Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B.

Sc (E&C) – III Sem

MUTHAYAMMAL COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE,

RASIPURAM-637408
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
II YEAR/III SEM
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS - (19UEL03)
UNIT - V :( Sinusoidal & Non Sinusoidal Oscillators)
Oscillators

5. 1. Introduction:
Many electronic devices require a source
source of energy at a specific frequency, which may range
from few Hz to several MHz.
This is achieved by an electronic device called oscillator.

5.2. Oscillator:
Oscillator is an electronic device which generates an AC signal with required frequency,
required
ed amplitude and required wave shape.
In radio and television receivers, oscillators are used to generate high frequency carrier
signals.
Oscillators are widely used in radars, electronic equipment and other electronic devices.
Oscillators are broadly classified
lassified into two types. They are
1. Sinusoidal oscillators
2. Non-sinusoidal
sinusoidal oscillators (Relaxation oscillators)
The sinusoidal oscillators are used for generating only sinusoidal signals with required
frequency and required amplitude.
The non-sinusoidal oscillators
scillators are used for producing non-sinusoidal
non sinusoidal signals like square,
rectangular, triangular, or saw tooth signals with required amplitude and required frequency.

5.3. Classification of Oscillators:

Oscillators are classified into the following different types
typ
1. According to the wave form generated
Sinusoidal oscillators
LC oscillators,
RC oscillators
Non-sinusoidal
sinusoidal oscillators (Relaxation oscillators)
Square wave Generators,
Rectangular wave Generators,
Saw tooth wave Generators
Triangular wave generators.
generator
2. According to the fundamental mechanism used
Negative resistance oscillators
Feedback oscillators
3. According to the frequency generated
Audio Frequency(AF) oscillators (20Hz to 20KHz)
Radio Frequency(RF) oscillators (20KHz to 30MHz)
Very High Frequency
Freque (VHF) oscillators (30MHz to 300MHz)
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) oscillators (300MHz to 3MHz)
Microwave oscillators. (Above 3GHz)

I. Balakrishnan, Asst.Prof/E&C, | Muthayammal

Mutha College of Arts and Science.
nce. Rasipu
Rasipuram 1
 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.4. Basic Theory of LC Oscillator:

A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an
Oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
An amplifier uses a positive feedback.
The feedback is a property, which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same circuit
as its input.
Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part of the output that is feedback in the
amplifier as its input, is in phase with the original input signal applied to the amplifier.

Figure 1(Basics oscillations produced in a LC tank Circuit)

If the switch S is changed to position 2, as shown in fig b. the capacitor will discharge through
the inductor and the current flow will be in the direction indicated by the arrow.
The current that passes through the inductor will set magnetic field around the coil.
Due to the inductive effect of the coil, the current through the coil increases slowly and attains
the maximum.
Thus the electrostatic energy across the capacitor is totally transferred to inductance as
magnetic energy.
Now the capacitor is fully discharged. When the capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic
field, in the inductance will collapse and produce counter e.m.f. As per the lenz‟s law, the
counter e.m.f will charge capacitor in the opposite direction (upper plate as negative and lower
plate as positive).
Finally the magnetic field is completely collapsed and the capacitor is fully charged as shown
in fig C.
Now once again an electrostatic energy is established across capacitor discharges by
transferring energy to inductor.
Thus the capacitor will discharge through the inductor and the current flows through the
inductor will be in the direction as indicated by the arrow, which is opposite to the figure b.
It is shown in fig d. Again the energy from the inductor is transferred to capacitor is empty
now and it is shown in fig e.
The charging and discharging result in alternating motion of current through the inductor.
If there were no loss of energy in the component, the oscillating current would continue and
we can obtain oscillation continuously.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

But due to energy conversion from one to another, there will be losses.
So, the amplitude of oscillating current decreases gradually and it became zero after some
time.
Therefore, the oscillation produced by the tank circuit is by nature a damped one. The
frequency of oscillation of the tank circuit is calculated as follows:
Since capacitor C and inductance L are
in parallel, voltages across them are
equal

