GOA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

“BHAUSAHEB BANDODKAR TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMPLEX"

FARMAGUDI, PONDA- GOA - INDIA

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
S.E.(COMPUTER) SEM-IV
RELATIONS/EQUIVALENCE/PARTIAL ORDER
RELATIONS

DEVELOPED BY MATHEMATICS FACULTY

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & HUMANITIES
GOA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 EQUIVALENCE/PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS

TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
➢ RELATIONS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

➢ PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

➢ EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE CLASSES

➢ PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS

➢ HASSE DIAGRAM

➢ EXTREMAL ELEMENTS OF A POSET

➢ LATTICES
 RELATIONS
Relation:
The concept of relation is used in relating two objects or quantities with each other. Suppose two
sets are considered, the relationship between them will be established if there is a connection
between the elements of two or more non-empty sets.
Mathematically, “a relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian product A × B
obtained by describing a relationship between the first element x and the second element y of the
ordered pairs in A × B”.
A relation R from A to A is also stated as a relation on A, and it can be said that the relation on a set
A is a subset of A × A. Thus, the empty set φ and A × A are two extreme relations.
Types of Relations
• Empty Relation: If no element of A is related to any element of A, i.e. R = φ ⊂ A × A, then the
relation R in a set A is called empty relation.
• Universal Relation: If each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e. R = A × A, then the
relation R in set A is said to be universal relation.
• Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes called trivial relations
• If (a,b) ∈ 𝑅 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 "a is related to b by R "also written as a R b.
 RELATIONS
• Example 1: Let A = {1,2,5} and B ={2,4}
Define a relation R from A to B as “a R b” if a < b
R = {(1,2), (1,4), (2,4)}

• Example 2: Let A = {2,3,4}

Define a relation R on A as “a R b if a divides b”. (a|b)
R = {(2,2), (2,4),(3,3),(4,4)}

• Example 3: Let A = {(1,2,3)

Define a relation R on A by (a,b)∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏
R = {(1,1), (2,2),(3,3),(1,2), (1,3),(2,3)}

• Note: If a set A has m elements and set B has n elements, then the number of
relations from A to B is 2𝑚×𝑛 .
 RELATIONS
Domain and range of a relation:
Let R be a relation from A to B.
domain R = {a∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
Range R = {b ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴}.
Note: dom R ⊆ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐵

Example 1: Let A = {(2,3,4) and B = {3,4,5,6)

Define a relation R from A to B by (a,b)∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏
R = {(2,4), (2,6),(3,3),(3,6), (4,4)}
domain R= {2,3,4} ⊆ 𝐴
range R = {3,4,6} ⊆ 𝐵

