HISTORY PART – 1

MODERN HISTORY (1757-1947)

Agenda
• ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
• CONSOLIDATION OF POWER BY BRITISH
• REVOLT OF 1857
• NATIONAL MOVEMENTS
• GOVERNOR GENERALS
• REFORM MOVEMENTS
• MISCELLANEOUS

Advent of Europeans
The Portuguese
Causes :
• Decline of Roman Empire in seventh century and domination of Arabs in Egypt
and Persia
• Direct contact and easy accessibility between Europeans and Indians declined
and Arab merchants became intermediaries and monopolised land route
• Spirit of Renaissance in fifteenth century called for exploration and adventurous
sea voyages and Ship building
• Economic development and prosperity in Europe increased demand for oriental
luxury goods
• Venice and Genoa lost their trade prosperity by Mighty Ottoman Turks, hence
they aided Spain and Portugal with men and money.
• Portugal assumed the leadership in Christendom’s resistance to Islam
• Obsession of Prince Henry of Portugal who was nicknamed
The Navigator for finding an Ocean route to India
• Treaty of Tordesillas signed between rulers of Portugal and Spain in 1494
divided the Non-Christian world between them by an imaginary line
west of the Cape Verde islands
• Under the treaty Portugal could claim and occupy anything East of the Line while
Spain to the West
• 1487, Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Dias rounded
Cape of Good Hope in Africa
• 1498, Vasco Da Gama arrived at Calicut led by a Gujarati pilot named
Abdul Majid
The Portuguese Establishment:
• Vasco Da Gama was welcomed by the Zamorin of Calicut
• Calicut being an Entrepot was very prosperous and
• Arab traders were apprehensive on his visit
• Earlier trading system in India had numerous participants but they acted
according to the tacit rules of conduct
• Portuguese wanted to monopolise the hugely profitable Eastern trade
by excluding competitors
• Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 for trading spices and established
a factory at Calicut
• Conflict developed when the Portuguese factory was attacked by locals and
Calicut was bombarded by Cabral
• Cabral made advantageous treaty with local rulers of Cochin and Cannanore
• Vasco Da Gama came again in 1501 and set up factory at Cannanore
• Francisco De Almeida was appointed as Governor in India in 1505 by Portugal
King for a three year term
• He was equipped with incumbent powers to Consolidate the position of the
Portuguese in India and destroy Muslim trade in Aden, Ormuz and Malacca
• He encountered threat from Zamorin and Mameluke Sultan of Egypt
• 1507, Combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies defeated Portuguese squadron and
killed Almeida’s son
• 1508, Almeida crushed the two fleets
• His vision was to make the Portuguese the master of Indian Ocean known as
Blue Water Policy

Alfonso de Albuquerque:
• Succeeded Almeida as Portuguese Governor in India and was the
real founder of Portuguese power in the East
• He established strongholds in East Africa, Red Sea, Ormuz, Malabar and Malacca
• He introduced permit system for other ships and control over ship building
centres in the region
• He acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 , it became the first territory
under Europeans since the time of Alexander
• He abolished Sati
• The Portuguese men were encouraged to take the local wives
• Portuguese established themselves as landlords and introduced new crops like
 tobacco and cashew nut and better varieties of Coconut
• They settled in India as Artisans, Master-Craftsmen besides traders rather than
Portugal as home
Nino da Cunha:
• He became governor in 1529 and shifted headquarters of Portuguese
from Cochin to Goa
• Gujarat ruler Bahadur shah secured help from Portuguese during his
conflict with Humayun in 1534 in return for Bassein and Diu
• In 1536, the relationship between them soured where Bahadur Shah was invited
to the Portugal ship and he was killed
• He attempted to increase Portugal influence in Bengal with
Hooghly as their Headquarters.
Favourable Conditions for Portuguese:
• Except Gujarat all the Northern part of Bengal was divided among
small kingdoms
• In Deccan, Bahmani kingdom was breaking up into smaller kingdoms
• None of the Indian powers had a navy worth its name nor do they have
an idea of making one
• Imperial decree of Chinese emperor limited the navigational reach of
Chinese ships
• Arab merchants and ship owners had nothing to match with the organisation
and unity of Portuguese
• Portuguese had cannons placed on their ships
• Many of the coastal parts of India had come under Portuguese power
within 50 years of Vasco Da Gama’s arrival
• Envoys were sent between Goa and other Kingdoms in India and involved in
Battles for the balance of power
• Interestingly, they were the first to come to India and last to leave this land
Decline of Portuguese:
• By 18th century , Portuguese lost commercial influence and some carried
individual trade
• Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and Marathas
• The religious policies of the Portuguese such as Jesuits gave rise to
political fears among Mughals
• Portuguese policy of Conversion to Christianity made Hindus also resentful
• Dishonest trade practice evoked strong reactions and earned notoriety as sea
pirates
• Arrogance and Violence brought them the animosity of rulers of
small states and Imperial Mughals
• Discovery of Brazil diverted colonising activity of Portuguese to the West
• Union of two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal dragged it into wars with England
and Holland and affected trade monopoly in India
• Monopoly of knowledge of sea route to India could not remain a secret forever
• Fierce rivalry among Europeans , most powerful were the Dutch and The English
• Goa lost its importance with the fall of Vijayanagara Empire
• Goa was superseded by Brazil as the economic centre of overseas empire of
Portugal
• In 1683, after two naval assaults, the Marathas invaded Goa
Significance:
• Coming of the Portuguese initiated the European era and
the emergence of naval power
• First time foreign power came by the way of sea
• They declared their intention to abide by no rules except their own
• Military innovations were introduced in 16th century India
• They were masters of improved techniques at sea like multi-decked ships,
castled prow and stern
• The missionaries and the church were teachers and patrons of art and music
• Goa became the centre for filigree work, fretted foliage work and
metal work Embedding jewels
 The Dutch
• Commercial enterprises led the Dutch to undertake voyages to East
• Cornelis de Houtman was first to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596
• In 1602, many companies were amalgamated into
the East India Company of Netherlands
• The companies were empowered to carry on war, conclude treaties , take
possession of territories and build fortresses
The Dutch Settlements:
• The Dutch founded their first factory in Masulipatnam in 1605 and later
Captured Nagapatinam from the Portuguese
• They participated in redistributive or carrying trade , they brought
to Far East islands, various goods and merchandise from India
Decline of the Dutch:
• The English were rising to prominence and posed a serious challenge to the
commercial interest of the Dutch
• The climax of the enmity between the Dutch and the English in the East was
reached at Amboyna Massacre in 1623
• In 1667, The English agreed to withdraw all their claims on Indonesia and the
Dutch retired from India to concentrate more on Indonesia
• In 1672-74, the Third Anglo-Dutch war the English forces were
defeated by the Dutch
• In 1759, the English gave a crushing blow to the Dutch ambitions in India
in the battle of Hooghly
• Dutch were not much interested in empire building, their concerns were trade
• The Spice Islands of Indonesia earned them a huge profit through trade

The English
• Francis Drake’s Voyage around the world in 1580 and the English Victory over
the Spanish Armada in 1588 generated a new sense of enterprise in the British
• In 1599, the merchant adventurers formed a company
• They received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600
• They initially got monopoly for fifteen years but was extended
indefinitely in 1609
The English Settlements:
West and South:
• In 1609, Captain Hawkins arrived in the court of Jahangir to establish a
factory at Surat but the mission was failed
• In 1611, the English started trading at Masulipatnam
and later a factory on 1616.
• In 1612, The Captain Thomas best defeated the Portuguese in the sea off Surat
• In 1613, Jahangir grant permission to establish a factory at Surat
Under Thomas Aldworth
• In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was accredited as an Ambassador of James I
to the court of Jahangir
• Bombay had been gifted to King Charles II by the King of Portugal as dowry
when Charles married the Portugal princess Catherine in 1662
• In 1668 it was given to the East India Company for an annual payment of
ten pounds which became headquarters in the West replacing Surat
• In 1632, company earned privilege of trading freely in Golconda by a
 Royal Farman issued by the Sultan of Golconda for 500 pagodas a year
• In 1639, Francis Day received a permission to build a fortified factory at
Madras from the ruler of Chandragiri which became the Fort St.George
• This fort replaced Masulipatnam as headquarters of the English settlement
in South India
Bengal:
• Shah Shuja, the Subhadar of Bengal allowed the English to trade in Bengal for
an annual payment of 3000 in lieu of all duties
• Factories were started at Hooghly, Kazimbazaar,Patna and Rajmahal
• The company’s business was obstructed by customs officers
in the local check posts
• In 1682, hostilities broke out between Mughals and the English and the Hooghly
was sacked by the imperial Mughals
• Job Charnock started negotiations with Mughals to return to a place
called Sutanati
• In 1698, the English succeeded in getting permission of zamindari of
three villages of Sutanati, Gobindapur and Kalikata
• The fortified settlement was named Fort William in 1700 and became
Eastern headquarters
• Sir Charles Eyre was its first president
Farrukhsiyar’s Farman:
• In 1715, the English mission led by John Surman to the court of Mughal emperor
famous Farmans gave valuable privileges in Bengal, Gujarat and Hyderabad
• It is termed as a Magna Carta of the company
 The French
• Louis Colbert , the minister of the king Louis XIV laid the foundation of the
French East India Company in 1664
• In 1667, Francois Caron headed an expedition to India and
setting up a factory at Surat
• Mercara who accompanied Caron founded a factory at Masulipatnam in 1669
with the permission of Sultan of Golconda
• In 1673, Shaista Khan, the Mughal Subhadar of Bengal to establish a township
at Chandernagore
• In 1673, Sher Khan Lodi , Governor of Valikondapuram granted Francois Martin
a site for settlement which became Pondicherry in 1674 , the same year
he became the French Governor replacing Caron
Decline of the French:
• Outbreak of War between the Dutch and the French
• Spanish war of succession broke out in Europe
• Death of Francois Martin in 1706
• Anglo-French rivalry for supremacy in the Carnatic region

