Data Packets

What are packets?

 Information on the internet is broken down into packets and are created

by TCP and transmitted over the internet
o Packets are small chunks of information/data 
o TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and is used for organising
data transmission over networks
 Small chunks of data are easier and quicker to route over the internet than big
chunks of data
o Routing involves finding the most optimal path over a network
 Data can include anything from text, images, audio, video, animations, etc, or any
combination of these

What do packets contain?

 Packets are “chunks” of information. This information is called the “payload”

 Packets act like postage letters, each one has: 
o a delivery address (destination IP address)
o a return address (source IP address),
o and a message (data payload)
 Packets are split into three parts:
o Packet header
o Payload
o Trailer
 The header contains:
o Source IP
o Destination IP
o Payload (the information)
o Packet number
o Error checker e.g. a checksum or parity bit

 The trailer contains:

o Additional error checks
o End of packet notification
Figure 1: To transmit the message “This is a message :)”over the internet, the TCP
might break the message down into 4 packets

 Each packet in figure 1 contains a source IP address, destination IP address,

payload (the data) and a packet number. Error checking and end of packet
notifications have not been included in this example
 Individual packet structure depends on the protocol used to create them;
variations exist
 Error checks make sure that when a packet is received there is minimal or
no corruption of the data
 Corruption is where packet data is changed or lost in some way, or data is
gained that originally was not in the packet
 A parity bit checks that no bits have been flipped from 0 to 1 or vice versa
 A checksum performs a calculation and compares the result to the checksum
value. If the values are different then the data has been corrupted

How are packets sent across the internet?

 Sending packets over the internet is called packet switching and is more

efficient than circuit switching
 Packet switching involves:
o Routers know which nearby router is closer to the destination device
o Like normal car traffic, data traffic builds up on the internet. Routers can
see this and decide to send a packet down a different route that avoids
traffic.
o Packets from the same message can take different routes from the sender
to the receiver, and may arrive in different orders. The receiver's computer
 reassembles the message by reordering the packets using the packet
numbers
o Breaking down a file into packets and sending these packets down
different routes over the internet (via routers) from a source to a
destination and reassembling them at the end
o Packet numbers allow for the original message, which has been broken
down into smaller parts,  to be re-assembled in the correct order, or
assembled together like a jigsaw, once all of the packets have been
received
o Routers contain routing tables which keep track of nearby routers like a
map or contacts list
o If a packet does not reach its destination the receiver can send a resend
request to the sender to resend the packet

Figure 2: Packets take different routes across a network from the source address to
reach the destination address as shown by the green, blue and red routes taken

 The advantages of packet switching are:

o Interference and corruption are minimal as individual packets can be resent if they are
lost or damaged
o The whole file doesn’t need to be resent if a corruption occurs, only the individual
packets that were corrupted need to be resent. This saves time and
internet bandwidth
o Packet switching is quicker than sending a large packet as each packet finds the
quickest way around the network
o It's harder to hack an individual's data as each packet contains minimal data, and
travels through the network separately

Worked Example
A local market shop wishes to arrange a delivery of goods from a supplier. Anna, the
shop owner, decides to send an email to request the delivery of the goods at a certain
date and time.

Describe how packet switching is used to send this email and how it can be protected
from corruption. [8]

Answer:

 The business email is first broken down into packets which are given a source
address (where its come from) and a destination address (where its going to) [1
mark]
 Each packet receives a packet number so that the email can be reassembled
when it reaches its destination  [1 mark]
 Each packet also receives an error check such as a parity bit. A parity bit checks
whether any bits have been flipped due to corruption  [1 mark]
 Each packet is sent over the internet via routers. Routers contain routing tables
that determine the next closest router to the destination  [1 mark]
 Packets may take different routes depending on internet traffic and arrive at their
destination in any order  [1 mark]
 Packets are checked for errors using the error checks and missing packets can be
requested to be resent [1 mark]
 Once all packets have been received then they can be put together in order using
the packet numbers [1 mark] 
 Once assembled the original email can be read by the other business [1 mark]

