymptote x = b -
f (x) → f (x) + A
replace y with By y-intercept (0, d) y-intercept (0, d1 ) -
scale with scale factor B parallel to y-axis 1
f (x) → Bf (x) max/min point (A, B) min/max point (A, B ) x-intercept (A, 0)
replace y with −y y increasing/decreasing y decreasing/increasing y positive/negative
reflect in x-axis
f (x) → −f (x) y positive/negative y positive/negative -
Order matters. For example, slope increasing in magnitude - y increasing in magnitude
f (x) → f (x + 1) → f (2x + 1) vs f (x) → f (2x) → f (2(x + 1)).

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4. Arithmetic and geometric progressions. 5. The sigma notation
Basics Arithmetic progressions (APs) Geometric progressions (GPs)
Theory Formula Formula

Let un denote the nth term of a sequence. Let a be the first term of an AP and d the Let a be the first term of an GP and r the
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of a series. common difference. common ratio.
Sn = u1 + u2 + . . . + un−1 + un . To prove that a sequence/series is arithmetic, To prove that a sequence/series is geometric,
A sequence converges if un gets arbitrarily close to a finite we prove that un − un−1 = constant . un
we prove that = constant .
number when n gets very large. un−1
We write un → a as n → ∞, or limn→∞ un = a. un = a + (n − 1)d .
a is called the limit of the sequence. un = arn−1 .
n n
A series converges if Sn gets arbitrarily close to a finite Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d) = (a + un ) .
2 2 a(1 − rn ) a(rn − 1)
number when n gets very large. Sn = = .
1−r r−1
We write Sn → b as n → ∞, or limn→∞ Sn = S∞ = b.
b is called the limit of the series. If −1 < r < 1 , then a GP converges and
Method of differences a
If a sequence/series does not converge, it is said to diverge sum to infinity S∞ = .
The method of differences can be used for sums like 1−r
n
To recover un from Sn : un = Sn − Sn−1 . X 1
. Partial fractions is often useful.
r=1
r(r + 1)

Sigma notation Change of variable Savings and interest

Theory Example Example

5 n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) Xn If we deposit $2 in a bank at the start of every year and the bank
r2 = (r + 1)2 .
X
Example: f (r) = f (3) + f (4) + f (5). Suppose . Find gives 3% compound interest per annum at the end of every year,
r=1
6 r=2
r=3 how much will we have in the bank at the end of n years?
b
Step 1a: Replace r with r − 1.
X
There are b − a + 1 terms in f (r). Amount in bank:
r=a Step 1b: Lower limit: r − 1 = 2 ⇒ r = 3.
b Step 1c: Since lower limit increases by 1, upper limit also
X Year Start End
Sum of a constant, k = (b − a + 1)k. increases by 1.
r=a Step 2: Split up the summation so that the lower limit 1 2 1.03(2)
b b matches what we know. 2 2 + 1.03(2) 1.03(2) + 1.032 (2)
2 + 1.03(2) + 1.032 (2) 1.03(2) + 1.032 (2) + 1.033 (2)
X X
(cr + d) is an AP, cr is a GP. Step 3: Apply known formula. 3
r=a r=a ... ... ...
b b b n
X n+1
X n ... 1.03(2) + 1.032 (2) + . . . + 1.03n (2)
(r + 1)2 = r2
X X X
(kf (r) ± g(r)) = k f (r) ± g(r). The amount in the bank forms a geometric series with first term
r=a r=a r=a r=2 r=3
n+1 2
1.03(2) and common ratio 1.03.
c b c X X
r2 − r2
X X X
f (r) = f (r) + f (r) = Sn = 1.03(2)(1.03 −1n

r=1 r=1 1.03−1

r=a r=a r=b+1 206 n
Amount at end of n years: 3 (1.03 − 1).
where a ≤ b < c. (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3) (2)(3)(5)
= −
6 6
Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 4 / 13
6. Differentiation and applications
Basics Tangents/normals Implicit differentiation
Theory Formula Example

A GC can perform numerical differentiation. Equation of tangent/normal: Differentiate (y 2 + 5x)5 + x2 y − ln y = 8 implicitly.

