(19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

MUTHAYAMMAL COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE,

RASIPURAM-637408
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
II YEAR/III SEM
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS - (19UEL03)
UNIT-II (Transistor
Transistor Biasing and Wave Shaping Circuits)
Circuits

2.1. Transistor as an Amplifier:

The operation of a transistor as an amplifier is based on the fact that base current, IB in a
transistor can control the collector current, IC .
The base current can be varied by variation of forward bias and this produce corresponding
variation in the collector current.
The
he weak signal is applied between emitter-base
emitter base junction and output is taken across the load
RC connected in the collector circuit.

Figure 1(Transistor as an Amplifier)

The emitter-basebase junction in a transistor is forward-biased
forward and, as such the input impedance
is low.
On the other hand, the base-collector
base is reverse biased and hence the output impedance is
very high.
A DC voltage VBB is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal.
This DC voltage magnitude is such that that it always keeps the input forward biased regardless of
the polarity of the signal.
Even a small change in signal voltage caused an appreciable change in emitter current, since
the input circuit has low resistance.
Due to transistor action the same change
change in collector current take place.
The collector current flowslows through a large load resistance (RC), which in turn produces a
large voltage across it.
Thus a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit.
it. In this way transistor acts as an amplifier.
2.2. Transistor Biasing:
The amplifiers which are used to magnify the weak signal without change in its wave shape
and frequency are called faithful amplifiers.
For faithful amplifications, the transistor amplifier
ampli must satisfy three basic conditions as
follows.
1. Proper zero signal collector current.
2. Proper base to emitter voltage at any instant.
3. Proper collector to emitter voltage at any instant.
The technique of transistor biasing is used to fulfill the above
above said three conditions.
The Proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector-collector
emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.

I. Balakrishnan, Asst.Prof/E&C, | MCAS - Department of Electronics

tronics and Commun
Communication 1
 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

The basic purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter junction properly forward
biased and collector-emitter junction properly reverse biased during the application of
signals.
That means the transistor must operate only in active region.
This can be achieved by using bias battery or resistor circuit with the transistor.
The resistor method is more efficient and is frequently used.
The circuit used for proper biasing of the transistor is called biasing circuit.
This circuit used to fix the operating point at a particular level for satisfying the above said
basic conditions.
In the interest of simplicity and economy, it is desirable that transistor circuit should have a
single source of supply in the output circuit (supply voltage VCC).
2.3. Bias Stability:
The quiescent operating point (Q-Point) of a transistor amplifier should be established in the
active region of its characteristics.
Since the transistor parameters such as β, ICO and VBE are functions of temperature, and the
operating point shifts with changes in temperature.
2.4. Need for Biasing:
In order to produce distortion-free output in amplifier circuits, the supply voltages and
resistances in the circuit must be suitably chosen.
These voltages and resistances establish a set of DC voltage VCEQ and current ICQ to operate the
transistor in the active region.
These voltages and currents are called quiescent values which determine the operating point or
Q-point for the transistor.
The process of giving proper supply voltages and resistances for obtaining the desired Q-point
is called biasing.
The circuits used for getting the desired and proper operating point are known as biasing
circuits.
The collector current for common-emitter amplifier is expressed by
= + = +( + )
Here the three variables β,IB and ICO are found to increase with temperature.
For every 10°C rise in temperature, ICO doubles itself. When ICO increases, IC increases significantly.
This causes power dissipation to increase and hence to make ICO increase.
This will cause IC to increase further and the process becomes cumulative which will lead to
thermal runaway that will destroy the transistor.
In addition, the quiescent operating point can shift due to temperature changes and the transistor
can be driven into the region of saturation.
To establish the operating point in the active region, compensation techniques are needed.