IXL = IXC or XL = XC
1
2 =
2
1
2
= 2
4
1
=
2 √
Figure 2(Basic Block Diagram of a Feedback Oscillator)
In order to make the oscillations undamped, it is necessary to supply the required quantity of
energy at the proper time intervals to the tank circuit to meet out the losses.
Using a transistor does this. First of all DC power is converted into AC and then it is supplied to
the tank circuit.
The damped oscillating current is applied to the base of the transistor and so, the amplifier
damped oscillating current is formed in the collector.
Now more energy is available in the collector than the base of the transistor. Then due to
feedback network a part of the output, is fed to the base circuit in proper phase to aid the
oscillation in the tank circuit. Thus the losses are overcome and un damped oscillations are
produced.
5.4.1. Feedback circuit:
The type of feedback used in oscillator circuit is positive feedback.
It feeds a part of collector energy to the tank circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations.
The essential for maintaining oscillations and finding out the value of frequency are all
deduced from it.

5.5. Barkhausen criterion (Condition for oscillations):

The Barkhausen criterion is the

statement, which gives the essential
condition for maintaining self
sustained oscillation.
An oscillator system consists of an
amplifier with gain of “A” and a
feedback circuit with a gain of “β”.
Let V1be the input signal.V0 be the
output signal and Vfd be the
feedback signal. Figure 3 (Barkhausen Criterion)

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

= =

=
Feedback signal
=
For self-maintaining oscillation there is no separate input but feedback itself is equal to input.
=
=
From the equation 1
=
=

=
The above expression is the condition for self-maintaining oscillation which is called
Barkhasuen criteria.
From the above expression we can get the condition for oscillation Aβ = 1 that is closed loop
gain must be unity.
Total loop phase shift must be 0ᵒ or integral multiples of 2π.i.e. 0ᵒ,360ᵒ,720ᵒ etc.

5.6. Types of sinusoidal feedback oscillators:

There are two types of sinusoidal feedback oscillators. They are
a) LC resonant circuit oscillators and
1. Hartley oscillator
2. Colpitt’s oscillator
3. Clap Oscillators
4. Tuned collector oscillator.
b) Phase shift oscillators.
1. RC Phase shift Oscillator
2. Wien Bridge Oscillator
5.7. Hartley oscillator:
In The Hartley oscillator the tank
circuit is made up of C, L1 and L2.
The coil L1 is inductively coupled to L2.
Hence the combination L1 and L2
functions as auto transformer.
The resistance R1 and R2 provide the
necessary base biasing.
The capacitor C blocks the DC
component.
If we use RFC (Radio Frequency choke)
coil instead of RC provides path for
collector bias current but offers very
high impedance for high frequency
signal.
The voltage developed across L1 is Figure 4(Hartley Oscillator)
coupled by CC1 to the base of transistor.
Another capacitor CC2 is used to couple the output signal to Vout terminal.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.7.1. Circuit operation:

When the supply is switched ON, collector current starts rising and charges the capacitor C in
the tank circuit.
When the capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through the coils L1 and L2 and initial
oscillations are produced.
The induced oscillations across L2 are applied between the base and emitter terminal of the
transistor then it is amplified and appears in the collector circuit.
The coil L1 couples the collector circuit energy into the tank circuit by means of mutual
inductance between L1 and L2.
The coil in the tank circuit, and transistor, each provides 180ᵒphase reversal and so a total
phase shift of 360ᵒ is produced between the output and the input.
This results in positive feedback to overcome the losses occurring in the tank circuit.
Therefore a continuous un damped oscillation will be obtained at the output.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by
1
=
2 √
Where, L= L1 + L2 (Inductors are connected in series in the tank circuit.)
5.7.2. Advantages:
Easy to tune
It can be adopted for a wide range of frequencies.
5.7.3. Applications:
Used as a local oscillator in radio receiver.
Used in audio oscillator circuits.