0
A curve is (strictly) increasing if f (x) > 0. y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) dy dy 1 dy
A curve is (strictly) decreasing if f 0 (x) < 0. where m is the gradient of the 5(y 2 + 5x)4 (2y + 5) + 2xy + x2 − = 0.
dx dx y dx
A curve is concave up if f 00 (x) > 0. tangent/normal at the point (x1 , y1 ).
A curve is concave down if f 00 (x) < 0.
Tangents vs normals: m1 m2 = −1 .

Parametric equations

Curve sketching Example

Example dy
= cos t x = 1t ⇒ t = 1
x.
Formula dx 2t
At t = π, x = π 2 , y = 2t2 − 3.
A GC can sketch
 
dy
y = 0, dx 1
= − 2π 1 2
parametric curves. x=t , 2
y = sin t. The point , 2t − 3 Substituting t = x1 ,
dy dy dx t
= ÷ Equation of normal: forms a curve as t varies. the cartesian equation is
Remember to change the Find the equation of the
dx dt dt y = 2π(x − π 2 ). Find the cartesian equation y = x22 − 3
”tMin” and ”tMax” in the normal when t = π.
”window” screen! of the curve.

Maxima/minima, stationary points

Rates of change
Example: first derivative test
Approach Approach

x b− b b+ Rate of change of A: dA
0
f (x) = 0 at stationary points. 0 Minimum at dt .
f (x) <0 =0 >0
x = b. For problem sums:
For problem sums: Shape  — 
Step 1: Translate the rates given in the
Step 1: Let the quantity to be maximized/minimized be A, for problem sum.
example. Find a formula for A involving other variables. Step 2: Form an equation between two related
Step 2: If necessary, form other equations and manipulate so Second derivative test variables (A and x, for example).
that the formula for A is in terms of only one variable (x for Step 3: Differentiate to get dA
dx .
example). Step 4: Apply the chain rule expression
Step 3: Differentiate to get dA
dx . dA dA dx
dA f 00 (b) Conclusion = · .
Step 4: At stationary values, = 0 . Solve for x. dt dx dt
dx 00 Step 5: Answer the question by finding the
f (b) > 0 minimum
Step 5: Answer the question by finding the required quantities. f 00 (b) < 0 maximum required quantities.
Step 6: Prove that A is maximum/minimum.
f 00 (b) = 0 no conclusion

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7. Maclaurin series
In MF26 Maclaurin series using differentiation
Formula Approach

x2 00 xn (n) To get the Maclaurin series up until and including the term in xn ,
1 f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + f (0) + . . . + f (0) + . . .
2! n! differentiate n times.
n(n − 1) n(n − 1) . . . (n − r + 1) r
2 (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x2 + . . . + x + ... (|x| < 1) Implicit differentiation is often very useful.
2
2! n
r! dy n
d y
x x Sub in x = 0 to obtain y, dx , . . . , dx n.
3 ex = 1 + x + + ... + + ... (all x)
3
2! 5 n! Use formula 1 to obtain the Maclaurin series.
x x (−1)r x2r+1
4 sin x = x − + − ... + + ... (all x)
3! 5! (2r + 1)!
2 4 r 2r
x x (−1) x
5 cos x = 1 −
2!
+
4!
− ... +
(2r)!
+ ... (all x) Approximations using Maclaurin series
2 3 r+1 r When x is ”small”, we can often omit large powers of x in the Maclaurin series
x x (−1) x
6 ln(1 + x) = x − + − ... + + ... (−1 < x ≤ 1) and still arrive at a reasonably accurate approximation.
2 3! r