2.5. DC Load Line:

Referring to the biasing circuit of figure, the values of Vcc and Rc are fixed and Ic and VCE are
dependent on RB.
Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law to the collector circuit, we get Vcc = Ic.Rc +VcE.
The straight line represented by AB in output characteristics is called the DC load line.
The coordinates of the end point A are obtained by substituting VCE= 0 in the above equation.
Then = Therefore, the coordinates of A are VCE= 0 and =
The coordinates of B are obtained by substituting IC = 0 in the above equation.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Figure 2(CE amplifier and Load line )

Then VCE = VCC. Therefore, the coordinates of B are VCE = VCC and IC = 0.
Thus, the DC load line AB can be drawn if the values of RC and VCC are known.
As shown in figure the Q-point is located at the midpoint of the DC load line AB between the
saturation and cutoff regions, i.e. Q is exactly between A and B.
In order to get faithful amplification, the Q-point must be well within the active region of the
transistor.
Even though the Q-point is fixed properly, it is very important to ensure that the operating
point remains stable where it is originally fixed.
If the Q-point shifts nearer to either A or B, the output voltage and current get clipped, thereby
output signal is distorted.
In practice, the Q-point tends to shift its position due to any or all of the following three main
factors:
Reverse saturation current, ICO, which doubles for every 10°C increase in temperature.
Base-emitter voltage, VBE, which decreases by 2.5 mV per °C.
Transistor current gain, β increases with temperature.
Referring to the circuit, the base current IB is kept constant since IB is approximately equal to
VCC/RE.
If the transistor is replaced by another one of the same type, one cannot ensure that the new
transistor will have identical parameters as that of the first one. Parameters such as β vary
over a range.
This results in the variation of collector current IC for a given IB.
Hence, in the output characteristics, the spacing between the curves might increase or
decrease which leads to the shifting of the Q-point to a location which might be completely
unsatisfactory.
2.6. AC Load Line:
After drawing the DC load line, the operating point Q is properly located at the center of the DC
load line.
This operating point is chosen under zero input signal condition of the circuit. Hence, the AC
load line should also pass through the operating point Q.
The effective AC load resistance, Rac is the combination of Rc parallel to RL, i.e. Rac. = Rc||RL.
So the slope of the AC load line CQD will be −
To draw an AC load line, two end points, viz. maximum VCE and maximum IC when the signal is
applied are required.
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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Maximum VCE = VCEQ +ICQ. Rac, which locates the point D(0D) on the VCE axis.
Maximum = + which locates the point C (OC) on the IC axis.
By joining points C and D, AC load line CD is constructed. As Rc > Rac the DC load line is less
steep than the AC load line.
When the signal is zero, we have the exact DC conditions. From Figure it is clear that the
intersection of DC and AC load lines is the operating point Q.
2.7. Thermal Runaway:
The collector current for the CE amplifier circuit is given by IC=βIB+(1+β)ICO.
The three variables in the equation, β, IB and ICO increase with rise in temperature.
In particular, the reverse saturation current or leakage current ICO changes greatly with
temperature.
Specifically, it doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. The collector current IC causes the
collector - base junction temperature to rise which, in turn, increase ICO as a result IC will increase
still further, which will further rise the temperature at the collector - base junction.
This process will become cumulative leading to "thermal runaway."
Consequently, the ratings of the transistor are exceeded which may destroy the transistor itself.
The collector is normally made larger in size than the emitter in order to help dissipate the heat
developed at the collector junction.
However, if the circuit is designed such that the base current IB is made to decrease
automatically with rise in temperature, then the decrease in βIB will compensate for the increase in
(1 + β)ICO, keeping IC almost constant.
In power transistors, the heat developed at the collector junction may be removed by the use of
heat sink, which is a metal sheet fitted to the collector and whose surface radiates heat quickly.
2.8. Stability Factor (S):
The extent to which the collector current Ic is stabilised with varying ICO is measured by a stability
factor S.
It is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector - base leakage
current ICO, keeping both the current IB and the current gain β constant
∆
= = =
∆
, β and IB Constant.
The collector current for a CE amplifier is given by
= +( + )
Differentiating the above equation with respect to IC we get
" $
=! + (1 + !)