Exam Tip
For high marks make sure your answer is coherent, that is it follows logically from one
point to the next. Some marks depend on previous points you have made. Explaining
parity bits without mentioning error checking first may not gain you additional marks

Data Transmission
Wired connections

 Wires can be:

o Serial
 One bit is sent at a time across a single wire
 Figure 1: A sender sends a stream of bits in sequence, one after the one across a
single wire

o Parallel
 Multiple bits are sent at a time across several wires.
 Transmission is asynchronous as some bits may
arrive quicker than others. This is known
as skewing or skewed data.
 Asynchronous transmission means data does not always
arrive at the same time

Figure 2: A sender sends a stream of bits in sequence, one after the other across
multiple wires at the same time


o Simplex
 Simplex transmissions are unidirectional and travel in only one
direction
o Half-duplex
 Half-duplex transmissions are bidirectional i.e. can travel in both
directions, but not simultaneously!
o Full-duplex
 Full-duplex transmissions are bidirectional but can transmit signals
in both directions at the same time
 Wires can be combinations of serial, parallel, simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

  Simplex Half-duplex Full-duplex

Serial Serial-Simplex Serial-Half-duplex Serial-Full-duplex
Parallel Parallel-Simplex Parallel-Half-duplex Parallel-Full-duplex
 Figure 3: Wire types can be combined between serial/parallel and simplex/half-
duplex/full-duplex

o Serial-Simplex
 Data is transmitted one bit at a time in a single direction on one wire
o Serial-Half-duplex
 Data can be transmitted in both directions on a single wire but
only one bit at a time can be transmitted in one direction at a time
o Serial-Full-duplex
 Data can be transmitted in both directions at the same time on
a single wire one bit at a time 
o Parallel-Simplex
 Multiple wires transmit one bit at a time in one direction
o Parallel-Half-duplex
 Multiple wires send multiple bits of data in both directions but only
one direction at a time
o Parallel-Full-duplex
 Multiple wires send multiple bits of data in both directions at
the same time

Advantages and disadvantages of each method

Advantages Disadvantages
 

Serial  Serial transmission  Data transmission is slow, especially over

is cheap over short and long long distances as only small quantities of
distances as the cost of wire is data can be transmitted as a time
fairly inexpensive

 Serial transmission is expensive over very

long distances as the cost of wire
dramatically increases

Parallel  Parallel transmission  Parallel transmission is expensive over

is fast as large quantities of short distances as multiple wires need to
data can be transmitted at any be purchased. Transmission is very
one time expensive over long distances as the cost
of wires dramatically increases with the
distance

 Delays can be caused if data arrives

 asynchronously as the receiver has to wait
for all of the bits before accepting new
data. This is especially true over longer
distances
o Buffers may be used to store data
temporarily while waiting for all
bits to arrive

Simplex  Simplex wires are cheap as only  Data transmission is slow as data still
one wire is used travels one bit at a time in only one
direction at a time

 Simplex transmission requires two sets of

wires for bidirectional
transmission meaning it can become
expensive

Half-  Half-duplex transmission

 Transmission is still slow as data travels
duplex is cheaper than simplex for
one bit at a time in only one direction at a
bidirectional transmission as it
time
requires fewer wires

Full-  Full-duplex transmission

duplex is faster as data can travel in
both directions simultaneously.  Full-duplex is expensive as the wire
The receiver does not have to technology to transmit in both directions
wait for the sender to stop before is more difficult to implement
they can start transmitting their
data

Example scenarios of using each method

 Serial
o Connecting an external hard drive to a computer
o Transmitting data over a telephone line
 Parallel
o Transmitting data from a computer to a printer using a multi-wire
connector
 Simplex
o Transmitting data from a computer to a printer. The printer doesn’t need
to send data back to the computer
  Modern versions of devices such as printers may send
acknowledgement signals to confirm they have received the data.
This may require half-duplex rather than simplex connections
 Half-duplex
o Phone conversations where only one person needs to speak at a time
o A walkie-talkie is a two way radio with a push to speak button. The
receiver is turned off while the transmitter is turned on. This prevents you
from hearing the other person while you speak
 Full-duplex
o Broadband connections to the internet. Data must be sent and received at
the same time. Accessing information on the internet is known as
downloading information. Putting information onto the internet for others
to access is known as uploading
o Phone conversations where both people can talk and be heard at the same
time allowing them to interrupt each other