The Danes
• The Danish East India Company was established in 1616
• In 1620, they founded factory in Tranquebar near Tanjore and
at Serampore near Calcutta
• The Factories were sold to the British government in 1845
• They are better known for their missionary activities rather than for commerce
How British succeeded against other European Powers:
i) Structure and Nature of the trading companies:
• The East India Company was formed through amalgamation of several rival
companies at home
• Controlled by elected board members annually
• Other European countries were largely owned by the State
ii) Naval Superiority:
• The Royal Navy of Britain was not only largest but was most advanced of its time
• The importance of efficient navy was learnt from the Portuguese
iii) Industrial Revolution:
• It started in England in early 18th century
• With the inventions of new machines ,production increased tremendously
• Other European nations started industrial revolution late
and this helped England to maintain its hegemony
iv) Military skill and Discipline:
• The British soldiers were disciplined a lot and well trained
• British commanders were strategists who tried new tactics in warfare
• Technological developments equipped the military well
• This enabled smaller groups of English fighters to defeat larger armies
v) Stable Government:
• Except the glorious revolution Britain witnessed stable government
with efficient monarchs
• European nations witnessed violent revolution and frequent wars
vi) Lesser Zeal for religion:
• The British was less interested in spreading Christianity than other
European countries
vii) Use of Debt Market:
• The Bank of England was the world’s first central bank to sell government
debts to money market and raise funds.

MUGHAL EMPIRE - 1707

 India on the Eve of British Conquest
External Challenges :
Nadir Shah invasion:
• Attacked India in 1738-39, conquered Lahore and defeated Mughal army
at Karnal in 1739
• Muhammad Shah was captured,
• Delhi was looted and devastated
• He gained the strategically important Mughal territory west of River Indus
including Kabul
Ahmad Shah Abdali invasion:
• He invaded India several times between 1748 and 1767
• He harassed Mughals who tried to buy peace
• In 1757 he captured Delhi and left behind an Afghan caretaker
• He recognised Alamgir II as Mughal emperor and Najib- ud- Daula as Mir Bakshi
who was expelled by Ragunath Rao in 1758
• Third battle of Panipat held in 1759 to avenge Marathas
Internal Challenges:
Weak rulers after Aurangzeb:
i) Bahadur Shah I(1709-march 1712) :
• Eldest son of Aurangzeb, adopted a Pacific policy with the Marathas, Rajputs
and Jats
• Shahu, the Maratha prince was released from Mughal captivity
• Though, he took actions against Banda Bahadur, a Sikh leader for
attacking Muslims in Punjab
ii) Jahandar Shah( Feb 1712-march 1713) :
• He became the emperor with the help of Zulfikar Khan who was the
Prime minister
• He introduced Izara system to improve the financial conditions and
abolished Jaziya
iii) Farrukhshiyar (1713-1719):
• He ascended the throne after killing Jahandar Shah with the help of
Sayyid brothers- Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali
• He followed policy of abolishing Jaziya and pilgrimage tax
• In 1717 he issued Farmans to the British
• In 1719, he was dethroned and killed by Sayyid brothers with the
help of Peshwa Balaji Viswanath
• It is the first time in Mughal history that an emperor was killed by his nobles
iv) Rafi-ud-Darajat ( Feb 28 to June 4, 1719):
• He ruled for the least period and died of tuberculosis
v) Rafi-ud-Daula ( June 6 to Sep 17, 1719) :
• Placed to throne by Sayyid Brothers with the title Shah Jahan II
• He was an opium addict and died of dysentery
vi) Muhammad Shah ( 1719-48) :
• Sayyid brothers appointed him as emperor who was given the
title of Rangeela due to his luxurious lifestyle
• With the help of Nizam-ul- Mulk, Muhammad shah killed Sayyid brothers
• In 1737, Baji Rao I invaded Delhi
• Nadir Shah defeated Mughal in the Battle of Karnal in 1739
vii) Ahmad Shah( 1748-54) :
• Impotent ruler, left the state affairs to the Queen Mother Udham Bai
• Ahmad Shah invaded India during his reign
viii) Alamgir II (1754-58) :
• Grand son of Jahandar Shah
• Ahmad Shah Abdali reached Delhi in January 1757
• Battle of Plassey was fought in June 1757
ix) Shah Jehan III ( 1758-59)
x) Shah Alam II (1759- 1806) :
• Battle of Panipat (1761) and Battle of Buxar (1764) happened during his reign
• Under Treaty of Allahabad, he was taken under Company’s protection
and resided at Allahabad
• He issued a Farman granting to the Company in perpetuity
the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
• 1772, Marathas took him to Delhi where he lived till 1803
xi) Akbar II (1806-37) :
• He gave the title of Raja to Ram Mohan Rai
• 1835, coins bearing the names of Mughal emperors were stopped
xii) Bahadur Shah II ( 1837-57) :
• The last Mughal emperor
• The revolt of 1857 made a futile attempt to declare him the Emperor of India
• He was captured by the English and sent him to Rangoon where he died in 1862
• Mughal empire came to an end on November 1, 1858 with the declaration of
Queen Victoria
Causes for the decline of Mughals:
• Shifting of allegiance of zamindars and nobles showing regional loyalty
• Jagirdari crisis created divisiveness among the nobility
• Powerful regional groups like the Jats, Rajputs , Sikhs and Marathas
defied the authority of Mughal in a bid to create kingdoms
• The government of Mughals was a personal despotism and it depended
on the character of reigning authority.
• The later Mughals were worthless and neglected the administration
• Absence of definite law of succession weakened the stability of the government
and fostered partisanship in place of patriotism
• Degeneration of nobility with factious quarrels costing the empire heavily
• The deterioration of the army proved disastrous
Causes for the decline of Mughals:
• Empire has become too vast and unwieldy to be efficiently governed
• Aurangzeb's religious and Deccan policies was an important cause of
the downfall of Mughals
• Invasions of Irani and Durrani Kingdoms
• No significant scientific and technological advances that led to stagnant economy
• The flourishing trade did not enrich Mughal coffers as the inroads by
European traders grew along coastal India.
 Rise of Regional States
Successor States:
• Mughal provinces that turned into states after breaking away from
the Empire and did not challenge the sovereignty
• Emergence of autonomous polity by independent and hereditary governors
i) Hyderabad:
• the Asaf Jha house was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk
ii) Awadh:
• Burhan-ul-Mulk founded the new independent state
• He committed suicide due to the pressure of Nadir Shah
• He was succeeded by Safdar Jang as the Nawab
iii) Bengal:
• Murshid Kuli Khan was the founder and made Bengal a prosperous state
• He was succeeded by Shuja-ud-din and later by Alivardi Khan
Independent Kingdoms:
• Came into existence primarily due to the destabilisation of the
Mughal control over the provinces
i) Rajputs:
• Ajit Singh formed an alliance with Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathor against
Mughals during Bahadur Shah but it was broken down
• At one time they controlled entire territory extending from South of Delhi
up to Western coast
ii) Mysore:
• It was ruled by Wodeyars located at the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats
• Various powers interested in the territory turned it into a constant battle field
• Later ruled by Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan but not without trouble
iii) Kerala:
• Marthanda Varma established an Independent state of Kerala with Travancore
as its capital
• He extended boundaries from Cochin to kanyakumari
• He organised his army on western model
The New States:
The states set up by the rebels against the Mughal empire
i) The Jats:
• Churaman and Badan Singh succeeded in setting up the Jat state of Bharatpur
after revolting against Aurangzeb
• It was under Suraj Mal the Jat power reached its zenith
ii) The Sikhs:
• Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into military sect for the defence of
religion and liberties
• They organised themselves into 12 misls during Nadir Shah invasion
Nature and Limitations of Regional States:
• Continued to maintain ties with the Mughal imperial authority
• Rebel chieftains recognised the Mughal emperor a supreme authority
• The polity were regional in character and functioned with the support of
local groups like zamindars, merchants , nobles and chieftains
• They failed to develop a sound financial, administrative and military organisation
• Though some tried to modernise, many were backward in science & tech
• They had the constant warfare between the neighbouring states and
none could ultimately dominate
• The states were strong enough to challenge Mughal power but none were able
to replace it with stable polity in All-India level
• Jagirdari crisis intensified as income from agriculture declined and number of
contenders for a share multiplied
Socio-Economic Conditions:
• Internal and external trade continued without disruption but rest of the
economy stagnated
• Agriculture was technically backward and it was worked with hard labour
• Education was traditional and could not match with the rapid developments
• Position of Women was very poor and little say in property and
in other fields of work
• People are divided by caste, religion, region, tribe and language
• There was a widespread prevalence of slavery
• Development of regional art, architecture and culture
 CARNATIC WARS
First Carnatic War – [1746-48]
Second Carnatic War – [1749-54]
Third Carnatic War – [1758-63]
British Conquests:
Carnatic Wars:
• The English and the French who came to India for trade was drawn into politics
• The rivalry began with the outbreak of Austrian War of Succession and
ended with the conclusion of seven years war
• In 1740, the political situation in South India was uncertain and confused
• The decline of Hyderabad marked the end of Muslim expansionism and
the Europeans got theirs plan ready