Standard series
Small angle approximations
Formulas 2-6 are often referred to as 
x2 x4

standard series. ln(cos x) ≈ ln 1 − +
2! 4! Formula
Start from ”inside” and work outwards. 2 4 2
x2 x4
 
x x 1 The small angle approximations for sine and cosine
≈ − + − − +
2! 4! 2 2! 4! sin x ≈ x can be obtained by using formulas 4 and 5 up to and
Example
x2
x 4 
1 x 4 
x2 including the term in x2 .
≈− + − cos x ≈ 1 −
2 24 2 4 2
Expand ln(cos x) up to and tan x ≈ x
including the term in x4 . x2 x4
≈− −
2 12

Binomial expansion

Theory Example 1 1
√ = (2 + x)− 2
2+x
1
 x − 12
Formula 6 is often referred to as the binomial expansion. Find the first three terms in the series = 2− 2 1 +
1 2
|x| < 1 is the range of validity of the expansion: expansion of √ . !
if x is within the range of validity, then the Maclaurin series
2+x 1 1  x  (− 12 )(− 32 )  x 2
What is the range of validity? = √ 1− + + ...
converge to (1 + x)n as r → ∞. 2 2 2 2! 2
Range of validity:  x2  < 1 ⇒ −2 < x < 2.
 
3x4
 
1 x
= √ 1− + + ...
2 4 32

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8. Integration techniques
f 0 (x) formulas Formulas in MF26
Algebraic techniques Example
Formula Formula
x2 + 4x + 8
Z Z
2x + 3
Theory dx = 1+ dx
x2 + 2x + 5 x2 + 2x + 5
Z
R
f (x)
R
f (x) dx 2x + 2 1
f (x) f (x) dx Long division. = 1+ 2 + 2 dx
x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5
0 1 1 x
f (x) tan-1
Z
Partial fraction. 2x + 2 1
ln |f (x)| x2 + a2 a  a  = 1+ 2 + dx
f (x) 1 1 x − a ”Forcing” terms. x + 2x + 5 (x + 1)2 + 22

n 1
n+1 ln 
f 0 (x) f (x)
  
f (x) x2 − a2 2a  x + a  Completing the square. 1 x+1
n+1 = x + ln(x2 + 2x + 5) + tan-1 + C.
0
f (x)e f (x)
ef (x) 1 1 a + x 2 2
ln  
a2 − x2 2a a − x 
1 -1 x
 
n 6= −1 for the second formula. √
a2 − x2
sin
a
Other formulas in MF26
R R
tan x dx = ln | sec x|, sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|. Formulas for cot x and cosec x are also provided.

Trigonometric techniques Integration by parts

Z Z
1 + cos 2x
sin2 x dx =
Z Z
dx Z Z
Formula 2 dv du x cos x dx = x sin x − 1 · cos x dx.
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
√
Z Z r
x
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A. 1 + cos x dx = 1 + 2 cos2 − 1 dx
2 ”LIATE” heuristic
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A. Z √
x
tan2 A + 1 = sec2 A. = 2 cos dx
2
sin A cos B = 1


sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) . LI: We typically differentiate (i.e. let them be ”u”) logarithms and
2
1

Z Z inverse trigonometric functions.
cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) .
2 tan2 x dx = sec2 x − 1 dx dv
TE: We typically integrate (i.e. let them be ” dx ”) trigonometric
1


sin A sin B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) .
2 Z Z functions and exponential functions.
1
cos A cos B = − 12 cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) .


sin 5x cos 3x dx = (sin 8x + sin 2x) dx A: Algebraic terms typically depend on who they are paired with.
2

Example:
Z
integration by parts
Z Integration by substitution
x x x
(sin x)e dx = (sin x)e − (cos x)e dx
Z Z
Approach Example x x 1
·
Z
dx = du
= (sin x)ex − (cos x)ex − (− sin x)ex dx