Worked Example
A company has a website that is stored on a web server
The company uses parallel half-duplex data transmission to transmit the data for the
new videos to the web server. 
Explain why parallel half-duplex data transmission is the most appropriate method.[6]
Answer:

 Parallel would allow for the fastest transmission [1 mark]

 as large amounts of data [1 mark]
 can be uploaded and downloaded [1 mark]
 but this does not have to be at the same time [1 mark]
 Data is not required to travel a long distance [1 mark]
 Therefore skewing is not a problem [1 mark]

Exam Tip

1. Any four of these points qualifies as a full answer however make sure your answer
is cohesive. Saying “Parallel would allow for the fastest transmission but this does
not have to be at the same time” would qualify as one mark as only the first part
makes sense and follows logically
2. When given context in the question, for example a web server that stores a
website, your answer must make reference to this. Mark scheme answers such as
“can be uploaded and downloaded” do not make sense without this context. You
could lose marks by misreading the question and not providing a relevant answer
USB

 The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an  asynchronous and  serial method of

transmitting data between devices and has become an industry standard
 Many devices use USB such as keyboards, mice, video cameras, printers, portable
media players, mobile phones, disk drives, network adapters, etc
 Different USB connectors exist for different devices. Some examples are:
o USB-A (flash drives, mice, keyboards, external HDD, etc)
o USB-B (printers, scanners, optical drives, floppy drives, etc)
o USB-C
 USB-C is becoming the new standard of USB due to its small size and speed

 When a device is connected to a USB port the computer is:

o Automatically detects that the device has been connected
o Automatically recognised and the appropriate device driver is
loaded so that the device can communicate with the computer
 If the device is new, the computer will look for a matching device
driver. If one cannot be found then the user must download and
install an appropriate driver manually
Advantages and disadvantages of USB

Advantages Disadvantages

Devices are automatically
The maximum cable length is roughly 5
detected and drivers are automatically
metres meaning it cannot be used over long
loaded for communication. This simplifies the
distances, limiting its use
data transmission process for the user
Cable connectors fit in only one way. This Older versions of USB have limited
prevents incorrect connections and ensures transmission rates for example USB
compatible data transmission 2.0 has 480Mbps
As USB usage is standardised, there is a lot of Very old USB standards may not be
support available online and from retailers supported in the near future (USB 1.1, USB
2.0, etc)
Several different data transmission rates are
supported. The newest transmission rate as of
 
2022 is USB4 2.0 with 80 Gbps (81,920 Mbps,
170x faster than USB 2.0)
Newer USB standards are backwards
compatible with older USB standards  

Worked Example
Julia uses a USB connection to transfer data onto her USB flash memory drive. 
(i) One benefit of using a USB connection is that it is a universal connection. State two
other benefits of using a USB connection. 

Benefit 1:

Benefit 2: [2]

(ii) Identify the type of data transmission used in a USB connection.[1]

Answer:

  (i) Any two from:

o It cannot be inserted incorrectly [1 mark]
o Supports different transmission speeds [1 mark]
o High speed transmission [1 mark]
 o Automatically detected (not connected) // automatically downloads drivers
[1 mark]
o Powers the device (for data transfer) [1 mark]
 (ii) 
o Serial [1 mark]

Error Checking

 When data has been received it could be subject to errors and Corruption

Why check for errors?

 Computers expect data in certain formats

o A format is a way of arranging the data so that it can be easily
understood by people and by computers
o People agree to certain formats so that systems work more efficiently and
there is little chance of misunderstanding each other
 An example of a format is date and time. Date and time can have multiple
formats such as:
o 13/04/14 (DD/MM/YY)
o 12/31/2020 (MM/DD/YYYY)
o Jul-04-16 (MMM/DD/YY)
 Computers usually perform processes and calculations on data. If the data is not
as expected, things can go wrong. For example, if a receiver expected to receive a
date in format DD/MM/YY as 03/04/17 but received 04/03/17, did the sender
mean 3rd April 2017 or 4th March 2017?
 An error or corruption occurs when data received is not as expected and
therefore is difficult or impossible to process

How is data represented?