First Carnatic War ( 1740-48)

Dupliex(French Governor) Vs Lawrence(English Governor)
Causes: Austrian War of Succession in Europe
Course of War:
• France being aware of its weakness was not ready to extend hostilities to India
• The English navy under Barnet seized some French ships to provoke France
• France retaliated by seizing Madras in 1746 with the help of the fleet
from Mauritius under Admiral La Bourdonnais
Result:
• The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle
which brought the end of Austrian War of Succession
• Madras was handed back to the English and the French got back its
territories in North America
Significance:
• A small French army under Captain Paradise defeated the huge army
under Anwar-ud-din under Mahfuz Khan in the Battle of St.Thome
• It brought the importance of naval force in the Anglo- French conflict in the
Deccan

Second Carnatic War (1749-54)

Robert Clive(English) Vs Dupliex(French)
Causes:
• Succession rivalry in India
• Dupleix wanted to increase his power and French political influence in
Southern India by interfering in local dynastic disputes
Course of War:
• With the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1748 is accompanied with the
release of Chanda Sahib , Son-in-law of Dost Ali, Nawab of Carnatic by
theMarathas
• Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab of Carnatic was resented by Chanda Sahib
• The accession of Nasir Jang, the son of Nizam to the throne of Hyderabad
was opposed by Muzaffar Jang, the grandson of Nizam
• French supported Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib whereas the English
sided with Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-din
• Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib defeated and killed Anwar-ud-Din at
the Battle of Ambur on 1749
• Muzaffar Jang became the Subhadar of Deccan
• Having failed to give effective assistance to Mohammad Ali at Trichnopoly ,
Robert Clive of the East India Company put forward a diversionary attack and
made a sudden attack on Arcot so as to relieve pressure Trichinopoly
• Muhammad Ali executed Chanda Sahib in 1752
Result:
• Heavy financial losses due to Dupleix policy to French
• The English and the French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of
native princess
Significance:
• Indian authority was no longer necessary for European Success, rather
Indian authority itself was becoming dependent on European support

Third Carnatic War ( 1758-63)

Eyre Coote(English) Vs Count De Lally(French)
Causes:
• Seven years War from 1756 to 1763 in Europe
when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756
Course of War:
• In 1758, the French army under Count de Lally captured the English forts of
St. David and Vizianagaram
• The English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet
at Masulipatnam
• The Decisive battle of Wandiwash, General Eyre Coote of the English routed the
French army under Count de Lally and took Bussy as prisoner
Result:
• The Treaty of Peace of Paris in 1763 restored to the French their
factories in India
Significance:
• Natives served in both the armies as sepoys
• It marked the fall of India to European invaders

Causes for the English Success and French Failure :

• The English Company is a private concern whereas the French is a
State concern, hence the English created enthusiasm and self-confidence
• The English navy was superior to the French navy
• The English held three important places like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
whereas the French had only Pondicherry
• The French subordinated their commercial interest to the territorial ambitions
but the British never neglected their commercial interests
• Superiority of commanders in the British camp cannot be matched by French

British Conquests
British in Bengal- (1757-64)
Anglo-Mysore Wars- (1767-99)
Anglo-Maratha Wars-(1775-1819)
Anglo-Sikh Wars- (1845-49)
Other Conquests
 British in Bengal
BRITISH SUPREMACY IN BENGAL
BENGAL HISTORY:
• Murshid kuli khan became Governor of Bengal in 1717 and limited tribute
to Mughal rulers.
• Shuja-ud-din became Nawab in 1727
• Alivardhi khan assumed charge in 1739
• Siraj-ud-daulah , grandson of Alivardhi khan became ruler in 1756
NATURE OF RULERS:
• Did not discriminate on religious lines
• Nawabs were fiercely independent
• Strict control over foreign companies trading in their territory
• No fortification is allowed
• No special privileges were given to foreign traders
• Sovereignty of rulers are upheld
 British Conquest of Bengal
• Battle of Plassey-1757
• Battle of Buxar - 1764
The causes for Battle of Plassey:
• East India company paid 3000 per annum to Mughal emperor to trade
freely in Bengal
• Provincial government resented strongly due to huge loss to its exchequer
• Siraj was insecure of his positions in Bengal
• Company fortified Calcutta without Nawab’s permission
• Rampant misuse of trade privileges by Company officials
• Company gave asylum to political fugitive Krishna Das
• Company suspected Siraj’s collusion with French
• Siraj attacked and seized the English fort at Calcutta
• Black Hole Tragedy
Course of war in Battle of Plassey in Bengal.
Robert Clive:
• Battle was fought on June 23 ,1757
• He came with strong force from Madras to Calcutta made a secret alliance with
the traitors of Siraj ud daulah like Mir Jafar, Jagath seth,Raj ballabh, Rai durlabh
and Omichand
• English victory was decided before the Battle
• Nawab was defeated by handful of English soldiers
• Nawab was captured and murdered by Miran.
• English virtually monopolised the trade and commerce in Bengal
Aftermath of Battle of Plassey and cause of Battle of Buxar:
• English did not became politically supreme after Plassey event
• It appeared to be continuation of older order
• Continued to trade with Imperial permission but with more privileges
than before
• Power was not considered to be permanent it was recognised only after
Buxar incident
• Mir Jafar was called Colonel Clive’s Jackal became the Nawab and
totally depended on English
• In a succession issue English supported Mir Kasim’s claim, son-in-law of
Mir Jafar
• Mir Kasim signed a Treaty with English in 1760
• He made numerous reforms and tried to be Independent that strained
the relationship with English
• Tussle over transit duty led to outbreak of war in 1763
• Mir Kasim fled to Awadh and made Confederacy with Nawab of Awadh
Shuja-ud-daulah and Mughal emperor Shah Alam II

Battle of Buxar
The course of Battle of Buxar and its aftermath:
• The battle took place on October 22 1764
• The confederacy was defeated by English force under Major Hector Munro
• The Nawab of Bengal became a puppet, the Nawab of Awadh became a
subordinate ally and Shah Alam became a pensioner in Awadh
• Victory at Buxar was solely by superior military power
• Mir Jafar was brought back to the throne
• British got Midnapore, Burdwan and Chittagong for maintenance of their army
• Duty free trade in Bengal except on salt
• Najim-ud daula appointed as Nawab after death of Mir Jafar
• Treaty of Allahabad with Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II
The significance of Battle of Plassey and Buxar:
PLASSEY:
• Undermined the position of the Nawab in Bengal
• Nawab became dependent on the Company’s authority
• Internal rivalry of Nawab’s administration was exposed
• Financial gain and monopoly of trade in Bengal
• Marginalised French and Dutch Companies in Bengal
• Laid territorial foundation of British rule
BUXAR:
• Complete political power to English
• Ended the fate of Nawabs and British emerged as ruling power
• Strengthened the confidence of British
• Establishment of English rule in other parts of India is not far
• Laid the real foundation in India
[Note :Grant of Diwani to British by Shah Alam II]
The policies of Clive employed in Bengal with its pros and cons.
AWADH:
• Did not favour annexation of Awadh
• Awadh became a buffer state and Nawab a firm friend of Company
SHAH ALAM II:
• He came under Company’s protection and given
some territories of Awadh
• Became useful rubber stamp and helped legalise political gains of English
in Bengal
• Diwani from emperor and Nizamat right from Bengal Subhadar
given to English
Dual Government:
• Nawab was responsible for maintaining peace and order in Bengal but
depended on company for funds and force
• Became a administrative breakdown and disastrous
• Epitome of corruption and mismanagement