𝑛 2
Note: If A has n elements, then the number of relations on A is 2 .
 RELATIONS
Properties of relations:
1. Reflexive relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if (a,a) ∈ 𝑅 for all a ∈ 𝐴.
2. Irreflexive relation: A relation R on set A is said to be irreflexive if (a,a) ∉ 𝑅 for any a ∈ 𝐴.
3. Symmetric relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric if (b,a) ∈ 𝑅 whenever
(a,b) ∈ 𝑅 for (a,b) ∈ 𝐴.
4. Asymmetric relation: A relation R on a set A is called asymmetric if (b,a) ∉ 𝑅 whenever
(a,b) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.
5. Antisymmetric relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be antisymmetric if whenever (a,b)∈ 𝑅
and (b,a) ∈ 𝑅, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑏.
6. Transitive relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if whenever (a,b) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴.
2 −𝑛
Note: (i)The no. of reflexive relations on a finite set A with n elements is 2𝑛 .
𝑛2 +𝑛
(ii) The number of symmetric relations on a finite set with n elements is 2 2 .
 RELATIONS
Example 1: Consider the following relations on A ={1,2,3,4}
R1 = {(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,1), (4,4)}
R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R3 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,4), (2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}
R4 = {(2,1),(3,1), (3,2),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3)}
R5 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}
R6 = {(3,4)}
Which of the above relations are reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric, antisymmetric and
transitive?
Solution: Reflexive :R3 , R5
Irreflexive: R4 , R6
Symmetric : R2, R3
Antisymmetric: R4,R5,R6
Transitive: R4,R5,R6
• R1 is not transitive because (3,4) ∈ 𝑅 1 and (4,1)∈ 𝑅 1⇏ 3,1 ∈ 𝑅 1
• R2 is not transitive because (2,1) and (1,2) ∈ 𝑅 2 ⇏ 2,2 ∈ 𝑅 2
• R3 is not transitive because (4,1) and (1,2)∈ 𝑅 3 ⇏ 4,2 ∈ 𝑅3
 RELATIONS
Example 2: Consider the following relations on the set of integers :
R1= {(a,b)|a≤ 𝑏}
R2 = {(a,b)|a > b}
R3 = {(a,b)|a=b}
R4 = {(a,b)|a=b or a= -b}
R5 = {(a,b) | a= b +1}
R6 = {(a,b) |a+b ≤ 3}
Solution: Reflexive: R1,R3, R4
Irreflexive: R2, R5
Symmetric: R3, R4, R6
Asymmetric: R2 , R5
Antisymmetric: R1,R2, R3 , R5
Transitive: R1,R2, R3 , R4
 RELATIONS
Representation of relations:
Relation matrix: If A = {a1 , a2 ……..an } is a finite set containing n elements and R is a
relation on A, then we can represent R by a n x n matrix, denoted by MR = [mij ]n x n
where
mij = 1 𝑖𝑓 (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑗 ) ∈ 𝑅
= 0 if (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑗 ) ∉ 𝑅
Example: Let A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4}
Let R be a relation on A given by :
R= {(a1, a1 ),(a1 , a4 ), (a2 , a2 ),(a2 , a3 ), (a3 , a1 ), (a3, a3), (a4 , a1 ), (a4 , a4 )}
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
The relation matrix of R is : 𝑀𝑅 =
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
 RELATIONS
Directed graph (digraph):
Let R be a relation on a finite set A. Draw a small circle for each element of A and label the circle
with the corresponding element of A. These circles are called vertices or nodes. Draw an arrow,
called an edge, from vertex a to vertex b iff (a,b) ∈ 𝑅. An element (a,a) ∈ 𝑅 corresponds to a
directed edge from a to a . Such an edge is called a loop. The resulting pictorial representation of R
is called a directed graph or digraph of R.

Example: Let A= {1,2,3,4} and R be a relation on A given by:

R = {(1,1), (1,3),(2,1),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1), (3,2), (4,1)}
 RELATIONS
Example: Find the ordered pairs in the relation R representation by the digraph
shown below:

A= {1,2,3,4}
R = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,3),(4,1),(4,3)}
 RELATIONS
• Operations on relations:
Let R1 and R2 be two relations from A to B. Then,
1. R1 ∪ 𝑅2 = {(a,b) ∈ 𝐴 x B : (a,b) ∈ R1 or (a,b) ∈ 𝑅 2 }
2. R1∩ 𝑅2 = {(a,b) ∈ A x B : (a,b) ∈ R1 and (a,b) ∈ R2 }
3. 𝑅ത 1 = {(a,b) ∈ A x B: (a,b) ∉ R1 }
4. 𝑅1 – R2 = {(a,b): (a,b) ∈ R1 and (a,b) ∉ R2 }
5. 𝑅2 – R1 = {(a,b): (a,b) ∈ R2 and (a,b) ∉ R1 }
6. R1 ⊕ R2 = {(a,b): (a,b)∈ 𝑅1 or (a,b) ∈ R2 and (a,b) ∉ R1∩ 𝑅2}

• Inverse relation: Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse relation denoted by

R-1 is a relation from B to A. defined by R-1 = {(b,a): (a,b) ∈ 𝑅 }
 RELATIONS
Example: Suppose A={a,b,c,d} and B={1,2,3}.
Let R and S be two relations from A to B given by
R={(a,1),(b,2),(c,3),(d,1)} and S={(a,1),(b,1),(c,1),(d,1)}. Then
a. 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆= {(a,1),(b,2),(c,3),(d,1),{(b,1),(c,1)}
b. R ∩ 𝑆={(a,1),(d,1)}
c. 𝑅ത = {(a,2),(a,3),(b,1),(b,3),(c,1),(c,2),(d,2),(d,3)}
d. R – S={(b,2),(c,3)}
e. S – R={(b,1),(c,1)}.
f. R ⊕ S={(b,1),(c,1),(b,2),(c,3)}.
g. R-1= { (1,a),(2,b),(3,c),(1,d)}
 RELATIONS
Composition of relations:
Let R1 be a relation from A to B and R2 be a relation from B to C. The composition of
R1 and R2 denoted by R2 ∘ R1 is defined as :
R2 ∘ R1= {(a,c): a ∈ A, c ∈ 𝐶 and ∃ b ∈ B s.t (a,b) ∈ R1 and (b,c)∈ 𝑅2}