 All data is represented in binary as 1’s (high voltage) and 0’s (low voltage)
o For example, the number 67 is represented as 01000011
o An error could cause one of the bits to flip from 1 to 0 or vice versa
o If the sixth most significant bit is flipped, 01000011 -> 01000111, 67
becomes 71
o The number 67 in ASCII represents the uppercase letter ‘C’ whereas the
number 71 represents ‘G’
o By flipping a single bit, the meaning of the binary string has changed
o If a book was transmitted over a network, assuming many bits were
flipped, it would likely be difficult to read the original text
How can errors cause problems?

 Some errors are small and trivial such as a single swapped letter in a large text
 Other errors, in data such as postage addresses, aerospace coordinates or bank
transfers, can be difficult to rectify or be disastrous
 Any job or task that relies on a computer to perform highly sensitive or secure
processes must have methods of error checking and correction

How do errors occur?

 Errors can occur using wired or wireless technology due to interference 

 Examples of interference include wire degradation or electrical fields changing
the signal
 Results of interference include:
o Data loss - data is lost in transmission
o Data gain - additional data is received
o Data change - some bits have been changed or flipped
 Wireless technology uses radio signals or other electromagnetic signals to
transmit data
o These signals can be blocked by physical barriers such as buildings, walls,
cars or other objects
o Interference can be caused by bad weather such as rain or clouds, or by
other wireless signals or electromagnetic radiation 
 Wired technology carries more chance of causing an error as physical
components can be damaged, degrade or receive interference from outside
signals
o Data loss can also occur from interruptions to data transmission such as
a blocked signal or if the transmission is intermittent

Worked Example
Alex receives an email over a wireless connection from a work colleague containing an
important document. 

Identify what interference Alex could experience when sending this email

and identify the outcomes of interference. Further explain why Alex should check to
make sure the document contains no errors. [4]

Answer:
  Weather conditions or physical barriers such as building can affect signals, for
example bits could be flipped in the document making it hard to understand the
original meaning [1 mark]
 Alex should be aware that interference can cause wirelessly received data to
contain errors or corruption [1 mark]
 Data could be lost, additional data could be gained or data could be changed [1
mark]
 As Alex received an important work document they need to check for errors so
that their work is unaffected and they do not receive incorrect information [1
mark]

Error Detection Methods

Parity check

 The parity checking protocol determines whether bits in a transmission have

been corrupted
 Every byte transmitted has one of its bits allocated as a parity bit
 The sender and receiver must agree before transmission whether they are
using odd or even parity
 If odd parity is used then there must be an odd number of 1’s in the
byte, including the parity bit
 If even parity is used then there must be an even number of 1’s in the
byte, including the parity bit
 The value of the parity bit is determined by counting the number of 1’s in the
byte, including the parity bit
 If the number of 1’s does not match the agreed parity then an error has
occurred
 Parity checks only check that an error has occurred, they do not reveal
where the error(s) occurred

Even parity

 Below is an arbitrary binary string

EVEN
Byte
Parity bit
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

 If an even parity bit is used then all bits in the byte, including the parity bit,
must add up to an even number
 o There are four 1’s in the byte. This means the parity bit must be 0
otherwise the whole byte, including the parity bit, would add up to five
which is an odd number

Odd parity

 Below is an arbitrary binary string

ODD
Byte
Parity bit
1 101101 0

 If an odd parity bit is used then all bits in the byte, including the parity bit, must
add up to an odd number
o There are four 1’s in the byte. This means the parity bit must be a 1
otherwise the whole byte, including the parity bit, would add up to four
which is an even number
 The table below shows a number of examples of the agreed parity between a
sender and receiver and the parity bit used for each byte

Agreed Parity Total number

Example # Main bit string
parity bit of 1’s

#1 ODD 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 5

#2 EVEN 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2

#3 EVEN 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 6

#4 ODD 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5

#5 ODD 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 5

#6 EVEN 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 4

 Example #1: The agreed parity is odd. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are
added (5). As this number is odd already the parity bit is set to 0 so the whole
byte stays odd
 Example #2: The agreed parity is even. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are
added (1). As this number is odd the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total
number of 1’s even (2)
  Example #6: The agreed parity is even. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are
added (4). As this number is even already the parity bit is set to 0 so the whole
byte stays even

How do errors occur?