Anglo- Mysore Wars

First Anglo Mysore War- (1767-69)
Second Anglo Mysore War- (1780-84)
Third Anglo- Mysore War- (1790-92)
Fourth Anglo- Mysore War- (1799)

Reasons for Anglo-Mysore wars:

• Rise of Haider Ali as a formidable power in Mysore
• His alliance with French
• Haider ali and Tipu sultan’s control over trade in Malabar coast
• Danger for political and Commercial interests of English in South India
• Mysore as a threat to the control of Madras by English
• Policy to restore the Hindu Wodeyar house in Mysore overthrown by Haider
• Haider set up arms factory in Dindigul with French assistance
• Introduced western methods of training for his army

The cause, course and result of First Anglo –Mysore war

Causes:
• War happened during 1767-69
• Easy success of English in Bengal and started testing their strength
• Treaty with Nizam of Hyderabad (1766) to give away Northern Sarkars to
Company in return of Protection from Haider ali
• Haider had territorial disputes with Nawab of Arcot and differences with
Marathas
• All made alliance against Haider ali
Course of War:
• Haider paid Maratha to be neutral and promised territories to
Nizam and made them allies
• Haider and Nizam attacked Nawab of Arcot
• Haider suddenly changed his strategy and appeared on the gates of
Madras resulted in panic
Result of war:
• English made a humiliating treaty with Haider on april,4, 1769- Treaty of Madras
• Treaty provided exchange of prisoners , mutual restitution of conquests and
promised help of English when Haider was attacked

The causes , course and result of Second Anglo-Mysore War

Causes:
• War happened from 1780 to 1784
• English failed to aid Haider when Marathas attacked in 1771
• English was concerned about growing friendship between Haider and the French
• English attempted to capture Mahe, a French possession in Malabar a direct
challenge to authority of Haider
Course of war:
• He formed Anti-English alliance with Nizam and Marathas and captured Arcot
and defeated English army under Colonel Baillie in 1781
• English detached the alliance
• Haider was defeated at Porto Novo in November 1781 but avenged it by
capturing commander Braithwaite
• Haider died on December 7, 1782
• Tipu carried out war for a year with no result
Result of the war:
• War ended without definite victory on either side
• Treaty of Mangalore signed in 1784
• Both gave back the territories taken by them
• Pitt’s India Act came in 1784 recommending company not to interfere in
internal affairs of Indian states
• Both used time of peace to regroup and consolidateforces
• Tipu sent embassies to countries like Turkey and France and English kept
eye on all his moves
Third Anglo-Mysore War
Cause:
• War period- 1790-92
• Dispute between Tipu and Travancore when Travancore acquired Jalkottal and
Cannanore in Cochin brought from Dutch
• Cochin is a feudatory of Tipu sultan
• April 1790, Tipu declared war against Travancore, a protectorate of English
• Company declared war against Tipu under Cornwallis leadership
Course of War:
• Company marched through Ambur and Vellore to Bangalore and captured
in March 1791
• Coimbatore and Seringapatnam fell to Company but they lost
• Company allied with Marathas and Nizam and attack Seringapatnam again
• Tipu offered strong resistance but was defeated
Result of the war:
• Treaty of Seringapatnam was signed in March 1792
• Half of territory was taken over by victors
• Baramahal, Dindigul and Malabar went to British
• Marathas got Tungabhadra region and from Krishna to Pennar to Nizam
• Three crore rupees as war indemnity to Tipu
• Mysore faced severe crisis and planning and preparing for all counter moves to
recoverz

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

The fate of Mysore on its last war and its aftermath.
Causes:
• Period- April 17 1799 to May 4 1799
• Tipu’s efforts to recoup but lacked resources
• English attempted to consolidate their position and concerned of friendship
with French
• Lord Wellesley wanted to force Tipu to enter into Subsidiary Alliance
• Tipu was charged with treason by English
Course of War:
• Fall of Seringapatnam and Tipu laid down his life
• Family members were interned to Vellore
Result of the War:
• A boy from Hindu royal family was made maharaja and imposed
Subsidiary Alliance
• Most of territories were shared by allies
Aftermath:
• Lord William Bentinck made Mysore a direct administration of the company
• Lord Ripon restore the power of Royal family in 1881
• Territorial and military advantages to Company
• Company secured economic and commercial gains
• 1800 , Nizam handed over Mysore territory to Company made its
dominion from sea to sea across the base of peninsula
• Wellesley elevated to the rank of marquis due to Mysore victory

Anglo Maratha Wars

• First Anglo Maratha War-(1775-82)
• Second Anglo Maratha War-(1803-05)
• Third Anglo Maratha War- (1817-19)
 Anglo- Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
• Dwindling Mughal empire favoured
Maratha
• They controlled large portions of country
& also eceived tributes from other areas
• Third battle of Panipat (1761) shattered
the idea of Maratha Empire
• The conflict was due to inordinate
ambition of English and representation of
divided house of Marathas
Maratha confederacy:
• Gaekwad of Baroda
• Holkar of Indore
• Peshwa of Poona
• Bhonsle of Nagpur
• Scindia of Gwalior
(Third battle of Panipat- 1761)
The events associated with First Anglo- Maratha war.
• Death of Madhav Rao in 1772
• Narayan Rao was succeeded as fifth Peshwa but assassinated by his
uncle Ragunath Rao and made himself the Peshwa
• Narayan Rao’s infant was named Sawai Madhav Rao and made
next Peshwa legally under regency of 12 Maratha chiefs led by Nana Phadnavis
• Ragunath Rao signed Treaty of Surat (1775) with English company at Bombay
• British Calcutta Council condemned the treaty and sent Colonel Upton to
annul it
• Treaty of Purandhar (1776) was signed between regency and
Upton to give pension to Ragunath Rao
• Bombay government rejected it and gave refuge to Ragunath Rao
• In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated Purandhar treaty and
granted a port to French in West Coast
• English sent an army force to Poona
The course and result of First Anglo-Maratha war
Course of war: Period- 1775-82
• Maratha army was commanded by Mahadji Scindia
• He lured English army into Ghats of Talegaon and trapped them on all sides
• Attacked the supply base of English at Khoppali and
utilised Scorched Earth Policy
• English retreated to a village of Wadgaon and finally surrendered
in January 1779
• English signed the Treaty of Wadgaon and relinquished all territories acquired
since 1775
• Warren Hastings rejected the treaty and sent a large forces across India
• English finally defeated Scindia
Result of the war:
• Treaty of Salbai between Peshwa and the English
• Pre-war status quo and peace between the two sides for 20 years
• Led to isolation of Haider ali
• The war demonstrated the vitality and resourcefulness of Marathas
Sequence of Second Anglo-Maratha War
Cause: • Period- 1803-1805
• Lord Wellesley’s measures to check French advances in India
• Marathas initially refused to buy Subsidiary alliance
• Death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 and resistance to English was lost
• Peshwa Baji Rao II played Daulat Rao of Scindia and Yaswant Holkar against
each other to secure his position
• 1801, Peshwa murdered Vithuji, Brother of Holkar
• Holkar defeated armies of Peshwa and Scindia near Poona in 1802
and place Vinayak Rao as next Peshwa
• Baji Rao II signed a Treaty of Bassein with English in December 31 ,1802
Result of the war:
• Though Peshwa lacked political authority it gave immense gain to English
• Maratha chiefs depended on Company without prolonged fight
• Arbiter of every dispute in which Peshwa is involved
• British troops were permanently stationed in Maratha territory
• Marathas stopped bothering Nizam of Hyderabad
• Treaty did not hand over India to Company on Platter but have the
Keys of India to Company
The causes, course and aftermath of Third Anglo-Maratha War
Causes: • Period- 1817-19
• Treaty of Bassein was considered as Treaty with cipher
• Baji Rao II made a last bid in 1817 to rally together Maratha chiefs
Course of war:
• Peshwa attacked the English Residency at Poona
• Appa Sahib of Nagpur attacked residency at Nagpur
• Holkar made preparations for war
• Peshwa was defeated at khirki(Nov 1817), Bhonsle at Sitabaldi (Nov 1817),
Holkar at Mahidpur (Dec-1817)
Result of the war:
• Maratha confederacy was dissolved
• Peshwaship was abolished
• Peshwa Baji Rao became British retainer at Bithur
• Pratap singh lineal descendent of Shivaji became ruler of Satara
Causes for the defeat of Marathas:
• Inept leadership – despotic character, worthless and selfish leaders and
were no match for the English officials
• Defective nature of Maratha State- Cohesion were not organic but accidental
and artificial, based on the religious-national movement
• Loose political set up- powerful chiefs carved out semi-independent kingdom
and paid lip service, irreconcilable hostility and lacked cooperative spirit
• Unstable economic policy- no industries or foreign trade openings
• Inferior Military system- in organisation, war weapons, disciplined action and
effective leadership, Centrifugal tendencies, treachery, inadequate modern
techniques
• English diplomacy – better diplomacy to win allies and isolate enemies,
well knit spy system
• progressive English Outlook- Renaissance and energies to scientific inventions.
Marathas paid little attention to mundane matters, traditional social
hierarchy and dominance of priestly class
• English attacked a divided house started crumbling at first push