1 − x4 1 − u2 2x
Z
1 1
Step 1: Differentiate given substitution. Use u = x2
Z
= du
= (sin x)ex − (cos x)ex − (sin x)ex dx 2 1 − u2
Step 2: Replace given variables (x and dx). to find  
1  1 + u 
Z
Z x
x x x Step 3: Integrate. dx. = ln  +C
2 (sin x)e dx = (sin x)e − (cos x)e + C 1 − x4 4 1 − u
Z Step 4: Change back to the original 1  1 + x2 
 
x 1 
u = x2 ⇒ du
= 2x = ln  +C
(sin x)e dx = (sin x)ex − (cos x)ex + C variable. dx 4 1 − x2 
2

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9. Definite integrals
The modulus Area under curves with parametric equations Volumes
Approach Approach Formula

For |f (x)|, figure out when the region when f (x) is positive/negative Z x2 Rotation about x-axis:
(by drawing graphs or otherwise). For area with respect to x-axis, we have y dx .
x1 Z x2
Split up the integral. |f (x)| = f (x) for regions where f (x) is positive, π y 2 dx
y2
and |f (x)| = −f (x) otherwise.
Z
x1
For area with respect to y-axis, we have x dy .
y1
Rotation about y-axis:
Example
Z 5
2
Z 2
2
Z 5
2
Similar to integration by substitution, we
|x − 4| dx = −(x − 4) dx + (x − 4) dx Differentiate to get dx dy
dt or dt to replace dx or dy. Z y2
0 0 2
2  3 5 Substitute x or y in terms of t. π x2 dy
x3

Evaluate x Change the limits from x or y values to t values. y1
= − + 4x + − 4x Evaluate the integral.
Z 5 3 0 3 2
|x2 − 4| dx 97
0 =
3

Examples
Z 2

Areas and volumes 1 Area of R = x2 dx Areas and volumes 2

2 dx
Parametric equations x=t +t⇒ = 2t + 1.
dt
0
When y = 0, Volume when R rotated
t = 0, x = 0 or t = 1, x = 2. The region R is bounded by the about
Z 2the x-axis The region S is bounded by the
A curve C is defined by Z 2 curve y = x2 , the line x = 2 and =π (x2 )2 dx curve y = x2 , the line y = 4 and
x = t2 + t, y = t − t3 for
Area = y dx the x-axis. 0 the y-axis.
t ≥ 0.
Z 1 0 Volume when R rotated
31 Find the area of R, and the volumes Find the area of S, and the volumes
Find the area bounded by C = (t − t3 ) (2t + 1) dt = about the y-axis
0 60 when R is rotated about the x- and Z 4 when S is rotated about the x- and
and the x-axis. = cylinder − π y dy
y-axes. y-axes.
0

y
y y
4 Examples (continued)
Handling limits, Riemann sums
b a 4 4
√
Z Z Z
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx. Area of S = y dy
a b 0
Z b h ib Z b du
dv Volume when SZ rotated about the x-axis
u dx = uv − v dx. 2
dx a a dx
x
a
2 2 = cylinder − π (x2 )2 dx
Remember to change limits when applying 0
integration by substitution.
Z 1   Volume
Z 4 when S rotated about the y-axis
1 0 1 n−1
f (x) dx = lim f( ) + f( ) + . . . + f( ) x =π y dy
0 n→∞ n n n n
x 2 0

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10. Differential equations
Theory Problem sums: rates of change
dx
Theory Rate of change of x:
dt

Differential equations are equations involving variables (e.g. x, y) and their dx

dy
derivatives (e.g. dx ). = rate of increase of x − rate of decrease of x
dt
They can be solved (i.e. finding an equation between x and y only) by integration.
A differential equation is of variable separable form if it can be written as
Second order DE Removing the modulus
dy 2
d y ln |x| = t + C
g(y) = f (x). = 2x
dx dx2 |x| = et+C
dy
Variable separable equations can be solved by proceeding to integrate: = x2 + C |x| = Bet where B = eC
dx 3
Z Z y = x3 + Cx + D. x = Aet where A = ±B
g(y) dy = f (x) dx.
Substitution
d2 y
Differential equations of the form = f (x) can be solved by integrating twice. Approach
dx2
The general solution refers to all possible solutions of a differential equation.
There are infinite number of solutions since the integration constant C can take Step 1: Differentiate given substitution implicitly.
any value. Step 2: Using the given substitution and the differentials in step 1,
A particular solution refers to one solution of a differential equation. Typically replace the old variable (e.g. y) to the new one (e.g. u).
a set of values will be given to us to find C in order to obtain a particular solution. Step 3: The DE in the new variable should be of separable form.
Integrate it.
Step 4: Substitute back the old variable.