 When using parity bits, an error occurs when the number of total bits does not
match the agreed parity
 Bits can be flipped or changed due to interference on a wire or wirelessly due
to weather or other signals

Example Agreed Parity Total number

Main bit string Error
# parity bit of 1’s

#1 ODD 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 6 Error

#2 EVEN 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 No error

#3 EVEN 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Error

#4 ODD 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 No error

#5 ODD 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 6 Error

#6 EVEN 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 Error

 Example #1: The agreed parity is odd but the total number of 1’s is even (6). An
error has occurred somewhere
 Example #2: The agreed parity is even and the total number of 1’s is even (2). No
error has occurred here
 Example #3: The agreed parity is even but the total number of 1’s is odd (7). An
error has occurred somewhere
 Parity checks are quick and easy to implement but fail to detect bit swaps
that cause the parity to remain the same
 Below is an arbitrary binary string. The agreed parity is odd and the total number
of 1’s is five (odd)

Agreed Parity Total number

  Error
parity bit of 1’s
No
ODD 1 010101 1 5
error
Agreed Parity   Total number Error
 parity bit of 1’s
No
ODD 1 100000 1 3
error
Parity bytes and parity blocks

 Parity checks do not pinpoint errors in data, only that an error has occurred
 Parity blocks and parity bytes can be used to check an error has occurred and
where the error is located
o A parity block consists of a block of data with the number of 1’s
totalled horizontally and vertically
o A parity byte is also sent with the data which contains the parity bits
from the vertical parity calculation
 Below is a parity block with a parity byte at the bottom and a parity bit column in
the second column

ODD Parity bit Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 Bit 8
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
Byte 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Byte 3 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Byte 4 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Byte 5 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Byte 6 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
Byte 7 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
Byte 8 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Parity byte 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

 The above table uses odd parity

 Each byte row calculates the horizontal parity as a parity bit as normal
 Each bit column calculates the vertical parity for each row. This is the parity
byte. It is calculated before transmission and sent with the parity block
 Each parity bit tracks if a flip error occurred in a byte while the parity
byte calculates if an error occurred in a bit column
 By cross referencing both horizontal and vertical parity values the error can
be pinpointed
 In the above example the byte 3 / bit 5 cell is the error and should be a 0
instead
 The error could be fixed automatically or a retransmission request could be
sent to the sender

Exam Tip
Remember, parity bits only track if an error occurred, not where it is located. The parity
bit itself might be the error. Parity bytes are calculated before transmission so act as a
check on the parity bits themselves

Checksums

 Checksums determine if data has been corrupted but do not reveal where

 Data is sent in blocks and an additional checksum value is added at the end
of the block
 Checksums are custom user-created algorithms that perform mathematical
calculations on data
 An example of a custom checksum algorithm in computer science is:
o A checksum byte is defined as a value between 1 and 255 which is stored
in 8 bits. 8 bits are collectively known as a byte
o If the sum of all of the bytes of a transmitted block of data is <=
255 then the checksum value is the sum of all of the bytes
o If the sum of all of the bytes is > 255 then the checksum is calculated
with an algorithm:
 X = sum of all of the bytes
 Y = X / 256
 Round down Y to nearest whole number
 Z = Y * 256
 Checksum = X - Z

Custom Checksum Walkthrough


o If X = 1496
 Y = 1496 / 256 = 5.84
 Rounded down Y = 5
 Z = 5 * 256 = 1280
 Checksum = 1496 - 1280 = 216
o The checksum value in this example would be 216
 When a block of data is to be transmitted, the checksum is first
calculated and then transmitted with the rest of the data
 When the data is received the checksum value is calculated based on the
received data and compared to the checksum value received. If they are
the same then the data does not contain any errors
 If an error does occur then a resend request is sent and the data
is retransmitted
Exam Tip
It is worth noting that the checksum value itself may become corrupted or contain
errors! Checksums may be sent multiple times and tallied. The most common checksum
is then assumed to be the correct one
Echo check

 Echo checks involve transmitting the received data back to the sender.