" (1 + !)
1 = !% &+
'
" (1 + !)
1−!% &=
'
( + )
=
− % &

From this equation, it is clear that this factor S should be as small as possible to have better thermal
stability.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

2.9. Methods of Transistor Biasing:

The transistor amplifier circuits can be biased with the aid of a battery VBB which was separate
from the battery VCC used in the output circuit.
However, in the interest of simplicity and economy, it is desirable that transistor circuit
should have a single source of supply (i.e. VCC).
The following are the most commonly used methods of obtaining transistor biasing from one
source of supply (i.e. VCC )
Base resistor Bias / Fixed Bias.
Emitter bias method
Collector to base bias / collector-feedback bias
Self Bias / Voltage-divider bias / Potential divider bias
In all these methods, the same basic principle are employed i.e. required value of base current
is obtained from VCC in the zero signal conditions.
The value of collector load RC is selected keeping in view that VCE should not fall below 0.5 V
for germanium transistors and 1 V for silicon transistors.

2.9.1. Base resistor Bias / Fixed Bias:

In this method, a high resistance RB (several hundred kΩ) is connected between the base and
+Ve end of supply for NPN transistor and between base and -Ve end of supply for PNP
transistor.
Here, the required zero signal base current is provided by VCC and it flows through RB.
It is because now base is positive with respect to emitter i.e. base-emitter junction is forward
biased.
The required value of zero signal base current IB (and hence IC = β IB) can be made to flow by
selecting the proper value of base resistor RB.
Circuit analysis:
It is required to find the value of RB so that required collector current flows in the zero signal
conditions.
Let IC be the required zero signal
collector current.
" =
!
Considering the closed circuit
ABENA and applying Kirchhoff 's
voltage law, we get,
VCC = IB RB + VBE
IB RB = VCC - VBE
) − )"*
(" =
"
Figure 3(Fixed Bias Circuit)
Since VBE is generally quite small as
compared to VCC, the VBE can be neglected and the value of RB can be re written as
)
(" =
"
It may be noted that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value.
Hence, RB can always be found directly, and for this reason, this method is sometimes called
fixed-bias method.
Stability factor:
(1 + !)
'=
1 − ! % "&

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

+,-
In fixed bias method of biasing, IB is independent of IC so that = 0 , and the stability
+,.
factor becomes, S=β+1
Thus the stability factor in a fixed bias is (β + 1). This means that IC changes (β + 1) times as
much as any change in ICO.
For instance, if β = 100, then S = 101 which means that IC increases 101 times faster than ICO.
Due to the large value of S in a fixed bias, it has poor thermal stability.
Advantages:
Very simple as only one resistance RB is required.
Biasing conditions can easily be set and the calculations are simple.
There is no loading of the source by the biasing circuit since no resistor is employed
across base-emitter junction.
Disadvantages:
This method provides poor stabilization.
The stability factor is very high. Therefore, there are strong chances of thermal
runaway.
2.9.2. Emitter Bias:
The emitter biasing is shown in figure and this circuit differs from base-bias circuit in two
important aspects.
First, it uses two separate DC voltage sources; one positive (+ VCC) and the other negative (–
VEE).
Normally, the two supply voltages will be equal. For example, if VCC = + 20V DC then VEE =–20V
DC. Secondly, there is a resistor RE in the emitter circuit.
We shall first redraw the circuit as the negative supply voltage – VEE is applied to the bottom of
RE and a positive voltage of + VCC to the top of RC.
Circuit Analysis:
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base-
emitter circuit
) − " (" − )"* − * (* =0
Since * = " +
) − " (" − )"* − ( " + )(* = 0
) − " (" − )"* − " (* + (* = 0
" (" − " (* =) − )"* − (*
" ((" + (* ) = ) − )"* − (*
) − )"* − (*
=
"
((" + (* ) Figure 4(Emitter Bias)

Differentiating the above equation with respect to IC

) − )"* − (*
" ((" + (* )
=

" (*
= −% &
((" + (* )

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Stability factor:
(1 + !)
'=
1−!% "
&