Variable separable form

dy Example: substitution method
= xy 2
dx
1 dy Differentiating u = xy implicitly with respect to x,
=x du dy du
2 u =1
Z dx
y Z Example
dx
=x
dx
+y dx
1
dy = x dx u2
y2 dy du =x+C
Use the substitution u = xy to solve Hence x = −y 2
1 x2 dx dx
General solution: − = + C. u2 = 2x + C 0
y 2 Substituting
x2 y
dy
+ xy 2 = 1 into given DE,
Solution: (xy)2 = 2x + C 0

If y = 1 when x = 0, C = −1 dx du
xy − y + uy = 1
1 x2 dx
Particular solution: − = − 1.
y 2

Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 9 / 13

11. Vectors I: basics, dot and cross products
Basics Dot and cross products
Theory Theory

Two vectors a and b are parallel if a = kb for some k 6= 0.

   
a d
The position vector of a point A with coordinates (2, 3, −4) is the vector The dot/scalar product:  b  ·  e  = ad + be + cf
−→ c f
OA = 2i + 3j − 4k.
−→ −−→ −→
AB = OB − OA Let θ be the angle between a and b. a · b = |a||b| cos θ
−→ −−→
Three points A, B and C are collinear if AB = kBC for some k 6= 0. If a · b = 0 , then a = 0, b = 0 or a is perpendicular to b.
p
The magnitude of a vector is given by |ai + bj + ck| = a2 + b2 + c2
     
a d bf − ce
A vector b is a unit vector if |b| = 1. The cross/vector product:  b  ×  e  = −(af − cd)
a c f ae − bd
A unit vector parallel to vector a, denoted by â can be calculated by â =
|a| Let θ be the angle between a and b. |a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
If C is between A and B such that AC : CB = λ : µ, the ratio theorem gives us If a × b = 0, then a = 0, b = 0 or a is parallel to b.
If n = a × b, then n is perpendicular to both a and b.
−−→ −→ We call n the normal vector.
−
−→ λOB + µOA
OC = 1 −→ −→
 
λ+µ Area of triangle ABC: AB × AC  .
2

Vector algebra Direction cosines

Vector projection k(a · b) = (ka) · b = a · (kb) k(a × b) = (ka) × b = a × (kb) The direction cosines of a vector d are the angles
a·b=b·a a × b = −b × a between d and the x, y and z axes respectively.
A a α = √ 2 d1 2 2 , β = √ 2 d2 2 2 , γ = √ 2 d3 2 2 .
a · a = |a|2 a×a=0 d1 +d2 +d3 d1 +d2 +d3 d1 +d2 +d3
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 1.

|a × b̂|
Equation of a line Equation of a plane
θ a: position vector
O B Formula Formula of a point on the
|a · b̂| F
a: position vector plane
 
Length of projection of a onto b OF = a · b̂
  Vector form: of a point on the Vector/parametric form: d1 , d2 : direction
l : r = a + λd, λ∈R line p : r = a + λd1 + µd2 , λ, µ ∈ R vectors parallel to
−
−→   the plane
Projection vector OF = a · b̂ b̂ d: direction
Cartesian form: Scalar product form: p : r · n = K n: normal vector
vector parallel to
  the line perpendicular to
Perpendicular length from A to OB: a × b̂
 
x − a1 y − a2 x − a3 Cartesian form: the plane
l: = = p : n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = K
d1 d2 d3
K =a·n

Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 10 / 13

12. Vectors II: lines and planes
Diagram
Distances Angles
B Formula Formula

−→ −→ 
Angle between l1 and l2 : d1 · d2 = |d1 ||d2 | cos θ .
AB Distance between B and l: AB × d̂ .
 