The sender then checks the data to see if any errors occurred during
transmission
 This method isn’t reliable as an error could have occurred when the sender
transmits the data or when the receiver transmits the data. Neither will know
when the error occurred.
 If an error does occur the sender will retransmit the data

Worked Example
Four 7-bit binary values are transmitted from one computer to another. A parity bit is
added to each binary value creating 8-bit binary values. All the binary values are
transmitted and received correctly. 

(a) Identify whether each 8-bit binary value has been sent using odd or even parity by
writing odd or even in the type of parity column. 

8-bit binary value Type of parity

01100100  
10010001  
00000011   
10110010  
[4]

(b) An error may not be detected when using a parity check. Identify why an error may
not be detected. [1]

Answer:
 8a
o Odd [1 mark]
o Odd [1 mark]
o Even [1 mark]
o Even [1 mark]
  8b
o Any one from: [1 mark]
 there is a transposition of bits 
 it does not check the order of the bits (just the sum of 1s/0s)
 even number of bits change
 incorrect bits still add up to correct parity
Exam Tip
Do not add your own parity bit of 1 or 0. This has already been done for you
Check Digits

 Check Digits to determine if data has been corrupted but do not reveal where

 Data is sent in blocks and an additional check digit value is added at the end
of the block
 Check Digits are custom user-created algorithms that perform mathematical
calculations on data

 An example of a check digit is the ISBN value on books:

o Each book has a unique ISBN number that identifies the book
o A standard ISBN number may be ten digits, for example, 965-448-765-9
o The check digit value is the final digit (9 in this example). This number
is chosen specifically so that when the algorithm is
completed the result is a whole number (an integer) with no
remainder parts
o A check digit algorithm is performed on the ISBN number. If the result is
a whole number then the ISBN is valid

 ISBN Check Digit Walkthrough

o To calculate an ISBN check digit the following algorithm is performed on
965-448-765-9:
 Multiply each ISBN digit by 1 to 10 and add them all up: 
 9x1 + 6x2 + 5x3 + 4x4 + 4x5 + 8x6 + 7x7 + 6x8 + 5x9 + 9x10
= 352
 Take the total number and divide it by 11: 352/11 = 32. 32 is a
whole number with no remainder so the ISBN is valid

 Another example of a check digit is barcodes on purchasable items:

o Barcodes consist of black and white lines which can be scanned using
barcode scanners. Barcode scanners shine a laser on the black and white
lines which reflect light into the scanner. The scanner reads the distance
between these lines as numbers and can identify the item
 o Barcodes also use a set of digits to uniquely identify each item. The
number of digits varies from code to code. An example would
be 9780201379624
o The final digit on a barcode is usually the check digit. Like an ISBN this
can be used to validate and authenticate an item

 Barcode Check digit Walkthrough

o To calculate a barcode check digit we can perform the following example
algorithm on 9780201379624 (the final digit is the check digit):
 Multiply each digit by 1 or 3, alternating between these two values
and add them all up
 9x1 + 7x3 + 8x1 + 0x3 + 2x1 + 0x3 + 1x1 + 3x3 + 7x1 + 9x3
+ 6x1 + 2x3 = 96

 The check digit (the final digit) should be the difference between
the sum and the closest multiple of 10 that is larger or equal to the
sum
 96 rounded to the nearest 10 = 100
 100-96 = 4
 The check digit is therefore 4 which matches our original
barcode number

 An example of a custom checksum algorithm in computer science is:

o A check digit byte is defined as a value between 1 and 255 which is
stored in 8 bits. 8 bits are collectively known as a byte
o If the sum of all of the bytes of a transmitted block of data is <=
255 then the check digit value is the sum of all of the bytes
o If the sum of all of the bytes is > 255 then the check digit is calculated
with an algorithm:
 X = sum of all of the bytes
 Y = X / 256
 Round down Y to a nearest whole number
 Z = Y * 256
 Checksum = X - Z