(1 + !)
'=
(
1 − ! 0− ( +* ( 1
" *

( + )
=
2
+ 0 2 +2 1

Since 1 + ! 0 ( 34 )
1 > 1 then the stability factor ' < (1 + !), Note that the stability
factor is always less than that of fixed bias circuit.
Hence , it is clear that a better thermal stability can be achieved in emitter bias circuit.
2.9.3. Collector-to-Base Bias or Collector Feedback Bias:
A common emitter amplifier using collector-to-base bias circuit is shown in Figure.
This circuit is the simplest way to provide some degree of stabilization to the amplifier
operating point.
If the collector current IC tends to increase due to either increase in temperature or the
transistor has been replaced by the one with a higher β, the voltage drop across RC increases,
thereby reducing the value of VCE. Therefore, IB decreases which, in turn, compensates the
increase in IC. Thus, greater stability is obtained.
Circuit analysis:
Apply KVL in the input loop
) − ( " + )( − " (" − )"* = 0
) − "( + ( − " (" − )"* = 0
"( + " (" =) − ( − )"*
" (( + (" ) = ) − ( − )"*
) − ( − )"*
=
"
(( + (" )
Differentiating the above equation with
respect to IC Figure 5(Collector to base feedback Bias )
) − ( − )"*
" (( + (" )
=

" (
= −% &
( + ("
Stability factor:
(1 + !)
'=
1−!% "
&

I. Balakrishnan, Asst.Prof/E&C, | MCAS - Department of Electronics and Communication 7

 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

(1 + !)
'=
(
1 − ! 0− 1
( + ("
( + )
=
2
+ 2 +2
As can be seen, this value of the stability factor is smaller than the value obtained by fixed bias
circuit.
Also, S can be made small and the stability can be improved by making RB small or RC large.
If RC is very small, then S = (β+1), i.e. stability is very poor.
Hence, the value of RC must be quite large for good stabilization.
Thus, collector to base bias arrangement is not satisfactory for the amplifier circuits like
transformer coupled amplifier where the DC load resistance in collector circuit is very small.
For such amplifiers, emitter bias or self bias will be the most satisfactory transistor biasing for
stabilization.
Advantages:
It is a simple method as it requires only one resistance RB.
This circuit provides some stabilization of the operating point as discussed below :
VCE = VBE + VCB
Suppose the temperature increases. This will increase collector leakage current and hence the
total collector current. But as soon as collector current increases, VCE decreases due to greater
drop across RC. The result is that VCB decreases i.e. lesser voltage is available across RB. Hence
the base current IB decreases. The smaller IB tends to decrease the collector current to original
value.
Disadvantages:
The circuit does not provide good stabilization because stability factor is fairly high, though it
is lesser than that of fixed bias. Therefore, the operating point does change, although to lesser
extent, due to temperature variations and other effects.
This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the amplifier.

2.9.4. Self Bias / Voltage divider bias / Potential divider bias:

A simple circuit used to establish a stable operating point is the self-biasing configuration.
The self bias, also called as emitter bias, or emitter resistor and potential divider circuit,
That can be used for low collector resistance as shown in figure.

Figure 6(Potential divider Bias)

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

The current in the emitter resistor RE causes a voltage drop which is in the direction to reverse
bias the emitter junction.
For the transistor to remain in the active region, the base-emitter junction has to be forward
biased.
The required base bias is obtained from the power supply through the potential divider
network of the resistances R1 and R2.
If IC tends to increase, say, due to increase in ICO with temperature, the current in RE increases.
Hence, the voltage drops across RE increases thereby decreasing the base current.
As a result, IC is maintained almost constant.
Circuit Analysis:
Applying Thevenin's Theorem to the circuit for finding the base current, we have,
)7 = 8
and (" = 9 8
94 8 94 8
The loop equation around the base circuit can be written as
)7 = " (" + )"* + ( " + )(*
)7 = " (" + )"* + " (* + (*
" (" + " (* = )7 − )"* − (*
)7 − )"* − (*
" =
((" + (* )
Differentiating this equation with respect to IC we get,
)7 − )"* − (*
" ((" + (* )
=
" (*
=−
((" + (* )
Stability factor:
(1 + !)
'=
1−!% "
&

(1 + !)
'=
(
1 − ! − ( +* (
* "

(1 + !)
'=
(
1 + ! ( +* (
* "
1
' = (1 + !)
(* + (" + !(*
(* + ("
(* + ("
' = (1 + !)
(* + (" + !(*
(
(* (1 + (" )
' = (1 + !) *
(
(* (1 + (" + !)
*
(
(1 + (" )
' = (1 + !) *
(
(1 + (" + !)
*