5.8. Colpitt’s oscillator:

The colpitt’s oscillator is the same as
Hartley oscillator but the major
difference between these two is that the
colpitt’s oscillator uses tapped
capacitors whereas Hartley oscillator
uses tapped inductance.
In the colpitt’s oscillator the tank circuit
is made up of C1, C2 and L.
The resistance R1 and R2 provide base
bias and RE and CE provide stabilization.
If we use RFC (Radio Frequency choke)
coil instead of RC provides path for
collector bias current but offers very
high impedance for high frequency
signal. Figure 5(Colpitt's Oscillator)
The frequency of oscillation is given by
1
=
2 √
Where, = (Capacitors are connected in series in the tank circuit)
5.8.1. Circuit operation:
When the supply is switched ON, capacitors C1 and C2 are charged.
Then these capacitors discharge through coil L and so, initial oscillations are generated.
The oscillations across C2 are applied to the base emitter junction of the transistor.
This is amplified and available in the collector circuit.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

The amplified power from collector is applied to the tank circuit to meet out the losses during
energy conversation between capacitors C1 and C2 and inductance L.
The amount of feedback depends upon the value of capacitance C1 and C2.
The transistor amplifier provides 180ᵒ phase shift and the capacitor feedback provides another
180ᵒ phase shift.
Hence totally there will be a phase shift of 360ᵒ which provides positive feedback.
Therefore, continuous un damped oscillations are generated.
5.8.2. Applications:
Used in signal generators
Used in super heterodyne radio receivers as local oscillators.

5.9. Clap Oscillator:

In the Clapp oscillator, Z1 and Z2 are capacitors

C1 and C2, and Z3 is the series combination of an
inductor L and a capacitor C3.
Addition of C3 improves the frequency stability.
The frequency of oscillation is
1
=
2 √
Where
1 1 1 1
= + +

Figure 6( Clap Oscillator)

5.10. RC oscillators:
Hartley, colpitt’s, tuned collector all use LC tuned circuits.
These tuned circuits oscillators are good for generating high frequencies, the LC circuit
becomes impracticable and RC oscillators are more suitable.
The LC oscillators have two general drawbacks
It cannot be used for very low frequencies, because the coil becomes too much bulky,
expensive and noisy.
The frequency stability and waveforms are very low.
There are two types of RC Oscillators available,
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator
5.11. RC phase shift oscillator:
The RC oscillators produce good frequency
stability and also operate at very low
frequencies.
The circuit diagram of RC phase shift oscillator
is shown in the figure and the oscillators
consist of three stages networks (R1C1, R2C2
and R3C3).
The resistor R5 provide base bias and RE with
CE provides stabilization.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by
=
√!"
Where R=R1=R2=R3 and C=C1=C2=C3 Figure 7(RC Phase Shift oscillator)

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.11.1. Principle of operation:

When the supply is switched ON, the random variations of base current caused by noise
variations in the transistor and voltage variations in the power source produce oscillation.
This variation is amplified by the CE amplifier.
The feedback network consists of three stages of RC networks and all three stages are identical.
The feedback section provides 180ᵒ phase shift because each RC network provides 60ᵒ phase
shift (3 X 60ᵒ = 180ᵒ).
The CE amplifier provides another 180ᵒ phase shift. Hence the total shift is 360ᵒ, which
provides positive feedback.
Therefore, continuous undamped oscillation is produced.
5.11.2. Advantages:
Does not require transformers and inductors
It can produce very low frequency signals
The circuit provides good frequency stability.

5.11.3. Disadvantages:
It is difficult to start oscillation
It gives low power output
This RC oscillator is not suitable for tuned oscillator because the variations of capacitor and
resistor values also changed the phase shift of the RC networks.

5.12. Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

The figure shows the circuit of a
Wien-bridge oscillator.
The circuit consists of a two-
stage RC coupled amplifier
which provides a phase shift of
360° or 0°.
A balanced bridge is used as the
feedback network which has no
need to provide any additional
phase shift.
The feedback network consists
of a lead-lag network (R1 – C1)
and (R2 – C2) and a voltage
divider (R3 – R4).
The lead-lag network provides a Figure 8(Wien-Bridge Oscillator)
positive feedback to the input of
the first stage and the voltage divider provides a negative feedback to the emitter of Q1.
The frequency of the oscillation is given by
1
=
2 #$ $
If the values of R1=R2=R and C1=C2= C the above equation is reduced to
1
=
2 $
The ration of R3to R4, being greater than 2 will provide a sufficient gain for the circuit to
oscillate at the desire frequency.
This oscillator is used in commercial audio generators.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.13. Crystal oscillator:

Due to the following effects, the LC and RC oscillators do not produce more stable oscillations,
The value of R, L and C which are frequency determining factors in these circuits, will
change the temperature.
If any component in the feedback network is changed, it will shift the operating frequency of
the oscillator.
To maintain constant frequency, piezoelectric crystals are used with LC or RC oscillators (or) in
the place of LC or RC circuits.
Oscillators of this type are called crystal oscillators.
The crystal has a peculiar property known as
piezoelectric effect, which is expressed as
When mechanical stress is applied across
its two faces, the crystal vibrates and an ac
voltage is produced.
When an ac voltage is applied across its
crystal, the crystal vibrates at the
frequency of the applied voltage.
The frequency of the vibration is equal to the
resonance frequency of the crystal.
The equivalent electrical circuit of the crystal
is mentioned as
When the crystal is not vibrating, it is
equivalent to the capacitance Cm, known
as mounting capacitance
When a crystal vibrates, it is equivalent to Figure 9(Crystal Oscillator)
R-L-C series circuit.
The circuit diagram of a crystal oscillator is shown in the figure and it is actually a colpitts
oscillator, modified into a crystal oscillator.
The resistors R1 and R2 provide base bias and RE with CE provide stabilization.

5.13.1. Principle of operation:

The natural frequency of the LC circuit is made nearly equal to the natural frequency of the
crystal.
When the supply is switched “ON”, the capacitor C1 is going to charge.
When the capacitor C1 is fully charged, it discharges through crystal which produces oscillation.
The frequency of the oscillation depends upon the values of C1, C2 and the RLC equivalent
values of crystal.
If the frequency of the oscillation is equal to its crystal resonant frequency, the circuit produces
more stable oscillation. The crystal frequency is independent of temperature.
The C2 feedback network provides 180ᵒ phase shift, and also the CE amplifier provides another
180ᵒ phase shift.
Hence the total phase shift is 360ᵒ, which provides positive feedback.
Therefore, continuous undamped oscillation is produced.
A crystal oscillator always generates high frequency oscillations, range from 20 KHz to 20MHz.
5.13.2. Advantages:
Excellent frequency stability.
Simple circuit.
High quality factor.
5.13.3. Disadvantages:
Crystal is fragile type; hence it is used only in low power circuits.
Not used as tuned oscillators.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.14. Frequency Stability of Oscillator:

The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain the required
frequency as precisely as possible over as long a time interval as possible.
The accuracy of frequency calibration required may be anywhere between 10-2 and 10-10.
The main drawback in transistor oscillators is that the frequency of oscillation is not stable
during a long time operation.
The following are the factors which contribute to the change in frequency.
Due to change in temperature, the values of the frequency-determining components, like
resistor, inductor and capacitor change.
Due to variation in the power supply, unstable transistor parameters, change in climatic
conditions and aging.
The effective resistance of the tank circuit is changed when the load is connected.
Due to variation in biasing conditions and loading conditions.
The variation of frequency with temperature is given by
∆*⁄*+
%&,( =
∆-⁄-+
Where *+ ,To, are the desired frequency of oscillation and the operating temperature
respectively.
In the absence of automatic temperature control, the effect of temperature on the resonant LC
circuit can be reduced by selecting an inductance L with positive temperature coefficient and a
capacitance C with negative temperature coefficient.
The loading effect may be minimized if the oscillator is coupled to the load loosely or by a
circuit with high input resistance and low output resistance properties.
The frequency stability is defined as
./
%& =
.*
Where ./ is the phase shift introduced for a small frequency change in nominal frequency fo.
0
The circuit giving the larger value of has the more stable oscillator frequency.
&
0
If the Q is infinite, this phase change in phase is abrupt, &
= ∞ because the phase changes
abruptly from -90° to +90°.
For tuned oscillators, S⍵ directly proportional to the Q of a tuned circuit.
A frequency stability of one part in 104 can be achieved with LC circuits.
For LC oscillators, a tuned circuit must be lightly loaded to preserve high Q value.
As Piezo-electric crystals have high Q values of the order of 105, they can be used as parallel
resonant circuits in oscillators to get very high frequency stability of 1 ppm (part per million).

