Identify and explain one major similarity and one major contrast between the

revolutions of the North Atlantic (The United States, France, and Haiti) and the
revolutions of Latin America (Mexico and the South American countries).
While no one typically thinks of Haiti as a North Atlantic country, we are calling it
such today to differentiate their revolution from the revolts farther west in
countries south of the United States. One major similarity between the
revolutions of the North Atlantic and those of Latin America was that they were
all inspired by Enlightenment ideas and ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy.
The American, French, and Haitian revolutions sought to establish a new political
order based on these principles. The Latin American revolutions were not so lofty
as their primary goal was to overthrow the Spanish and Portuguese colonial
regimes and establish independent nation-states, but they justified their
revolutions upon the same ideals.
Yet, perhaps just as importantly, all the revolutions had negative economic
impacts. America faced a trade embargo from the British after their revolution,
France’s new government was in debt from staving off the British and helping the
Americans, and “Haiti was cut off from political and economic links that could
have played a vital role in its formation” which led to poverty. ( Lecture, week 1:
The age of Revolution.) Our lectures do not specifically address economic
concerns for the revolutions in Peru, Brazil, or Mexico, was because all wars are a
drain on local economies, it is not difficult to believe that these countries had
economies that suffered during the revolutions which left them impoverished and
then unable to benefit from any advancements from the Industrial revolution that
came on its heels. (Lecture week 2: Latin American Revolutions.)

One major contrast between the revolutions of the North Atlantic and those of
Latin America was the nature of the conflicts and the social classes involved. In
the North Atlantic, the revolutions were primarily fought by the elites and the
middle class against the colonial powers, with some support from the lower
classes. In contrast, the Latin American revolutions were largely led by the lower
classes, including indigenous peoples, slaves, and mestizos, who were
marginalized by the colonial system. These groups were motivated by a desire for
social and economic equality, as well as political independence, while the elites
saw independence as a means to secure their own power and wealth.
Another significant contrast was the outcome of the revolutions. In the North
Atlantic, the revolutions led to the establishment of stable democratic republics
that eventually became global powers. In contrast, the Latin American revolutions
led to the establishment of new independent nations, but these were often
plagued by political instability, authoritarian regimes, and socio-economic
inequality. While some Latin American countries eventually established
democratic systems, many others struggled with ongoing political instability and
economic underdevelopment for decades after their independence. A case in
point here is Brazil which, with its initial independence was an empire, only later
being downgraded to a simple nation. (Lecture, week 2: Latin America
Revolutions.)
______________________________________________________________________
What role did the Industrial Revolution play in inspiring modern political
movements like liberalism, nationalism, and socialism? Identify and explain two
examples of how the Industrial Revolution influenced developments in politics
related to at least two of those movements.
The Industrial Revolution played a significant role in inspiring modern political
movements like liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. It transformed societies
and economies, creating new social classes and economic relations, and
prompting new ideas and ideologies about politics, society, and the role of the
state. In Britain, though, the Industrial revolution was bloodless and “reshap[ed]
not just technology and economics but culture and society.” (Lecture, week 2:
Latin America Revolutions.)

One example of how the Industrial Revolution influenced the development of

modern political movements is in the rise of liberalism. Liberalism emerged as a
political and philosophical movement in response to the social and economic
changes brought about by industrialization. The emergence of the capitalist
market economy, with its emphasis on individual enterprise and private property,
challenged traditional feudal structures and established new norms of
individualism and freedom. As a direct consequence, industrialization had
“enormous impacts on almost every aspect of life, ultimately affecting every
person on the globe by the twentieth century.” (Lecture, week 2: Revolutions:
Latin American and Industrial) Liberals argued for the protection of individual
rights and freedoms, limited government intervention in economic affairs, and
the rule of law. The Industrial Revolution provided the context for the rise of
liberalism, as it stimulated the growth of a new middle class that demanded
political representation and an end to the traditional privileges of the aristocracy.
This was certainly most evident in the French Revolution.

Another example of how the Industrial Revolution influenced the development of

modern political movements is in the rise of socialism. Socialism emerged in
response to the social and economic inequalities and injustices created by
industrialization. The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the
capitalist class, and the exploitation of labor, led to a growing awareness of the
need for collective action and social justice. Socialists argued for the
redistribution of wealth and the collective ownership of the means of production,
as well as the establishment of democratic control over the economy and society.
The Industrial Revolution provided the context for the rise of socialism, as it
created a new working class that was exploited and marginalized by the capitalist
system.