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

If the ratio RB/RE is very small, then RB/RE can be neglected as compared to 1 and the stability
factor becomes:
1
' = (1 + !)
(1 + !)
=

This improvement in the stability up to a factor equal to 1 is achieved at the cost of power
dissipation.
To improve the stability, the equivalent resistance RB must be decreased, forcing more current in the
voltage divider network of R1and R2.
It prevents the loss of gain due to the negative feedback if RE is shunted by a capacitor CE.
The capacitive reactance XCE must be equal to about one-tenth of the value of the resistance RE at the
lowest operating frequency.
Advantages:
Compared to the other biasing techniques the self bias gives better stability because its
stability factor is 1 by choosing the RB/RE ratio small.

2.10. Bias Compensation:

The various biasing circuits considered in the previous sections used some types of negative
feedback to stabilize the operation point.
Also, diodes, thermistors and sensistors can be used to compensate for variations in current.
2.10.1. Diode Compensation
The circuit of figure shows a transistor amplifier with
a diode D connected across the base-emitter junction
for compensation of change +VCC in collector
saturation current ICO.
The diode is of the same material as the transistor and
it is reverse biased by the base-emitter junction
voltage VBE, allowing the diode reverse saturation
current IO to flow through diode D.
The base current IB =I-IO
As long as temperature is constant, diode D operates

as a resistor. Figure 7(Diode Compensation)

As the temperature increases, ICO of the transistor increases. Hence, to compensate for this, the
base current IB should be decreased.
The increase in temperature will also cause the leakage current IO through D to increase and
thereby decreasing the base current IB. This is the required action to keep IC constant.
This method of bias compensation does not need a change in IC to effect the change in IB, as
both IO and ICO can track almost equally according to the change in temperature.
2.10.2. Thermistor Compensation:
In the figure, a thermistor RT, having a negative
temperature coefficient is connected in parallel with R2.
The resistance of thermistor decreases exponentially
with increase of temperature.
An increase in temperature will decrease the base
voltage VBE, reducing IB and IC.
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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Bias stabilisation is also provided by RE and CE.

Figure 8(Thermistor compensation)

2.10.3. Sensistor Compensation:

In the figure a sensistor, RS, having a positive
temperature coefficient is connected across R1
(or RE).
Rs increases with temperature. As temperature
increases, the equivalent resistance of the
parallel combination of R1 and Rs also increases
and hence the base voltage VBE decreases,
reducing IB and IC.
This reduced IC compensates for the increased IC Figure 9(Sensistor Compensation)
caused by the increase in ICO, VBE and β due to
temperature rise.
2.11. Wave Shaping Circuits:

RC Circuits
The waveform shaping circuits like differentiating and integrating circuits are used in
multivibrators as triggering and synchronizing pulse generators.
The leading and trailing edges of the trigger pulses are of utmost importance and the
horizontal part of the pulse is not important in multivibrator applications.
Hence, the triggering pulses to the multivibrators are to be reshaped using
Differentiating circuit (High-pass RC Circuit)
Integrating circuit (Low-pass RC Circuit)

2.11.1. Differentiating Circuit:

A circuit in which output voltage is directly proportional to the derivative of the input is known
as a differentiating circuit.
( ?=;<)
:;<=;< ∝
<

A differentiating circuit is a simple RC series circuit with output taken across the resistor R.
The circuit is suitably designed so that output is proportional to the derivative of the input.
Thus if a DC or constant input is applied to such a circuit, the output will be zero.
It is because the derivative of a constant is zero.