Distance between B and l
−→  Angle between l and p: d · n = |d||n| sin θ .
Distance between B and p: AB · n̂ .
 
d
Angle between p1 and p2 : n1 · n2 = |n1 ||n2 | cos θ .
A F l

Foot of perpendiculars Intersections

For foot of 
perpendicular
 of B on l1 : For
 point of  intersection between l1 and l2 :
B 0 : Reflection of B in l 1+λ  
−−
→ 1+λ 2−µ
Let OF =  2 − 3λ  since F lies on l1 .  2 − 3λ  = −3 + µ.
−3 + 2λ
B −−
→ − −
→ −−→ −3 + 2λ 2+µ
BF = OF − OB. Solve for λ and/or µ.
−−→ −
−→
Since BF ⊥ d, BF · d = 0.
−
−→
Solve for λ to obtain OF . For point of
n  intersection between l1 and p1 :
Distance between B and p
  
1+λ 0
For foot of perpendicular of  B on
 p1 :    2 − 3λ  · 2 = −5.
−→ 3 0
AB −3 + 2λ 3
Equation of line BF : r = −6 + ν 2 , ν ∈ R. Solve for λ.
p −2 3
Since F is the intersection point between BF and p:
    For line of intersection between p1 and p2 ,
F 3 0
−6 + 2ν  · 2 = −5. we convert both planes to cartesian form:
A p1 : 2y + 3z = −5
−2 + 3µ 3
−−
→ p2 : 5x + 3y + 2z = 0.
Solve for ν to obtain OF . We solve bothequations
 simultaneously
 in our GC to get
1.5 0.5
Example For point of reflection, B 0 , of B in l1 or p1 ,
l : r = −2.5 + ω −1.5.
−−→ −−→
−−→ OB + OB 0 0 1
by ratio theorem, OF = .
2
   
1 1
l1 : r =  2  + λ −3 , λ ∈ R A(1, 2, −3) Line and plane
−3 2 B(3, −6, −2)
 
2
 
−1
Skew lines
Two lines are skew if l l
l2 : r = −3 + µ  1  , µ ∈ R p2 : 5x + 3y + 2z = 0 p
2 1 they are not parallel: d1 6= kd2 p p
  l
0 they do not intersect: solving their equations
p1 : r · 2 = −5 simultaneously does not yield unique solutions.
3 (b) d · n = 0, (c) d · n = 0,
(a) d · n 6= 0
a·n=K a · n 6= K
Intersect at 1 point
Line lies in plane Line parallel to plane

Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 11 / 13

13. Complex numbers
Basics, complex conjugates The quadratic formula Comparing parts Im

Example y
Theory Example
r θ
A complex number z is of the form Solve z 2 + 2z + 5 = 0. Solve z 2 + zz ∗ = 8 − 4i.
z = x + yi , where x, y ∈ R and i2 = −1. x Re
Let z = x + yi
We call x the real part Re(z) = x and y −2 ±
p
22 − 4(1)(5) (x + yi)2 + (x + yi)(x − yi) = 8 − 4i
the imaginary part Im(z) = y. z=
2(1) x2 + 2xyi − y 2 + x2 + y 2 = 8 − 4i
The complex conjugate of z = x + yi is √ 2x2 + 2xyi = 8 − 4i
−2 ± −16
given by z ∗ = x − yi . =
Comparing real parts: The Argand diagram
2
∗
z + z = 2x = 2Re(z) −2 ± 4i 2x2 = 8 ⇒ x = ±2
= = −1 ± 2i
∗ 2 Comparing imaginary parts:
z − z = 2yi = 2iIm(z)
2xy = −4 ⇒ y = ∓1 Complex number forms
∗ 2 2 2
zz = x + y = |z| Hence z = 2 − i or z = −2 + i.
Modulus/argument I Formula
Example of complex division: Formula
Modulus/argument II
1−i 1 − i 3 − 4i Cartesian form: z = x + yi
Let α = tan-1  xy 
 
= ·
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i
p
r = |z| = x2 + y 2

α first quadrant Polar/trigo form:
−1 − 7i 

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
= Let arg(z) = θ.