Example: Let R1 be a relation from the set A={1, 2, 3} to the set B={1,2,3,4} and R2
be a relation from the set B={1,2,3,4} to the set C={0,1,2} given by
R1 ={(1,1),(1,4),(2,3),(3,1),(3,4)}
R2 ={(1,0),(2,0),(3,1),(3,2),(4,1)}
R2 ∘ R1 ={(1,0),(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(3,0),(3,1)}
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Equivalence Relation:
A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
i.e. (a,a) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
(a,b)∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 𝑏, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
(a,b)∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 ⟹ 𝑎, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅

Example 1: Let A be the set of all triangles and R be the relation “is similar to” or “~ "
Let ∆1, ∆2, ∆3 be three triangles in A.
(i) ∆1 ~ ∆1
(ii) ∆1 ~ ∆2⟹∆2 ~ ∆1
(iii) ∆1 ~ ∆2 and ∆2 ~ ∆3 ⟹ ∆1 ~ ∆3
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.

Example 2: Let A= {1,2,3,4}

R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3), (4,4),(1,2),(2,1)
R is an equivalence relation.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Example 3: Let R = {(a,b)| a=b} be a relation on the set of integers. R is an equivalence relation.
(i) Since a = a, ∀a ∈ 𝑍, R is reflexive
(ii)If a=b, then b=a, ∴ 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
(iii) a=b and b=c ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑐 , ∴ R is transitive

Note: Let A be a non empty finite set. Then, R = {(a,b)|a=b } (identity relation) and R=A x A
(universal relation) are two trivial equivalence relations on the set A.
Definition: If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer , then we say, “ a is congruent to b
modulo m” and write as a≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 if ‘m divides a-b’ (i.e m|a-b ).

Example 4: Show that the relation R= {(a,b): a≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 } is an equivalence relation on the set of
integers.
Solution: Since m|a-a=0
a ≡ 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
∴ (a,a) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
∴ R is reflexive
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
• Let (a,b) ∈ 𝑅
⟹ a≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
⟹ m|𝑎 − 𝑏
Also (b-a)= -(a-b)
∴ m|b-a
∴ b≡ 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
∴ (b,a) ∈ 𝑅
∴ R is symmetric.

• Let (a,b), (b,c) ∈ 𝑅

⟹ a≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) and b≡ 𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
⟹ m 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑏 − 𝑐
∴ m|a-b + b-c
i.e m|a –c
∴ a ≡ 𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
⟹ (a,c) ∈ 𝑅
∴ R is transitive
Hence, R is an equivalence relation on Z.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Example 5: Let A be the set of non-zero integers and R be a relation on A x A
defined by : (a,b ) R (c,d) if ad=bc.
Show that R is an equivalence relation on A x A.
Solution: (i) (a,b)R(a,b) because ab=ba for all (a,b) ∈ A x A
∴ R is reflexive
(ii) Suppose (a,b) R (c,d)
∴ ad=bc
∴ bc=ad
∴ cb=da
∴ (c,d) R (a,b)
∴ R is symmetric
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
(iii)Let (a,b) R (c,d)and (c,d) R (e,f)

∴ ad=bc and cf=de

Multiplying: adcf=bcde

Cancelling out c and d , as c≠0 and d ≠ 0

af = be

∴ (a,b) R (e,f)