Figure 10(Differentiator)

The figure shows a typical differentiating circuit. The output across R will be the derivative of
the input.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

It is important to note that merely using voltage across R does not make the circuit a
differentiator; it is also necessary to set the proper circuit values. In order to achieve good
differentiation, the following two conditions should be satisfied :
The time constant RC of the circuit should be much smaller than the time period of the input
wave.
The value of XC should be 10 or more times larger than R at the operating frequency.
Fulfilled these conditions, the output across R in figure will be the derivative of the input.
Let ei be the input alternating voltage and let i be the resulting alternating current.
The charge q on the capacitor at any instant is
@ = A BC

@ (A BC )
D = =
< <
BC
D = A
<
Since the capacitive reactance is very much larger than R, the input voltage can be considered
equal to the capacitor voltage with negligible error i.e. (ec = ei)
BE
D = A
<
Then the output voltage
BF = D (
BE
BF = ( A
<
Since RC is a constant
BE
BF ∝
<
Where eo – Output
ei – input

Output waveforms:
The output waveform from a differentiating circuit depends upon the time constant and shape
of the input wave. Three important cases will be considered.
Square wave Input:
When the input fed to a differentiating circuit is a square wave, output will consist of sharp
narrow pulses as shown in figure.
During the OC part of input wave, its amplitude changes abruptly and hence the differentiated
wave will be a sharp narrow pulse.
However, during the constant part CB of the input, the output will be zero because the
derivative of a constant is zero.
Let us look at the physical explanation of this behavior of the circuit. Since time constant RC of
the circuit is very small with respect to time period of input wave and XC >> R, the capacitor
will become fully charged during the early part of each half-cycle of the input wave.
During the remainder part of the half-cycle, the output of the circuit will be zero because the
capacitor voltage (ec) neutralises the input voltage and there can be no current flow through
R.

Figure 11(Differentiator with Square Input)

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

Thus we shall get sharp pulse at the output during the start of each half-cycle of input wave
while for the remainder part of the half-cycle of input wave, the output will be zero.
In this way, a symmetrical output wave with sharp positive and negative peaks is produced.
Such pulses are used in many ways in electronic circuits e.g. in television transmitters and
receivers, in multivibrators to initiate action etc.

Triangular wave Input:

When the input fed to a differentiating circuit is a
triangular wave, the output will be a rectangular wave as
shown in figure.
During the period OA of the input wave, its amplitude
changes at a constant rate and, therefore, the
differentiated wave has a constant value for each constant
rate of change.
During the period AB of the input wave, the change is less
abrupt so that the output will be a very narrow pulse of
rectangular form.
Thus when a triangular wave is fed to a differentiating Figure 12(Triangle to Square)
circuit, the output consists of a succession of rectangular
waves of equal or unequal duration depending upon the shape of the input wave.
Sine wave input:
A sine wave input becomes a cosine wave and a cosine wave input becomes an inverted sine
wave at the output.

2.11.2. Integrating Circuit

A circuit in which output voltage is directly proportional to the integral of the input is known as
an integrating circuit i.e.
:;<=;< ∝ G( ?=;<) <
An integrating circuit is a simple RC series circuit with output taken across the capacitor C as
shown in figure.

Figure 13(Integrator)
It may be seen that R and C of the differentiating circuit have changed places.
In order that the circuit renders good integration, the following conditions should be fulfilled.
The time constant RC of the circuit should be very large as compared to the time period of the
input wave.
The value of R should be 10 or more times larger than XC.
Let ei be the input alternating voltage and let i be the resulting alternating current.
Since R is very large as compared to capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor, it is reasonable to
assume that voltage across R (i.e. eR) is equal to the input voltage i.e.
BE = B
B BE
D= =
( (
The charge q on the capacitor at any instant is

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

@ = G D <

Output voltage
@ H D <
B$ = =
A A
BE
@ H <
B$ = = (
A A
1
B$ = G BE <
(A
Since RC is a constant
B$ ∝ G BE <

Where eo – Output
ei – input
Output waveforms:
The output waveform from an integrating circuit depends upon time constant and shape of
the input wave. Two important cases will be discussed.
Square wave input:
When the input fed to an integrating circuit is a square
wave, the output will be a triangular wave as shown in
figure.
As integration means summation, therefore, output from an
integrating circuit will be the sum of all the input waves at
any instant.
This sum is zero at A and goes on increasing till it becomes
maximum at C.
After this, the summation goes on decreasing to the onset Figure 14(Square to Triangle)
of negative movement CD of the input.