π − α second quadrant
25 θ=
y −(π − α) third quadrant
tan θ = Euler/exp form: z = reiθ


x

−α

fourth quadrant

The conjugate root theorem

A special example
Theory Modulus/argument III 1 + ei2θ = eiθ e−iθ + eiθ eiθ
|wz| = |w||z| arg(wz) = arg(w) + arg(z)  
 w  |w| = eiθ e−iθ + eiθ
Let P (z) be a polynomial with real coefficients. The conjugate root theorem states
 =
z |z| arg( w
z ) = arg(w) − arg(z)
that if a + bi is a root to P (z) = 0, then its conjugate a − bi is also a root to P (z) = 0. |z n | = |z|n arg(z n ) = n arg(z) = eiθ (2Re(eiθ ))
|z ∗ | = |z| arg(z ∗ ) = −arg(z)
= 2 cos θ eiθ
Example
Purely real/imaginary numbers
3 2
Solve 3z − 7z + 17z − 5 = 0 given that 1 + 2i is a root. By long division or comparing
coefficients, we can obtain the final Condition Cartesian Argument (k ∈ Z)
Since all the coefficients are real, by the conjugate root factor 3z − 1. real y=0 arg = kπ
theorem, 1 − 2i is also a root. 3 2 real and positive y = 0, x > 0 arg = 2kπ
3z − 7z + 17z − 5 =
By the factor theorem, (z − (1 + 2i)) and (z − (1 − 2i)) real and negative y = 0, x < 0 arg = (2k + 1)π
(z − (1 + 2i)(z − (1 − 2i))(3z − 1).
are factors of the cubic polynomial. purely imaginary x=0 arg = (2k+1)π
2
(z − 1 − 2i)(z − 1 + 2i) = (z − 1)2 − (2i)2 = z 2 − 2z + 5. Hence z = 1 + 2i, z = 1 − 2i or z = 13 .

Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 12 / 13

Elements of H2 A Level Mathematics

Contents
1. Equations and inequalities
2. Functions n = d1 × d2
3. Graphs and transformations
4. Arithmetic and geometric progressions. 5. The sigma notation d2
6. Differentiation and applications
7. Maclaurin series
8. Integration techniques
9. Definite integrals
d1
10. Differential equations
11. Vectors I: basics, dot and cross products
12. Vectors II: lines and planes
13. Complex numbers

Author’s note
This set of notes presents a brief summary of the terms, concepts and common techniques found in the H2 A Level Mathematics (9758) syllabus. It is intended as a handy companion for
students by laying out the key content, with every chapter summarized into one page. It may also be useful for students taking other pre-university mathematics courses.

In preparing this set of notes we have strived to be comprehensive and rigorous, yet at the same time clear and concise. Much thought has gone into which items to include or exclude,
and when to use general cases vs specific examples. Trying to fit each topic into a single page have added to the challenge, but we think the benefit of having a handy resource outweighs
the downside of the format. We hope we have not erred too much on our choices.

To our readers: we look forward to the corrections of our inevitable mistakes and any comments or suggestions about these notes. We have found much joy and meaning in our (ongoing)
mathematical journey and hope you will find yours as rewarding.

Dedicated to all my teachers and students.

Useful links
https://www.seab.gov.sg/home/examinations/gce-a-level/: A Level syllabus and formula List MF26.
https://www.desmos.com/: a useful online graphing calculator.
http://www.adotb.xyz/: the author’s website.

Copyright information
Last updated June 18, 2020.
© Kelvin Soh.
Contact me at kelvinsjk (at) gmail.com.

Kelvin Soh http://www.adotb.xyz 2019 13 / 13