5.15. Non Sinusoidal Oscillators:

Non sinusoidal Oscillators are the circuit that does not produce a sine-wave output.
There is no specific non sinusoidal wave shape.
The non sinusoidal oscillator output may be a square, saw tooth, rectangular, or triangular
waveform or a combination of two wave- forms.
A common characteristic of all non sinusoidal oscillators is that they are a form of relaxation
oscillator.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

Figure 10(Non sinusoidal Waveforms)

5.16. Multivibrator:
Definition: An electronic device that produces a non-sinusoidal waveform as its output is known
as a Multivibrator.
The generated non-sinusoidal waveforms are basically a square wave, rectangular wave, a
triangular wave, sawtooth wave, or ramp wave etc.
There are three kind of multivibrators as follows.
Astable Multivibrator.
Monostable multivibrator.
Bistable Multivibrator.
5.17. Astable Multivibrator:

Figure 11(Astable Multivibrator and its Output)

The astable multivibrator has two states, both are quasi-stable i.e. none of the states are stable.
Without any trigger it changes its state.
Q1 and Q2 are identical NPN transistors.
The collector resistances are equal to RC.
The collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 through C1.
The collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 through C2.
When the supply is switched on, let us assume Q2 is ON and Q1 is OFF.
C1 starts charging towards VCC through RC, C1 and Q2.
Finally voltage across C2 becomes equal to Vcc with proper polarity.
At the same time C2 which is charged to Vcc in the earlier state, starts discharging through Q2,
Vcc, R2,C2.
At the start base of Q1 is at –Vcc. As C2 starts discharging, base of Q1 becomes less and less
negative, Finally it becomes equal to the cut-in voltage of Q1.
Now Q1 starts conducting. Q1 becomes ON and at the same time Q2 becomes OFF.
Now C2 starts charging through RC, C2 and Q1, C1 starts discharging through Vcc, R1, C1 and Q1.
Now because of C1, base of Q2 becomes less negative.
Finally it becomes equal to the cut-in voltage of Q2,now Q2 becomes on and Q1 OFF.
The changes in the two states are automatic and without any external triggering signal.
5.17.1. Applications:
The astable or free running multivibrator is used as a square wave frequency generator.
As a timing oscillator or clock of a computer system.
It is also used for a flashing lights, switching and power supply circuits.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

5.18. Monostable Multivibrator:

Figure 12(Monostable Multivibrator and its Output)

It has one stable state.
When a trigger is applied, the circuit changes from stable to quasi stable state.
After some time, it goes to original state.
Q1 and Q2 are identical transistors.
The two collector resistors are equal to RC.
The collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 through R1.
The collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 through C1.
R2 and –VBB are selected so that Q1 is OFF by reverse biasing it.
Q2 is ON with the help of VCC and R. Q2 ON and Q1 OFF is the stable state.
Positive triggering pulse is applied to the base of Q1 through C2.
Q1 starts conducting. The collector voltage of Q1 (VC1) decreases.
This is coupled to base of Q2 through C1. But voltage across C1 cannot change immediately.
So forward bias of Q2 decreases. Hence collector current of Q2 decrease. The collector voltage
of Q2 increases.
It is applied to the base of Q1. This further increases the base voltage of Q1.
Q1 is driven to conduction and Q2 becomes OFF. This is the quasi stable state.
The circuit will remain in this state for a time period of T.
During this state C1 starts charging through the path VCC, R2 and Q1.
So the base voltage of Q2 increases. When this voltage reaches the cut in voltage of Q2, then Q2
starts conducting.
Due to the regenerative action, Q2 is turned on. The circuit returns back to its stable state.
The time period T = 0.69RC.

5.18.1. Applications:
Used as a Pulse Width Modulator.
Used to generate uniform width pulse from variable width pulse train.
Used to generate clean and sharp pulses from distorted pulses.
Used as a time delay circuits.