 Custom Check digit Walkthrough

o If X = 1496
 Y = 1496 / 256 = 5.84
 Rounded down Y = 5
 Z = 5 * 256 = 1280
 Checksum = 1496 - 1280 = 216
 o The check digit value in this example would be 216

 When a block of data is to be transmitted, the check digit is first

calculated and then transmitted with the rest of the data
 When the data is received the check digit value is calculated based on the
received data and compared to the check digit value received. If they are
the same then the data does not contain any errors
 If an error does occur then a resend request is sent and the data
is retransmitted

Worked Example
Check digit algorithms are used to determine whether an error has occurred in
transmitted data.
a) State the names of two examples of a checksum algorithm. [2]
b) Describe the process a check digit algorithm uses to determine if an error has occurred [5]
Answer:

(a)

 ISBN [1 mark]
 Barcode [1 mark]

(b)

 Before data is transmitted a checksum value is calculated [1 mark]

 The checksum value is transmitted with the data [1 mark]
 The receiver calculates the checksum value using the received data [1 mark]
 The calculated checksum is compared to the transmitted checksum [1 mark]
 If they are the same then there is no error otherwise an error has occurred [1
mark]

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

 When the receiver receives transmitted data it must check for the presence of

any errors. Errors can usually be detected but not always pinpointed
 An Automatic Repeat Request is a protocol that notifies the sender that
an error has occurred and that the data received is incorrect. It works as
follows:
o If an error is detected the receiver sends a negative
acknowledgement transmission to indicate the data is corrupted
 o If no error is detected the receiver sends a positive
acknowledgement transmission meaning the data is correct
o If the receiver does not send any acknowledgement transmission then
the sender waits for a certain time period known as a time-
out before automatically resending the data
o This process is repeated until all data has been received and
acknowledged

Encryption

 Many threats exist to system and network security. Examples include:

o Malware
o Viruses
o Spyware
o Hackers
o Denial of service attacks
o Social engineering
o SQL injection
 Hackers are people who try to gain unlawful or unauthorised access to
computers, networks and data by writing programs
 They look for weaknesses in the system and use them to gain access
 Hackers have various motives such as financial gain, a challenge or protests etc
 Hackers sometimes target data in order to steal and use it, or block people from
using the data by creating programs called ransomware
 Hackers may also used packet sniffer to intercept and read data transmitted
across the internet or a network
 Hackers will often want to use people’s information and therefore it is beneficial
to encrypt your data

What is encryption?

 Encryption involves encoding data into a form that cannot be

understood using an algorithm
o An example could be turning the phrase “Computer Science” into
“YekLKEZizFuFjHNCjHj3Md7qyTiGxLNNwPVFZtJU74I=”
 Once encrypted, data can be decrypted which turns the encrypted data into
data that can be understood again
 Encryption doesn’t prevent hackers from hacking but makes the data hard if
not impossible to read unless they have matching decryption tools
 There are two types of encryption: symmetric encryption and asymmetric
encryption
Symmetric and asymmetric encryption

 Encryption relies on the use of a key. A key is a binary string of a certain length
that when applied to an encryption algorithm can encrypt plaintext information
and decrypt ciphertext
o Plaintext is the name for data before it is encrypted
o Ciphertext is the name for data after it is encrypted
 Keys can vary in size and act like passwords, enabling people to protect
information. A single incorrect digit in the key means the data cannot be
decrypted correctly. Strong modern keys can be up to or over 1000 bits long!