∴ R is transitive

∴ R is an equivalence relation on A x A
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Equivalence class: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The equivalence class of an element
a ∈ 𝐴 with respect to R is defined as:
[a]R = {x ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑅𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
If b ∈ [𝑎]R , b is called a representative of the equivalence class of a .
Quotient set: The collection of all distinct equivalence classes of elements of A under an equivalence
relation R is called the quotient of A by R and is denoted by A|R.
A|R = {[a]|a ∈ 𝐴 }
Example: Let A= {1,2,3,4} and Let R be an equivalence relation on A given by:
R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,2),(2,1)}
[1]= {1,2}
[2]= {1,2}= [1]
[3]= {3}
[4]= {4}
A|R= {[1],[3],[4]}= {{1,2}, {3},{4}}
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Properties of equivalence classes:
Let A be a non- empty set and R be an equivalence relation on A. Let (a,b) ∈ 𝐴 .Then,
(i) a ∈ [𝑎]
(ii) b ∈ [𝑎] ⟹ [a]=[b]
(iii) either [a] = [b] or [a] ∩ [𝑏]= Ø i.e. two equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint.
Proof: (i) Since R is reflexive , a R a , ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
∴ a ∈ [𝑎]
(ii) Let b ∈ [𝑎]
⟹bRa
Let x 𝜖 𝑎
⟹aRx
b R a and a R x ⟹b R x , since R is transitive
∴ x ∈ [𝑏]
∴ [a] ⊆ [𝑏] …………(i)
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Let y ∈ [b]
⟹yRb
y R b and b R a ⟹ 𝑦 𝑅 𝑎 , since R is transitive
∴ y ∈ [𝑎]
∴ [b] ⊆ [𝑎] …………..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), [a]=[b]
(iii)Suppose [a] ∩ 𝑏 ≠ Ø
⟹ ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎 ∩ [𝑏]
⟹ 𝑥 𝜖 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝜖 [𝑏]
⟹ 𝑎 𝑅 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑅 𝑥
⟹ a R x and x R b , since R is symmetric
⟹aRb
⟹ b ∈ [𝑎]
⟹ [a] = [b] from(ii)
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Example: Let R = {(a,b)|a ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)} be a relation defined on the set of integers. R is an equivalence relation.
Let a 𝜖 𝑍
[a] = {b:a ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5 } = {b : 5|a-b }
𝑎−𝑏
= {b : 5 = 𝑝 where p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {b: 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 5𝑝 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 ∈ 𝑍 }
= {a-5p, p ∈ 𝑍}
[0] = {-5p: p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {…………,-15,-10,-5,0,5,10,15, ……..}
[1] = {1-5p: p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {…….., -14,-9, -4,1,6,11,16, …….}
[2] = {2-5p: p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {……., -13,-8, -3, 2,7,12,17, …….}
[3] = {3-5p: p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {……., -12,-7,-2, 3,8,13,18, ……..}
[4] = {4-5p: p ∈ 𝑍 }
= {……, -11,-6, -1,4,9,14,19,…..}
[5]= [0]
[6]=[1]
Z| 𝑅 = { 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 }
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Example: Let A = {1,2,3,4}. Define a relation R on A x A by (a,b) R (c,d) if ad=bc. R is an
equivalence relation on A x A. Find all the distinct equivalence classes of A x A with respect
to R.
A x A = {(1,1), (1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4), (3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),
(4,1),(4,20,(4,3),(4,4)}
[(a,b)]= {(c,d) : ad=bc}
[(1,1)]= {(c,d): c=d}
= {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)}
[(1,2)]= {(c,d): d = 2c }
= {(1,2), (2,4)}
[(1,3)]= {(c,d): d=3c }
= {(1,3)}
[(1,4)]= {(1,4)}
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
[(2,1)]= {(2,1),(4,2)}
[(2,3)]= {(2,3)}
[(3,1)] = {(3,1)}
[(3,2)]= {(3,2)}
[(3,4)]= {(3,4)}
[(4,1)]= {(4,1)}
[(4,3)]= {(4,3)}
A x A | R = {[(1,1)],[(1,2)],[(1,3)], [(1,4)], [(2,1)],[(2,3)], {(3,1)], [(3,2)],[(3,4)],
{(4,1)], [(4,3)]}
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Partition:
Let A be a non–empty set. Suppose there exists non empty subsets A1, A2, …..Ak such that
(i) 𝐴 = ‫=𝑖𝑘ڂ‬1 𝐴𝑖
(ii) 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴𝑗 = ∅ 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
Then, P= {A1 , A2, ……Ak } is called the partition of the set A.
A1, A2,…, Ak are called blocks or cells of the partition.
Example: If A ={ 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
Let A1 = {1,3,5,7}, A2 ={2,4}, A3 = {6,8}
Then P = {A1, A2, A3} is a partition of A.
Theorem: If A is a non-empty set and R is an equivalence relation on A, then the distinct
equivalence classes of A form a partition of A.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Theorem: If A is a non-empty set, then any partition of A gives rise to an equivalence relation on A.
Proof: Let P = {A1, A2, …….Ak} be a partition of A.
Define a relation R on A as:
a R b iff a and b belong to the same block.
(i) If a ∈ 𝐴 , then a is in the same block as itself.
∴ a R a ∴ R is reflexive
(𝑖𝑖) Let a R b. Then a and b are in the same block.
⟹ b and a are in the same block.
∴ b R a ∴ R is symmetric.
(iii) Let a R b and b R c.
Then a,b are in the same block and b,c are in the same block.
Hence, a and c are in the same block.
∴ a R c ∴ R is transitive.
∴ R is called an equivalence relation determined by P.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS
Example: For the equivalence relation, R = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,2),(2,1),(3,4),(4,3)} defined on
A ={1,2,3,4}. Determine the partition induced by R.
Solution: [1] = {1,2}
[2] = {1,2}
[3] = {3,4}
[4] = {3,4}
P = {[1],[3]}= {{1,2}, {3,4}}
Example: If P = {{1,3,5}, {2,4}} is a partition of the set A ={1,2,3,4,5}, determine the equivalence
relation determined by P.
Solution: Let A 1= {1,3,5} and A2 = {2,4}
Then : R= {A1 x A1 , A2 x A2}
= {(1,1), (1,3),(1,5),(3,1),(3,3),(3,5),(5,1),(5,3),(5,5),(2,2), (2,4),(4,2), (4,4)}
is an equivalence relation on set A.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Partial order relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be a partial ordering relation or a
partial order on A if R is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. The set A together with the
partial order R is called a partially ordered set or a poset and is denoted by the pair (A,R).