In the context of nationalism, the Industrial Revolution played a role in shaping

national identities and the quest for political independence. Industrialization
facilitated the growth of a common national economy and culture, which created
a sense of shared identity among people of the same nation. Nationalist
movements emerged in response to the new forms of economic and cultural
unity created by industrialization, as people sought to establish independent
nation-states based on their shared identity.

In the context of socialism, the Industrial Revolution also played a role in inspiring
the development of labor unions and other forms of collective action. The
exploitation of labor by capitalists led to the growth of a new working class that
sought to organize and fight for their rights. The Industrial Revolution made it
possible for workers to form unions and other organizations that could advocate
for better wages, working conditions, and political representation. For example,
the emergence of the British trade union movement in the early 19th century
was a response to the economic and social changes brought about by
industrialization.
Politics notwithstanding, another change with the industrial revolution was the
advance in transportation and communication. Thanks to these often dismissed
instances, “In essence, every place on earth was closer together than ever before.
(Lecture, week 2: Revolutions: Latin American and Industrial) Butterflies
fluttering their wings in Mexico now affected the few trees left in Europe at least
metaphorically.
___________________________________________________________________
Identify and explain how racial pseudo-sciences (i.e. false or fake scientific
theories) and theories influenced politics in the United States in the mid-1800s
and Europe during the age of imperialism in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Provide two specific examples.
Racial pseudo-sciences and theories were used to justify discriminatory practices
and policies in the United States in the mid-1800s and in Europe during the age
of imperialism in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These theories promoted the
cause of white supremacy and justified the subjugation of non-white races.
Unfortunately for proponents, ‘“race” has no basis in biology.” (Lecture, Week 4:
The Creation of “Race”) Because of this, all arguments relying upon race are
logical fallacies and can be disregarded. In fact, the basis of skin color as a racial
determinate can be solely attritributed to the North Atlantic slave trade. (Ibid)

In the United States, one example of how racial pseudo-sciences and theories
influenced politics was the belief in the scientific inferiority of African Americans.
This idea was used to justify slavery and segregation and to deny African
Americans the right to vote and to participate in politics. The concept of scientific
racism was used to promote the idea that African Americans were biologically
inferior and thus, incapable of achieving the same level of intellectual and moral
development as white people. This notion was widespread among political and
intellectual elites, and it played a significant role in shaping public policy and
political discourse in the United States. In several ways, “with the benefit of
historical hindsight, the emergence of racial pseudoscience is predictable.” (Ibid,
but one does have to wonder how hindsight can be accuarely said to predict the
past.) One of the largest problems, according to our lecture is that many of the
people promoting the scientific notions of race were not in fact scientists, yet
published findings as if they were. A case in pont would be the Frenchman
Gobineau who published “myths, a mish-mash of fabricated history and false
biology,” (Ibid) despite having no credentials other than novelist, travel writer, and
diplomat.

Another example of how racial pseudo-sciences and theories influenced politics

in the United States was the concept of eugenics, which gained popularity in the
late 1800s and early 1900s. Eugenics was the study of human heredity aimed at
improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective
breeding. Supporters of eugenics succeeded in crafting legislation that mandated
involuntary sterilization for people judged (by legal professionals like judges, the
wardens of prisons, and the directors of mental hospitals, among others) to carry
negative traits. (Ibid) This theory was used to promote the idea that some races
were genetically superior to others and that the gene pool of the white race was
being threatened by the presence of non-white races. Thiat idea was used to
justify policies such as forced sterilization of individuals deemed mentally unfit or
genetically inferior. Eugenicists believed that these policies would improve the
genetic quality of the human population and prevent the "degeneration" of the
white race.

In Europe, the idea of racial superiority was used to justify the colonization and
exploitation of non-white countries during the age of imperialism. Europeans
believed that they were racially superior to the people they colonized and that it
was their duty to "civilize" and "Christianize" these "inferior" races. This belief was
used to justify the exploitation of natural resources and the forced labor of the
native populations. The idea of racial superiority also played a significant role in
the partition of Africa among European powers in the late 1800s, with each
country claiming the right to colonize and exploit certain regions based on their
perceived racial superiority.