Conquest of Punjab
Cause for the Conquest of Punjab
• Ranjith Singh failed to establish a stable state in Punjab in June 1839
• Legitimate son of Ranjith singh, Kharak singh was suddenly died
in 1839 and accidental death of his son Nav Nihal Singh
• Finally Dalip singh minor son of Ranjit singh with
Rani Jindan as Regent was made Maharaja
• Lal singh was made wazir in 1845 and Teja singh as commander of forces
• The army became weak and able generals were already dead
• Army- irregular payments, filled with traitors and spirit of indiscipline
• Economic dislocation by allowing English troops to pass through
Punjab during Afghan invasion
• Idea of adding Trans-Indus region to Afghanistan
 Explain the causes, courses and result of First Anglo-Sikh War
Causes: • Period- 1845-46
• Crossing of Sikh army across River Sutlej
• Anarchy at Lahore causing power struggle
• Suspicion among Sikhs due to recent campaigns in Sindh, Gwalior(1841)
and Afghanistan(1842)
• Increase in number of British troops stationed near the border
Course of war:
• Lal singh commanded Sikh army and lord Gough on English side
• Lal singh refused to attack Firozepur and even left battlefield early
with Teja singh
• Lord Gough attacked Firozepur but Sikh army fought back driving away British
• Hardinge removed Gough and took charge himself
• Lal singh and Teja singh waited till British get fresh supplies of weapons
• Even so, Sikh won at Buddowal on Jan 1846 and English won at Aliwal
in Jan 1846
• Final war at Sobraon where Sikh leaders left battlefield and death of
numerous Sikh soldiers
Result of the war:
• Testified the weakness of Ranjith Singh’s policy of employing Strangers in
high positions in state
• Treaty of Lahore signed on March 1846
• Sikh territories were divided into three parts between Dalip singh, Gulabh singh,
Dogra chief for treachery along with Lal singh and Teja singh and English
 The cause, course and aftermath of Second Anglo-Sikh war.
Causes: • Period-1848-49
• Multan governor resigned
due to demand of enhanced
annual revenue by Company
• New Sikh governor appointed two English officers who were murdered
• Sikh troops and Sardars joined in open rebellion
• Dalhousie understood the weakness of English army in the area and
delayed the strike for spread of rebellion resulting in subjugation of
entire Punjab
Course of war:
• Brilliant success of Herbert Edwards with Mulraj and Gough’s victory in
Battle of Chillhanwala on Jan 1849
• Strong resistance in Multan ,later Jan 22 Multan fortress was taken
by General whish
• Battle of Gujarat- Sikh army surrenders at Rawalpindi and Afghan allies
were chased away
Result of war:
• Dalhousie captured Punjab in 1849 and became Marques
• Unique military experience for British in terrain and climate rather than skill
• Sikh troops had regular training on European lines
• Sikhs as determined and resourceful foe
• Mutual respect on each other's fighting prowess
• Sikhs fought loyally for the British in Indian mutiny of 1857 till Independence.
 Other Conquests
 Sindh •Burma •Tibet
 Nepal •Afghanistan
 Bhutan •NWFP
Foreign Policy:
Reasons:
• Political and administrative consolidation of the country
• Protection of invaluable Indian empire
• Expansion of British commercial and economic interests
• Keeping away other European imperialist powers
• Interests served were British , the money spent and the blood shed was Indian
Sindh:
• Renewal of relations between Tipu sultan and Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799
• Wellesley’s attempted to renew commercial relations in Sindh to
Counteract French and Tipu
• Alliance of Tilsit between Napoleon Bonaparte and Alexander I of Russia
• Lord Minto sent three delegations to forge alliance to build barrier
between Russia and British India
• Sindh was visited by Nicholas Smith who met Amirs and concluded
a defensive arrangement
• Treaty of Eternal Friendship signed to exclude the tribe French from
Sindh , in 1820 extended to Americans
• Treaty of 1832 signed with Amirs to ensure Navigability of River Indus
• Thwarting Ranjith Singh’s plan to divide Sindh between
English and Punjab under Lord Bentinck
• Tripartite treaty of 1838 between English, Amirs and Ranjith Singh
• Defeat in Afghan war and revolt of Amirs due to English activity
resulted in Capitulation of Sindh in 1843
• It is often criticised as tail of Afghan storm

Bhutan:
• British occupation with Assam in 1816 brought contact with Bhutan
• Bhutanese raids in Assam and Bengal, bad treatment
meted out to Elgin’s envoy in 1863-64
• Treaty with Bhutan- surrendered passes leading to Assam to English with
annual subsidy
• Stopping of allowance to Bhutanese
• Surrendered areas became productive with Tea gardens
Nepal:
• 1st to enter conflict when British reached to geographical frontiers
• In 1814, border clash resulted in war ended with Treaty of Sagauli
• Treaty helped British to reach the Himalayas
• Better facilities to trade with Central Asia
• Acquired states for Hill Stations like Shimla, Nainital
• Gorkhas joined the British Indian Army
Burma:
• Expansionist urges of the British for forest resource, market and
to check French ambitions
First Burma War(1824-26):
Causes:
• Burmese expansion westwards
• ill defined border btw Bengal & Burma
• Treaty of Yandaboo signed in 1826 in
which British acquired most of the
coastline and firm base in Burma

Second Burma War(1852):

• Because of commercial greed of British to get hold of timber resources
• British occupied remaining coastal areas
Third Burma War(1885):
• Step-motherly attitude of King Thibaw towards British and
friendly towards France
• Dufferin ordered invasion and final annexation of Burma in 1885
Afghanistan:
• Imperial defence and search for scientific frontier
towards northwest
• Russian influence that thwarted establishing new route to River Euphrates
• Treaty of Turkomanchai in 1828 made Russian plans for India
• Auckland's forward policy in 1836 during Dost Mohammed and
tripartite treaty in 1838 resulted in First Afghan war(1839-42) and
ended with treaty in 1841
• John Lawrence (1864-1869) followed the policy of Masterly Inactivity
• Lytton in 1876 followed Policy of Proud Reserve protecting scientific frontiers
and Sphere of Influence
• As Lytton did not like to leave the relation ambiguous invaded Afghanistan
in 1870 resulting in Second Afghan War-(1870-80)
• The war ended with Treaty of Gandamak
• Lytton planed for dismemberment of Afghanistan which was not carried out by
Lord Ripon who followed Policy of Buffer State
• In 1921, Afghanistan became independent in foreign affairs
North West Frontier Province:
• Conquest of Sindh (1843) and Punjab (1849) brought British in Contact
with Baluch and Pathan tribes who are independent but Afghan Amir
claimed nominal suzerainty
• 1840, John Jacob established Mobile defence by patrols in Sindh
• Dalhousie adopted conciliatory approach and built fortified posts
• Lawrence followed non-interventionist policy
• Lytton in 1876 gave an end to Masterly Inactivity and realised importance
of scientific frontiers and adopted several administrative measures
• Lansdowne (1883-93) followed Forward Policy which led to
 formation of Durand line in 1893
• Curzon(1899-1905) followed Policy of Withdrawal and Concentration training
local tribes and established peace in the region
• Now it belongs to Pakistan