Example 1: The relation “less than or equal to” denoted by “≤ “ is a partial order on the
set of integers.
Since, a ≤ a , ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 , “≤ “ is reflexive.
If a ≤ 𝑏 and b ≤ 𝑎 ⟹ a = b ∴ “≤ “ is antisymmetric.
a≤ 𝑏 and b≤ 𝑐 ⟹ a ≤ c ∴ " ≤ “ is transitive.
∴ “ ≤ “ is a partial order and (Z,≤ ) is a poset.

Example 2: The relation “greater than or equal to “ denoted by “≥ “ is a partial order on

the set of integers.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 3: The subset relation “⊆ “ is a partial order on the power set P(A) of the
set A.
Since, X ⊆ X, ∀ X ∈ 𝑃(𝐴), “⊆” is reflexive.
Since, X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X ⟹ X = Y ∴ “⊆ “ is antisymmetric.
Since, X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ Z ⟹ X ⊆ Z ∴ “⊆ “ is transitive.
∴ “⊆ “ is a partial order and (P(A), ⊆ ) is a poset.

Example 4: The divisibility relation “I” is a partial order on the set of positive
integers. (Z+)
Since, a|a ∀ a ∈ 𝑍+, “I” is reflexive.
a|b and b |a ⟹ a = b , ∴ “I” is antisymmetric on Z+
a|𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏|𝑐 ⟹a|c , ∴ “I” is transitive on Z+
∴ “I” is a partial order on Z+ and (Z+, I) is a poset.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Definition: Two elements a and b of a poset (A,R) are said to be comparable if a R b or b R a.
Otherwise a and b are incomparable.
• If (A,R) is a poset and every two elements of A are comparable, then R is called a total order.
(A,R) is called a totally ordered set or linearly ordered set or a chain.
• Example: The partial order “≤ “ is a total order on Z , since for any x,y ∈ 𝑍 , we have
x ≤ 𝑦 or y ≤ x . Similarly, “≥ “ is a total order on Z.
• (Z+,I) is not totally ordered since, 3,5 ∈ 𝑍+ but 3|5 nor 5|3 .
• But If A = {1,2,6,12,24), then (A, I) is totally ordered.
• (P(A),⊆ ) is not totally ordered.
Example: Let A = {a,b}
P(A)= {Ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}
{a} ⊈ {b} nor {b} ⊆ {𝑎}
• Note: Every total order is a partial order, but not every partial order is a total order.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
• Product order:
Let (A,R1) and (B,R2) be two posets. On A x B, define the relation R by
(a,b) R (c,d) iff a R1c and b R2d. Then R is a partial order which is called a product order.
For any a ∈ A and b ∈ B
aR1a and b R2 b since R1 and R2 are reflexive
∴ (a,b) R (a,b)
∴ R is reflexive.
Let (a,b) and (a’,b’) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (a,b) R (a’,b’) and (a’,b’) R (a,b)
Then, a R1a’ and b R2 b’ and a’R1a and b’R2b
⟹ a = a’ and b = b’ since R1 and R2 are antisymmetric.
⟹ (a,b) = (a’, b’)
∴ R is antisymmetric.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Let (a,b) R (a’,b’) and (a’, b’) R (a’’, b’’)
⟹ a R1a’ and b R2 b’ and a’ R1 a’’ and b’ R2 b’’
a R1 a’ and a’ R1 a” ⟹ a R1a” since R1 is transitive
b R2 b’ and b’R2 b” ⟹b R2b” since R1 is transitive
∴ (a,b) R (a”, b”)
∴ R is transitive.
Hence R is a partial order on A x B.