In conclusion, racial pseudo-sciences and theories played a significant role in

shaping politics in the United States in the mid-1800s and in Europe during the
age of imperialism in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These theories were used
to justify discriminatory policies and practices, promote the idea of white
supremacy, and justify the exploitation of non-white races.
_________________________________________________________________
What was one key factor behind the success of European imperialism from the
mid-1800s to the early 1900s, and what was one example of effective resistance
(including creative adaptation) to imperialism?  Explain your answers using
specific examples.
One key factor behind the success of European imperialism from the mid-1800s
to the early 1900s was their technological superiority. European powers had
access to superior military technology, communication systems, and
transportation infrastructure that gave them a significant advantage over the
indigenous populations they sought to dominate. A great example of this is the
“Maxim Gun” which was a mechanism that allowed for rapid release of bullets far
exceeding previous iterations of firepower. When facing large enemy
contingents, astute soldiers would say that “Whatever happens, we have got, the
Maxim Gun, and they have not…” (Lecture, week 5: Imperialism) Additionally, the
development of steam-powered ships allowed Europeans to travel faster and
more efficiently than traditional sailing vessels, which gave them the ability to
project their power across the globe. Similarly, the development of the telegraph
made communication faster and more reliable, allowing European powers to
coordinate their efforts and respond quickly to changing situations.

An example of ineffective resistance to imperialism, including creative adaptation,

was the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900. (This rebellion was not addressed in
the lectures until week 6, but is a great example and so I have decided to use it
even though the examples from the lectures are fitting as well. I am just not
content without reading more…) The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign
and anti-Christian uprising by a secret society known as the Boxers, who were
opposed to the presence and influence of European powers in China. The Boxers
believed that they were immune to foreign bullets and that they could expel the
Europeans from China. However, their rebellion was ultimately unsuccessful due
to the overwhelming technological superiority of the European powers, and that
their unbstantiated belief is no match for reality. The Chinese were no more able
to withstand projectiles anymore than the American Sioux despite religious
convictions to the contrary. Nevertheless, the Boxer Rebellion demonstrated that
local resistance could be effective and that it was possible to adapt to new forms
of imperialism. For example, the Boxers adapt traditional martial arts techniques
and superstitions to develop an effective hand to hand fighting style that was
difficult for the European forces to combat. They also targeted key infrastructure
such as railways and telegraph lines, which disrupted European communication
and transportation networks. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the Boxer
Rebellion serves as a reminder that indigenous populations were not passive
victims of imperialism, but could actively resist and creatively adapt to the
challenges posed by imperial domination.
Another example of ineffective resistance in the lecture comes from the Opium
Wars. At one point, “40% of the total value of British-controlled Indian exports
took the form of opium”) (Lecture, week 5: Imperialism) Because that opium was
destined for China and not Britain, the Chinese tried using diplomacy and wrote
to Britain decrying the hipocracy, but that failed. Next, the Chinese tried to end
segments of the trade with England, but the British saw that as an excuse to end
all trade and declare war in order to safeguard profits. Chinese forces were at a
great technological disadvantage, however, and the result was a lopsided treaty
greatly favoring the Europeans. (Which is ultimately why I feel this is a poor
example to use for this essay.)
What can be said with certainty is that Imperialism is best understood as “plunder
economics” and that all countries subjugated under it faced immense difficulties
when attempting to escape it. (Lecture, week 5: Imperialism)
The best example of effective resistence to imperialism may be India. The
impetus for independence began in 1885 with the founding of the Indian
National Congress and ended on August 15, 1947 with India and Pakistan’s
recognition as bona-fide nations. The drive for independence began with Indian
elites who were unhappy with following the British rules for advancement in
government but who, despite being qualified, hit “glass ceilings” (Lecture, week 5:
Imperialism) Over time, despite crushing oppression, the movement refused to
die, and eventually Gandhi with his non-violent methods took leadership of the
country. However, Gandhi is beholden to the swadeshi movement which turned
out to be the most formidable and effective economic tool at India’s disposal.
Authors note: I used ChatGPT as an editor for this document.