5.19. Bi-Stable Multivibrator:

It has two stable states.
It remains in the stable state indefinitely.
It requires an external trigger pulse to change from one stable state to other stable state.
It uses two identical NPN transistors.
The collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 through R1. The collector of Q1 is coupled to the
base of Q2 through R2.
When the supply is switched on, any one of the transistors starts conducting.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

Figure 13(Bistable Multivibrator and its Output)

Let us assume Q2 starts conducting.
Hence current drawn by Q2 is more than that of Q1.
Due to regenerative action, the current through Q2 keeps on increasing. The current through
Q1 keeps on decreasing.
Finally Q2 becomes ON and Q1 OFF. The circuit remains in this state.
If a positive trigger pulse is applied at the base of Q1, it will drive Q1 to saturation and Q2 to cut-
off.
This is the second stable state. The circuit remains in this state though the applied pulse is
removed.
The change of states depends upon the applied pulse at the proper terminals.

5.19.1. Applications:
Bistable multivibrators ar used as a memory element in registers and counters.
It can be used as a frequency divider (Divide by 2 counter).
It is used to generate square wave of symmetrical shape by sending regular triggering pulse to
the input, and by adjusting the frequency of the application of trigger pulse the width of the
square wave can be varied.

5.20. Schmitt Trigger:

Schmitt trigger is a wave shaping circuit, used for generation of a square wave from a sine
wave input.
It is a bistable circuit in which two transistor switches are connected regeneratively.
Figure shows the circuit of a Schmitt trigger with the input and output waveforms.
It consists of two identical transistors Q1 and Q2 coupled through an emitter resistor RE.
Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across VC1, and ground.
This provides a small forward bias to the base-emitter junction of transistor Q2.
When the supply is switched ON, with no input signal, transistor Q2 starts conducting.
The rise in current (IE) of Q2 causes a voltage drop across RE, i.e. VRE = IERE.
This voltage provides a reverse bias across the emitter-base junction of Q and it is driven into
cut-off state.
Since, Q1 is in the OFF state, the voltage at its collector rises to Vcc.
Since the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 through the resistor R1, the forward bias for
the transistor Q2 is increased, thus Q2 is driven into saturation.
At this instant the collector voltage levels are VC1 = VCC and VC2 = VCE(sat) + VRE
Consider an AC signal of sinusoidal or triangular variation applied to the base of Q1.

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 Electronic Circuits (19UEL03) B. Sc (E&C) – III Sem

When the voltage increases above zero, nothing will happen till it crosses the Upper trigger
level (UTL).
As the input voltage increases above UTL, i.e. Vin<< VRE + VBE1, Q1 conducts.
The point at which starts conducting is known as Upper trigger point (UTP).

Figure 14(Schmitt Trigger and its output)

As transistor conducts, its collector voltage falls below Vcc. Since the collector of Q1 is coupled
to base of Q2, the forward bias to Q2 is reduced.
This in turn reduces the current of transistor, and hence the voltage drop across RE.
As a result, the reverse bias of transistor Q1 is reduced and it conducts more which drives to
nearer to cut-off.
This process continues till Q1 is driven into saturation and Q2 is cut-off.
At this instant, the collector voltage levels are VC1 = VCE(sat) + VRE and VC2 = VCC.
Transistor Q1 will continue to conduct till the input voltage crosses the Lower trigger level
(LTL).
When the input voltage becomes equal to LTL, the emitter-base junction of Q1, becomes reverse
biased, i.e. Vin < VRE+ VBE1.
Hence its collector voltage starts rising towards Vcc.
This forward biases Q2 and it starts conducting.
The point at which Q2 starts conducting is called Lower trigger point (LTP).
Then Q2 is very quickly driven into saturation and Q1 is cut off.
At this instant the collector voltage levels are VC1 = VCC and VC2 = VCE(sat) + VRE.
No change in state will occur during the negative half cycle of the input voltage.
The difference between UTP and LTP is known as Hysteresis Voltage (VH), it is also known as
dead zone of the schimitt Trigger.
The lagging of the lower threshold voltage from the upper threshold is known as Hysterisis.
5.20.1. Applications:
Schmitt trigger is used for wave shaping circuits.
It can be used for generation of rectangular waveforms with sharp edges from sine wave or
any other waveform.
In can be used as voltage comparator.

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