Symmetric encryption

 In symmetric encryption both parties are given an identical secret key which can
be used to encrypt or decrypt information
 Key distribution problem: If a hacker gains access to the key then they can
decrypt intercepted information
 Methods exist to send the secret key to the receiver without sending it
electronically:
o Both parties could verbally share the key in person
o Both parties may use standard postage mail to share the key (some
businesses and banks may do this to ensure someone's identity and
authenticity)
o An algorithm may be used to calculate the key by sharing secret non-key
information. An example is shown below.
o Symmetric Encryption Walkthrough
 Both parties A and B choose a number, for example A = 3, B = 2
 Both parties enter their own respective numbers into the following
equations: 7^A MOD 11 or 7^B MOD 11. ^ is another way of
writing “to the power of” 
 7^3 MOD 11 = 2, 7^2 MOD 11 = 5
 Both parties swap their respective answers. A receives 5 and B
receives 2. These answers replace the initial 7 number and the
calculations are performed again
 Both parties enter their new number into the following equations:
5^3 MOD 11 or 2^2 MOD 11
 5^3 MOD 11 = 4, 2^2 MOD 11 = 4
 The answer should match for both parties and this becomes the
encryption and decryption key value
 Once the key is generated, it can be applied to the plaintext in the algorithm
that then produces the ciphertext which is sent to the receiver
  The receiver gets a copy of the ciphertext and the key and applies the
encryption algorithm. The algorithm then produces the original plaintext for the
receiver

Asymmetric encryption

 In asymmetric encryption also known as public key encryption, two keys are used:
o Public key: a key known to everyone
o Private key: a key known only to the receiver
 Both keys are needed to encrypt and decrypt information
 Asymmetric encryption works as follows:
o Person A uses a symmetric key to encrypt their message then encrypts
their symmetric key using the public key known to both Person A and
Person B
o Person A sends their message over the network or internet
o Person B decrypts the symmetric key using their secret private
key then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the original message
 Asymmetric encryption works such that only one private key can be used to
decrypt the message and it is not sent over the internet like a symmetric key
 Keys can be very large, for example over 1000 bits. To get the correct key a
hacker would have to calculate almost every possible combination. To illustrate, a
key with only 100 bits would generate 1,267,650,600,228,229,401,496,703,205,376
different combinations

How are encryption keys created?

 Encryption keys can be created manually, randomly or via an algorithm

 Strong encryption keys are created using a hashing algorithm
 A hashing algorithm is a non-reversible mathematical algorithm that converts
a given input into an output. Once the output has been generated it is unable to
be converted back to the original input
 Encryption keys are created by supplying a message or key to the hashing
algorithm which turns it into a string of characters usually shown
in hexadecimal
 SHA-2 is an example of a hashing algorithm that creates hashed keys of 244, 256,
384 or 512 bit length
o If the text string “Computer Science” is run through the SHA-2 algorithm, it
would return a 512 bit key in hexadecimal as:
o “B6e175f5fc647b1a9ce17019594ce55b58e8fd03e3c584ee384121c8b4c775
3d”
  The hashed encryption key can then be sent symmetrically or kept secret as
part of an asymmetric private key. Both sender and receiver need a copy of
the key to decrypt information regardless of using symmetric or asymmetric
encryption

Why use hashed encryption keys?

 In symmetric encryption, the key must be sent with the message to the receiver. If
a hacker intercepts the key they can read the message
 In asymmetric encryption, the public key is available to everyone and would not
be useful to a hacker. The hacker must guess the private key in order to read
the message
 Hashing algorithms are many-to-one. This means that many input values,
messages or keys can produce the same hash key output
 A hashed encryption key means the hacker must first unhash the key before it is
useful
 As hashing algorithms are non-reversible this is extremely difficult
 With SHA-2 for example, a hacker who wants to find the symmetric or
asymmetric private key must calculate over 1.3x10^154 combinations; that is 13
with 153 0’s after it. With the computing power available today, this is virtually if
not actually impossible

Worked Example
Complete the sentences about symmetric encryption. Use the terms from the list. Some
of the terms in the list will not be used. You should only use a term once.  
algorith ciph copie delet
        key  plain
m er d e
privat publi standar stole understo unreadab
         
e c d n od le
The data before encryption is known as ______ text. To scramble the data, an encryption
______, which is a type of ______, is used. The data after encryption is known as ______ text.
Encryption prevents the data from being ______ by a hacker.
[5]
Answer:

One mark for each correct term in the correct place. 

 plain [1 mark]
 algorithm/key [1 mark]
 key/algorithm [1 mark]
 cipher [1 mark]
 Understood [1 mark]