Lexicographical order:
Let (A,R1) and (B,R2) be posets. Define a relation R on A x B as: (a,b) R (c,d)
iff either a R1 c or if a = c , then b R2 d. Then , R is a partial order which is
called lexicographical order on A x B.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Hasse diagram: simplified form of the digraph of a relation
1. The vertices in Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by
circles.
2. Since a partial order is reflexive, there is a loop at every vertex. In a
Hasse diagram, we drop the loops around the vertices.
3. Since, in a poset R is transitive i.e if a R b and b R c ⟹ a R c, we delete
the edge from a to c implied by transitive property.
4. We arrange the vertices such that all the arrows point upwards and then
drop the arrow heads.
5. The resulting diagram is called the Hasse diagram.

Definition: Let (A,R) be a poset and suppose (x,y) ∈ 𝐴. Then y is said to be an

immediate successor of x (y covers x ) if x R y and x R z and z R y ⟹ x = z or z=y We
write x < y .
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 1: Let A ={1,2,3,4} and R be the relation “less than or equal to” on A.
R = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}

2
1
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 2: Let A = { 2,3,6,12,24,36}. Define a relation R on A
as a R b if a|b. Draw Hasse diagram for the poset (A,R).

36 24

12

3 2
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 3;Let A be a finite set and P(A) be its power set. Let “ ⊆ “ be the subset (inclusion relation)
on P(A). Draw Hasse diagram for :
(i) A = {a}
P(A) = {Ø, {a}}
{a}

Ø
(ii) A = {a,b}
P(A)= {Ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}
{a, b}

{b} {a}

Ø
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
(iii) A ={a,b,c}
P(A)= {Ø, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a,b,c}}
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 4: Let A be the set of factors of 12. Define a relation R on A as a R b if a|b.
Draw Hasse diagram for the poset (A,R).
A = {1,2,3,4,6,12}
12

6 4

3 2

1
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 5: A = set of factors of 45. a R b if a|b. Draw Hasse diagram for the poset (A,R) where
A = {1,3,5,9,15,45}

45

15
9

5
3

1
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Extremal elements of a poset:
Maximal elements: An element a ∈ 𝐴 is called a maximal element of the poset (A,R) if there is no element c ∈
𝐴 such that a R c. i.e (no other element succeeds a)
Minimal elements: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of the poset (A,R) if there is no element c ∈ A
such that c R b. i.e no element preceeds b.

Note: (1) A poset may have more than one maximal element and more than one minimal elements.