Tibet:
• Theocracy of Buddhists with Nominal suzerainty of China which was ineffective
• Increased Russian activities in Tibet
• Curzon sent Colonel Younghusband to come to an agreement with Tibet
but they gave Passive resistance when he entered Lhasa, lama fled
• Russian Convention 1907 made Chinese Government as intermediary
to negotiate with Tibet
• This counteracted all Russian schemes in Tibet
 INDIAN RESPONSE TO BRITISH RULE
 Resistant Movements till 1857
 Resistant Movements after 1857
 Great Revolt of 1857

Causes of Resistance:
• Village communities are little Republics and have everything they
needed. Unchangeability remained their hallmark
• Dislocation of Village Economy due to East India Company’s
Revenue System
• Village Panchayats were deprived of Two main functions- land
settlements and Judicial and executive functions
• Patel or Revenue Collector is assigned with revenue collection
• Land became a Market commodity and introduced the concept of
Private property in land
• Social relationship has changed with many middlemen
• Capitalist development with money based Economy
• Commercialisation of Agriculture
• Linkage with outside world
• Loss of independence and foreign intrusion into local autonomy
• Administrative innovation
• Company began to strike coins without the Emperor’s name after 1835
• English replaced Persian as the language of the court
 Resistance movement before 1857
Bengal and Eastern India:
i) Sanyasi Rebellion:
• One of the earliest movements by Sanyasis and Fakirs hailed from a peasant
background in Bengal and Bihar
• Growing hardships of peasantry due to increasing revenue demand and
Bengal Famine of 1770, restriction imposed to visit holy places
• Equal participation of Hindus and Muslims
• Important leaders-Manju Shah, Musa shah, Bhawani pathak and Debi
• Choudarani Bankim Chandra Chatterjee got inspiration from this – and
wrote Anandmath book.
ii) Rangpur Dhing:
• Illegal demands and harsh attitude by Company
And Revenue Collectors
• Rebels formed governments of their own ,
stopped paying revenues , insurrection charges
for rebellion expenses.
• Hindus and Muslims participated
• Leader- Dirjinarain in Rangpur and Dinajpur of Bengal
iii) Chuar Uprisings:
• Midnapur district- famine, enhanced land revenue demands and
economic distress
• Organised in 1768 by rajas of Dhalbhum, Kailapal , Dholka and Barabhum
• Rebellion continued till 1816
iv) Ho and Kol Rising:
• Chotanagpur and Shinghbhum region by Ho and Munda tribes
resented transfer of land to outsiders
• It happened from 1820 to 1837
v) Santhal Hool:
• Inhabitants of Rajmahal hills were ill treated by Revenue officials, oppression
by Police, exaction by Landlords and Money lenders
• Lands were leased out to outsiders
• Usurious interests on loan money,false measures in market and willful trespass
• Leaders- Sidhu and Kanhu
• In 1856 the situation was brought under control by creating Santhal Pargana
vi) Ahom’s Revolt:
• British refused to fulfill pledges of withdrawal of Ahom territory following
conclusion of First Burmese war
• British tried to incorporate Ahom into its dominion
• 1828- Gomdhar Konwar declared as Ahom king
• In 1833 company followed a Pacific Policy handing over Upper Assam to
Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra and some restored to Assamese Raja
vii) The Khasi Uprising:
• Hill region in Meghalaya occupied by English
• Planned a Military road linking Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet
• Leader- Tirat Singh Ruler of Nucklow region protested with support of
Garos, Khamptis and Singhpos
• It was suppressed in 1833
viii) Bhuyan and Juang Rebellion:
• Bhuyans of Keonjhar (Orissa) joined by Juangs and kals against installation of
British protégé in the throne in 1867
• 1867-68, leader- Ratna Nayak
• 1891-93, leader Dharani Dhar Nayak, forced King to take Protection of Cuttack
ix) Pagal panthis:
• Semi-Religious sect founded by Karam Shah in Bengal
• Karam Shah’s Son Tipu took up the cause of Tenants against Zamindars
• In 1825 Tipu assumed Royal power after capturing Sherpur
• It spread to Garo Hills and disturbed till 1840s

Resistance in Western India

i) The Bhil Uprising:
• Aboriginals of Western Ghats revolted against East India Company
• Due to Agrarian hardships and fear of Worst under New Regime
• 1825, Leader- Sewaram
ii) The Koli Uprisings:
• Against new administrative set up causing unemployment
• Rose in arms and demolished forts
• Rebelled thrice- 1829,1839 and in 1844-45
iii) Kachch Rebellion:
• 1819, Conflict between Ruler Rao Bharmal and Pro-Jhajera Chiefs where
Bharmal was defeated
• British set up a Council of Regency and made British Resident as head
• Anti-British sentiments, administrative innovations,
 excessive assessment of land
• Erupted again in 1931
iv) Waghera Rising:
• Exactions of Gaekwad of Baroda supported by British is the sore point
• 1820-peace treaty was signed
v) Surat Salt agitation:
• Rise in Salt duty in 1844
• Anti-British Spirit and attack on Europeans
• Withdrawl of salt levy ,standards and measures by British
due to Passive Resistance and Boycott
vi) Ramosi Uprising:
• Ramosi Hill tribes against British Rule and its Pattern
• Leader- Chittur Singh revolted and plundered around Satara
• 1840-41, Desposition of Raja Pratap Singh by British –resentment
vii) Kohlapur and Savantvadi Revolts:
• 1844, Administrative Reorganisation and disbanding of Gadkaris
and unemployment
• Leader- Phond Sawant,Maratha Chief
• Rebels were captured

Resistance in South India

i) Revolt of Vizianagaram:
• Company’s acquisition of Northern Sarkars in 1765-Raja of Vizianagaram
revolted
• Company demanded costly presents, disbanding of
 troops, annexation of his estate
ii)Poligars Revolt:
• Poligars of Malabar ,North Arcot and Dindigul rebelled against new land
revenue system
• Continued till 1856
iii) Velu Thambi’s Revolt:
• 1805, Travancore did not pay subsidy under subsidiary alliance and
fell into arrears
• British Resident’s overbearing attitude created resentment
• Diwan Velu thambi revolted with support of Nair Battalion
• Peace was restored
iv) Rampa Revolt:
• 1879, Hill tribes in Coastal Andhra revolted against Mansabdars and Restrictive
Forest Regulations
• 1880, Military Operation to crush the Rebels

Resistance in North India

i) Kuka Revolt:
• Founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal in Western Punjab in 1840
• Transformed from Religious purification Campaign to Political movement
• Tenets- abolition of Caste and discrimination among Sikhs, discourage eating of
meat, taking of alcohol and drugs and encouraging women to
step out of Seclusion
• 1872, leader Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon
Muslim Reaction:
Company began to substitute its own rules , definitions
and penalties for those of the Sharia
i) The Wahabi Movement:
• Caused a politico-religious ferment among Muslims
• It is a Jihad to convert dar-ur –Harb to dar-ul-Islam
• Period-1830-60-challenged British supremacy though did not call
for open resistance
• Leader- Saiyid Ahmad of Rae Bareilly

• Core of his followers

formed military band of
fighters
• 1826, Jihad against Sikh
Ruler Ranjith Singh
• They followed the
traditions of Shah-Wali-
Allah
• Centers- Main –Patna and had its missions in Madras, Hyderabad, Bengal,
United province and Bombay
• In 1880s they lost importance, at no stage established a nationalist movement
instead left a legacy of isolationist and separatist tendencies among Muslims
ii) Faraizi Movement:
• Contemporary to Wahabi Movement
• Concerned with daily struggle of Muslim cultivators-the Faraizi
• Leader- Hajji Shariat Allah in Bengal
• 1821, began to preach revolutionary messages ,Religious Purification
• He observed Muslims to observe the duties as laid
• down in Quran and Sunna and maintain God’s Unity
• Faraizi could not believe or practice any action of unbelief
• His son, Dadu Miyan turned to Social and Political Militancy
• Against Hindu landlords, New class of European Indigo Planters,
levy of illegal cesses and permanent settlement
• Established a hierarchy of district commissioners called Khalifas at Village to
district levels and did underground operations
• The movement died on late 19th century due to death of Miyan, tenancy
legislation and internal confusions
iii) Titu Mir’s Revolt:
• In 24 Parganas of Bengal
• Started as Islam Purification Movement but more Violent
• Directed followers to grow beard and tie dhoties in a distinctive fashion
• Slaughtered a cow in street and defiled its blood in a temple
• Resulted in open warfare between zamindars and Titu Mir
• November 1831, British Killed Titu Mir and 50 of his followers in
Nakulbaria village and crushed the movement
Iv) Mappila uprisings:
• Descendants of Arab settlers or converted Hindus mostly Cultivating tenants,
landless labourers , petty traders and fishermen
• Concerned with land revenue administration, transfer of Janmi from traditional
partnership to independent owner of land and right of eviction
• Rebel against British and landlords – 22 Uprisings between 1836-54
• British failed to subdue them for many years
Implications of Muslim Reactions:
• The reform movements transformed the Indian Muslim Community from an
aggregate believers into a political association
• Responded passionately to the call of religion in Politics
• They appealed to the humbler strata of Muslim Society like Lower-Middle class
• They rejected Medieval Islam in India and Favoured early Islam in Arabia
• Added a communal tinge
• They made to feel India not as a home but a mere habitat
• Muslims were made aware that they did not share with Non-Muslim neighbours
• Upper class Hindus and Muslims gave up their shared interests in art and culture
• Before 1857, British policies were Community blind and regarded Muslims
as Most gentlemanly and well mannered
• After 1857, British believed Muslims as fanatical and irreconcilable

Military Revolts Before 1857

Causes:
• Discrimination in pay and promotion
• Mistreatment of the sepoys by English officers
• Refusal to pay foreign service allowance while fight in remote regions
• Religious objects of the high caste Hindu sepoys to
General Service Enlistment Act (1856)
• Shared all discontents and grievances of civilian population
• 1806, Vellore, replacement of the turban by a leather blockade
• 1824, Barrackpore, asked to go Burma, crossing Sea would meant loss of Caste
• 1844, Bengal, for being sent to faraway Sindh
Nature:
• Locally spread, ruthlessly crushed
• Inflicting terrible violence ,executing leaders and disbanding regiments
• Legacy proved immense significance
Nature and Limits of Movement before 1857:
Pro-British ideas:
• problem of law and orders
• primitive savages resisting Civilisation
Nationalist view: Anti-Colonial struggle and struggle of Oppressed people
Leaderships:
• little scope for leadership
• devolved upon men and women who were within the cultural world of
Peasants and Tribals
Socio-Political Consciousness:
• certain level, often attacked Courts (kacheries)
• sometimes go beyond immediate grievances, e.g.: Mappila
Nature:
• Highly localised and isolated and drew strength from Ethnic and religious ties
• limited impact at national level
• established a valuable tradition of local resistance to Authoritarianism
 Resistance Movements After 1857
i) Indigo Revolt:
• Indigo Planters were Europeans forcing peasants to accept advances of
money and compelled to cultivate Indigo in their best lands
• Peasants were subjected to floggings, attacks on women and children, burning
And demolition of houses by goons and cheated cultivators with lower prices
• Hem Chandra Ker, deputy magistrate misinterpreted a report in 1859, saying
ryots can cultivate crops of their wish
• Leaders- Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas and Ryots used legal rights of
raising money to fight court cases
• Planters experienced the unified assaults and closed factories
• By 1860, indigo plantation was wiped off from Bengal
• Demonstrated complete unity and participation of Bengal intelligentsia
like Harish Chandra Mukherjee, editor of Hindoo Patriot
ii) Pabna Uprisings:
• 1870-80, zamindars in East Bengal increased rent beyond legal limits and used
coercive methods to prevent tenants from acquiring occupancy rights
under Act X of 1859
• Peasants formed Agrarian league in Yusufsahi Pargana in 1873
• Ryots refused to pay the rent ,collected money to fight zamindars in courts
• Legal resistance, non- violent,Hindu Muslim unity, no Anti-British demands
• Official action based on the Indian Penal Code
• Intellectuals- Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C.Dutt and Indian
Association under Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose
iii) Poona and Ahmadnagar Riots:
• Ryotwari system in Maharashtra
• Peasants brought under clutches of Money lenders , fall of cotton prices after
American Civil War in 1864
• Land revenue was increased by 50% and had succession of bad harvest
• Peasants boycott the money lenders socially, later
attacked money lenders house and burnt
• The movement is a short lived with limited objectives
and no Anti-Colonial Sentiments
• British helped with Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act of 1879
• Intelligentsia- Poona Sarvajanik Sabha under Justice Ranade
iv) Ulgulan of Birsa Munda :
• Ranchi in 1899 witnessed usurpation of their joint
holding of their land by Jagirdars
• Missionaries and Contractors are promising help but doing nothing
• Fight against landlords and forced labourers in court were unsuccessful
• Birsa urged followers to kill outsiders
• Rebels were defeated at Sail Rakab hills on 1900
• Birsa was captured and died in jail
• Chottanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 restored the joint holding rights and
banning forced labour
• Birsa- full fledged nationalist and a prophet of a separatist Jharkhand
v) Phadke’s Protest:
• Short-lived alliance between intelligentsia nationalism and plebeian militancy
• By Vasudev Balwant Phadke in Maharashtra in 1879
• Inspired by Ranade’s speech on drain of wealth, Bengal Famine and Hindu
revivalist mood
• Dreamt of re-establishing Hindu Raj
• Aimed to form a secret band , collect money by armed robberies and
start an armed revolt by disrupting communications
• Phadke was captured and sentenced to life
• Mantle was taken by Daulata Ramoshi who remained active till 1883
Limitations of the Revolts:
• Instinctive and spontaneous with limited territorial reach
• No continuity of struggle and short-lived
• Peasant did not challenge British Supremacy nor claimed land ownership
and fight landlordism
• did not object to paying legitimate interests on loans taken
• Lacked understanding of colonialism, colonial economic structure and the state
• They did not possess a new ideology and fought with old societal order
• No positive conception of an alternative society and no idea of All India struggle
• Repeated famines of 1870s and 1890s
 Great Revolt of 1857
Causes for the Revolt:
i) Military Background:
• Replacement of old musket Brown Bess with the new Enfield rifle which
has longer range and greater accuracy
• It was alleged that grease used were made of pig or cow fat
• Innovation such as messing system in jail, compulsory shaving and enlistment
order of 1856
• Sepoys suspected that government intended to force them to
embrace Christianity
• Discipline in the army was suffered after Afghan war
• Question of pay and prospects
• Government refused to pay 2 rupees each month as travelling expense
• Sepoys were previously mercenaries and couldn’t identify them with a regime,
they expressed selfrespect by fanatical devotion of traditional customs
• Sepoys saw insult to their customs
• Most of the Bengal recruits were from Awadh and NWFP who were high caste
did not like to be treated on par with low- caste recruits
• Sepoys were not paid extra bhatta for fighting in foreign territories
• They were nostalgic of rewards they receive from Indian rulers for their merits
• British suffered reverses in Afghan, Crimea and Persian War generated
a seditious mind in sepoys
• Dalhousie proposed to reduce number of Indian sepoys
• Paucity and ill deployment of British troops sepoys
 declared unfit were not allowed to retire with pension
• Post office act of 1854 withdrew the privilege of free postage enjoyed by sepoys
ii) Socio-religious and Political Background:
• Reactions to innovation in traditional Indian Society introduced by British
• Social reforms created ambivalence among people towards old orthodox order
• Missionary activities against early marriage, purdah system, proselytistaion
and legislation to suppress superstitious practices
• Religious disabilities act of 1850 modified Hindu customs
• British reinforced themselves as faithless people
• Proclamation of Begum Hazrat Mahal articulated the fears and anger of
sepoys and masses to rise
• British’s Offensive assumptions of superiority with insult, threats and hatred
towards Indians
• European jurists acquit European criminals with light or no punishment
• Annexation of native states by Subsidiary alliance, Doctrine of lapse
• Falsehood and deceit practiced in annexation , discontinuance of Royal pensions
and Absentee Sovereigntyship
iii) Economic Background:
• In 1833-42 a new land settlement system was introduced in NWFP by Lord
Bentinck called Proprietors of the soil who were agents of Government
• Revenue for settlement was so high like 5/6th of gross rental in 1822 and
reduced to 2/3rd in 1833
• Elimination of landed classes
• Landed rights and interests were were sold for petty debts to strangers
• Confiscation of Rent-free estates by Inam Commission from 1852 to 1857,
Ulemas and maulavis suffered a lot
• Heavy assessment and increased duties with taxes on Opium and duties on
ferries and other communication convenience along with rise in prices
• Deprivation of Indian Handicrafts industry by political power
• Azamgarh proclamation on the oppression of infidel and treacherous English
Course of the Revolt:
• Early signs at Dum Dum, Calcutta ,were sepoys refused to use greased cartridges
of Enfield rifle who were punished
• Native Infantry at Barrackpore destroyed Telegraphic lines on Jan 26, 1857
• Mangal Pandey of 34th native infantry at Barrackpore attacked
and fired the adjutant and refused to use greased cartridges
• On may 9 , native cavalry of Meerut were tried in court martial for refusal of
using Greased cartridges and sentenced to 10 years of hard labour
• On May 10, the sepoys mutinied and released fellow sepoys and headed to Delhi
• On May 11 Mutineers proclaimed Bahadhur Shah II as the Emperor of
Hindustan and Europeans were massacred
• Then it spread throughout North and Central Indian Regions like Lucknow,
Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareilly, Bihar, Jhansi and other parts
• Many Indian soldiers remained loyal to British and rendered service in
suppressing rebellion and South India remained untouched
 Phases of Revolt
First phase: Preventing Mutiny and Recovering
Delhi:
• British realised that to break the back of revolt had to destroy the rebel
stranglehold of Delhi
• General Anson after two months of fighting stormed the city in September
and after 6 days of fighting Bahadhur Shah Surrendered
• Recovery of Delhi meant the suppression of mutiny was only a matter of time