(2) A poset need not have any maximal or any minimal element.
Example: (Z,≤ ): no maximal , no minimal
(3) A poset may have a maximal element but no minimal elements or a minimal element but no maximal elements.
Examples: (N, ≤ ) no maximal, minimal = 1
(Z-, ≥ ) : maximal = -1 , no minimal.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Greatest element: Let (A,R) be a finite non-empty poset. An element a ∈ 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 called a greatest element of A if
x R a ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Least element: Let (A,R) be a finite non-empty poset. An element b ∈ 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 called a least element of A if b R x
∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Note: The greatest element of a poset, if it exists is unique. Similarly, the least element, if it exists, is unique.
Examples: (i) (ii)
36 24
27
12
9
6
3
1
3 2

Greatest element : 27 =Maximal No Greatest element, No Least element

Least element : 1 =Minimal Maximal: 24,36
Minimal: 2,3
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
(iii) (v) 4 6
d

c 2 3 5

7
a b 1
Greatest= d = maximal, No least element No Greatest, Maximal = 4, 5, 6, 7
Minimal = a,b No least element, Minimal =1,7
(vi)
(iv)
c d f

d
b e
b
c
a
a
No Greatest, Maximal = c, d, Greatest= f = Maximal,
least element= a = Minimal Least = a =Minimal
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Let B be a subset of the poset (A,R).
Upper bounds : An element 𝑢 ∈ 𝐴 is called an upper bound of B if x R u, ∀ 𝑥 𝜖 𝐵. (𝑖. 𝑒. every
element of B is related to u.)
Lower bounds: An element 𝑙 ∈ 𝐴 Is called a lower bound of B if l R x , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. (i.e. l is related to
every element of B).
Least upper bound: An element u ∈ 𝐴 is called a least upper bound (Supremum or lub ) if
(i) u is an upper bound of B
(ii) u R u’ , where u’ is any other upper bound of B.

Greatest lower bound: An element l ∈ 𝐴 is called the greatest lower bound (infimum or glb) of B if
(i) l is a lower bound of B
(ii) l’ R l if l’ is any other lower bound of B.
Note: The lub and glb, if it exists, are unique.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 1: Let A= {a,b,c}
P(A)= {Ø, {a},{b},{c},{a,b},{a,c},{b,c},{a,b,c}}
Consider the poset (P(A),⊆)
(i) Let B ⊆ 𝑃 𝐴 given by B= { {b}, {c}, {b,c} }
Upper bounds of B = {b,c},{a,b,c}
Least upper bound(lub) of B = {b,c}
Lower bound of B = Ø
Greatest lower bound(glb) of B = Ø

(ii) Let C ⊆ P(A) given by C= {{c},{a,c}}

Upper bounds of C = {a,c},{a,b,c}
Least upper bound(lub) of C = {a,c}
Lower bounds of C = {c},Ø
Greatest lower bound(glb) of C = {c}
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example: Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} and “l” be the division relation on A. ( A, l) is a poset.
(i) Consider B= {2,7} . Then 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴
8
Upper bounds of B= does not exist
Lower bounds of B = 1= glb of B 9 6 4 10

5 7
(ii) Consider C= {2,3} 3
2
Upper bound of C = 6 = lub
Lower bound of C = 1 = glb 1

(iii) Consider D= {1,2,4}

Upper bounds of D=4,8
lub of D = 4
lower bounds of D= 1=glb
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 3: For the poset represented by the Hasse diagram, below.
h i

g f

d e

b c

` a
Find the least upper bounds and greatest lower bounds for:
(i) {b,d,g}
Lower bounds= b, a
glb = b
Upper bounds = g,h
lub = g
(ii) {b,d,e}
Lower bounds = b,a
glb=b
Upper bounds = f,I,h
lub = f
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Lattice: A lattice is a partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has a greatest lower
bound and least upper bound.
(L,≤ ) is a poset and a,b ∈ 𝐿.
lub {a,b}= a ⊕ 𝑏 or a v b (join of A and B)
glb (a,b) = a ∗ b or a ∧ 𝑏 (meet of A and B)

Example 1: Let A be any non empty set and P(A) be its power set. Then the poset (P(A),⊆ ) is a
lattice.
Let X , Y ∈ P(A)
lub {X,Y} = X ∪ 𝑌
glb {X,Y} = X ∩ 𝑌

Example 2: Consider (N, l) and let a,b ∈ N. (N, l)is a lattice.

lub {a,b} = LCM of a and b
glb {a,b} = GCD of a and b
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATIONS
Example 3: Explain why the posets given below are not lattices:
e f
e f
e d

d c
b d
c
b c

a b a a

(i) (ii) (iii)

(i) is not a lattice since glb{a,b} does not exists or lub {e,f} does not exists
(ii) is not a lattice since lub {b,d} does not exists
(iii) is not a lattice since lub {b,c} does not exists