• Allahabad was occupied by colonel Neill
• Nana Sahib of Kanpur was joined by Tantia tope , later Kanpur was occupied
by Colonel Campbell on December .Tantia tope escaped and joined Rani Jhansi
Second phase: recovery of Lucknow
• Recovery of Lucknow by Colin Campbell and defeated Tantia Tope at
Gwalior, guerilla resistance continued
Third Phase: Central Indian Campaign
• Troops at Jhansi mutinied on June 1857
• Jhansi was captured by Sir Hugh Rose on April 1858
• Rani Lakshmi bhai and Tantia marched to Gwalior but Sindhiya remained
loyal to British
• Peshwa Nana Saheb joined Rani Lakshmi bhai and marched to south
• Gwalior was captured on 1858 where Jhansi Rani died fighting and Tantia Tope
was captured by feudatories of Sindhiya in 1859
Suppression and Impact of Revolt:
• Kunwar Singh landlord of Arrah in Bihar died of wounds
• Rani Lakshmi bhai died in combat
• Bahadhur Shah was tried by a court martial and exiled to Rangoon, Burma
where he died in 1862
• Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal fled to Nepal
• Tantia Tope was hanged
• Maulavi Ahmadullah was killed in an armed encounter with Pro-British Raja at
Shahjahanpur
• Leaders were not equipped with Character or training to bear the burden
• Bahadhur shah had little knowledge of rebellion and
he remained weakest in the link
• Nana Saheb has no political or military experience and inefficient as commander
• Lakshmi bhai was revered for her personal strength
but not for her ability as a military leader
• Tantia tope and Kunwar Singh were able strategists
but functioned within narrow ambit and limited influence on struggle
• Leaders fought for diverse purpose and had no unifying political ideology
• Failure of revolt killed the idea of resistance among
people and easily returned to British rule
• Sepoys went back to serving British and fought loyally in wars
• Educated Indians have no faith in armed rebellion influenced by western
political ideas and by British liberalism
• Gave a legacy for armed rebellion during first world war
• Delhi lost its semi- independence and attached to Punjab
• Princes who supported rebels lost theirs states
• Muslims suffered the worst
• Indians at the receiving end of British racism and suffered insults, humiliation
and contemptuous treatment
• Psychological gulf widened with spirit of superiority and social pride
• Philosophy of white man’s burden and civilizing role of England
Reorganisation after 1857
i) Political Reorganisation:
• Techniques of controlling India during revolt were uniformly acted upon
• Reactionary and vested interest were well protected
and encouraged and made into pillars of British rule
• Tight European control over key positions
• Abolition of East India Company and transfer of Government of India to Crown
• Competitive examinations broken the director’s monopoly over appointments
• New post of Secretary of state along with a Council of 15 members were
established abolishing Court of directors and Board of Control ending
double government
• Machinery and the men were same but Viceroy added prestige to the post
• Emphasis was given to avoid mistakes and appease the old classes of society
• No territorial extension and conversion to Christianity
ii)Administrative changes:
• Increasing bureaucratic character , Indian Civil Service became
steel frame of British
• Indian Civil Service act 1861, repealed the provision of Charter Act 1793 of
promotion based on seniority closing the scope for Indians
• First Indian to pass Civil Service exam is Satyendhranath Tagore
• It was introduced to built a machinery marked by industry, efficiency
and incorruptibility
• It was later impaired with sense of proportion, intolerance to criticism, red
tapism, slow and callous with no innovation
iii) Judicial Reorganisation:
• 1861, High Courts were established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
having both appellate and original Jurisdiction
• Ramesh Chandra Mitra –first Indian to officiate as Chief Justice of
Calcutta High Court
• Till 1952, no Indians became Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court
iv) Reorganisation of Army:
• Three presidencies had their own army which encouraged Local Patriotism
called as Presidency Sentiment which was continued
• Company’s European troops came under Crown who were given New terms
• Indian Army was reorganised to fix 50-50 in Bengal army and two to one
in other presidencies
• Indian Artillery was disbanded
• Adopted class system of Community regiments
• Rajputs and Brahmans of UP were reduced and Sikhs, Gurkhas, Punjabis and
Pathans were increased and south regiments were also reduced
V) Economic Policies and Consolidation:
• Act of 1858 treated revenues of India as single fund and distributed
to Local governments
• Became extremely rigid and over centralised hence provincial governments
were not motivated to increase income
• In 1859 James Wilson remodeled the system of Financial Administration
• His recommendations were income tax for five years, practice of
annual budgets and statements of accounts
• Samuel Liang made uniform tariff of 10%, convertible paper currency and
addition of salt duty
• In 1864 Annual deficit disappeared
• 1870, during Mayo took step towards granting provincial governments a
greater say in Public Expenditure
vi) Relations with Princes:
• Loyal chiefs were rewarded and made them Subordinate Partners rather
than dependent chiefs
• British India and territories of states will constitute a single unit under
British Crown
• Their territories were guaranteed and right of adoption conceded
• Right of interference in state affairs
• Restoration of territories to the Princes
• Imperial Service Troops maintained and formally controlled by Princes and
trained by British Officers
The government promised Material progress ,it would not
endorse any larger aim of Selfgovernment
Extension of British Rule through Administrative Policy:
Subsidiary Alliance:
• It was used by Lord Wellesley from 1798- 1805 to build an empire in India
• Allying Indian State’s ruler was compelled to accept the permanent stationing of
British force within his territory and pay subsidy for its maintenance
• The ruler could n’t employ any Europeans in service without the
permission of British.
• It was first brought by French Governor Dupleix and many governors followed it
• First stage- offering help
• Second stage- British soldiers
• Third stage- service for money not for men
• Fourth stage- fees were fixed
Administrative Policy---SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
LORD WELLESLEY-1798- 1805
STATES-
• NIZAM OF HYDERABAD(1798 AND 1800)
• MYSORE(1799)
• TANJORE(1799)
• AWADH(1801)
• PESHWA(1801)
• BHONSLE(1803)
• SINDHIA(1804)
• RAJPUTS(1818)
• HOLKARS(1818)
Policy of Ring Fence:
• Period of Warren Hastings, British encountered powerful combination of
Marathas, Mysore and Hyderabad
• The policy aimed at creating buffer zones to defend company’s frontiers
• Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance is an extension of Ring Fence Policy
• It reduced the Indian States into a position of dependence on the
British government
Policy of Ring Fence---WARREN HASTINGS(1773-85):
• AWADH MADE AGAINST AFGHAN INVASIONS
• AGAINST INVASIONS OF MARATHA AND MYSORE
• PROTECT BENGAL
Doctrine of Lapse:
• The plan was attributed to Dalhousie but he is not its originator
• The adopted son can be the heir to his foster
Father’s private property and not the State
• It was stated to be bestowed on Indian Customs and
Hindu laws but there is no proof
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh annexed few of his feudatory principalities on
account of lapse
• Awadh was annexed by Dalhousie on account of Mis-governance, it was a
political blunder for which British had to pay a heavy price during the
Revolt of 1857
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE --- LORD DALHOUSIE(1848-56)
STATES:
• SATARA(1848)
• JHANSI(1854)
• NAGPUR(1854)
• JAIPUR
• SAMBHALPUR
• BAGHAT
• AWADH(1856)
Land Settlement Methods During British Rule:
Z amindari System:
• Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through
Permanent Settlement Act.
• It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.
• Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
• Zamindars were recognized as owner of the lands.
• Zamindars were given the rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
• The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to
Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India Company.
Ryotwari System:
• Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820.
• Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam and
Coorg provinces of British India.
• In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants.
British Government collected taxes directly from the peasants.
• The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50%
where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.
Mahalwari System:
• Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during the period of William Bentick.
• It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab,
Gangetic Valley, etc. of British India.
• The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari System and
Ryotwari System.
• In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprises one or
more villages.
• Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.
• The villages committee was held responsible for collection of the taxes.