Rectangular wave Input:

When the input fed to an integrating circuit is a
rectangular wave, the output will be a triangular wave as
shown in Figure.

2.12. Clipper:
The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by Figure 15(Rectangle to Triangle)
removing (or clipping) a portion of the applied wave is
known as a clipper circuit.
Clippers find extensive use in radar, digital and other electronic systems.
Although several clipping circuits have been developed to change the wave shape, we shall
confine our attention to diode clippers.
These clippers can remove signal voltages above or below a specified level.
The important diode clippers are
Positive clipper
Negative Clipper
biased clipper
Combination clipper
2.12. 1. Positive clipper:
A positive clipper is that which removes the positive half-cycles of the input voltage.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

The figure shows the typical circuit of a positive clipper using a diode.
As shown, the output voltage has all the positive half-cycles removed or clipped off.

The circuit action is as follows. During

the positive half-cycle of the input
voltage, the diode is forward biased
and conducts heavily.
Therefore, the voltage across the
diode is zero and hence the voltage
across the load RL is zero.
Hence output voltage during positive
half-cycles is zero.
During the negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, the diode is reverse Figure 16(Positive Clipper)
biased and behaves as an open.
In this condition, the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output given by :
(M
:;<=;< )IJ<KLB = − )
( + (M N
Generally, RL is much greater than R.
∴ Output voltage = − Vm
2.12.2. Negative clipper:
A negative clipper is that which
removes the negative half-cycles of the
input voltage.
The figure shows the typical circuit of a
negative clipper using a diode.
As shown, the output voltage has all
the negative half-cycles removed or
clipped off.
The circuit action is as follows. During
the negative half-cycle of the input
voltage, the diode is forward biased Figure 17(Negative Clipper)
and conducts heavily.
Therefore, the voltage across the diode is zero and hence the voltage across the load RL is zero.
Hence output voltage during negative half-cycles is zero.
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as
an open.
In this condition, the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output given by :
(M
:;<=;< )IJ<KLB = )
( + (M N
Generally, RL is much greater than R.
∴ Output voltage = Vm
2.12.3. Biased Clippers:
Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half-cycle of the
signal voltage, for this purpose, biased clipper is used.
There are two kinds of biased clippers as follows
Biased Positive Clipper
Biased Negative Clipper
2.12.3.1.Biased Positive clipper:
The figure shows the circuit of a biased positive clipper using a diode with a battery of V volts.
With the polarities of battery shown, a portion of each positive half-cycle will be clipped.

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However, the negative half-cycles will appear as such across the load, such a clipper is called
biased positive clipper.
The circuit action is as follows. The diode will conduct heavily so long as input voltage is
greater than +V.
When input voltage is greater than +V,
the diode behaves as a short and the
output equals +V.
The output will stay at +V so long as the
input voltage is greater than +V.
During the period the input voltage is
less than +V, the diode is reverse biased
and behaves as an open.
Therefore, most of the input voltage
appears across the output. Figure 18(Biased Positive Clipper)
In this way, the biased positive clipper
removes input voltage above +V.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode remains reverse biased.
Therefore, almost entire negative half-cycle appears across the load.

2.12.3.2. Biased Negative clipper:

The figure shows the circuit of a biased
negative clipper using a diode with a
battery of V volts.
With the polarities of battery shown, a
portion of each positive half-cycle will be
clipped.
However, the negative half-cycles will
appear as such across the load, such a
clipper is called biased positive clipper.
The circuit action is as follows. The diode
will conduct heavily so long as input
voltage is greater than +V. Figure 19 (Biased Negative Clipper)
When input voltage is greater than +V, the
diode behaves as a short and the output equals +V.
The output will stay at +V so long as the input voltage is greater than +V.
During the period the input voltage is less than +V, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as
an open.
Therefore, most of the input voltage appears across the output.
In this way, the biased positive clipper removes input voltage above +V.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode remains reverse biased.
Therefore, almost entire negative half-cycle appears across the load.

2.12.4. Combination clipper:

It is a combination of biased positive
and negative clippers.
With a combination clipper, a portion
of both positive and negative half-
cycles of input voltage can be removed
or clipped as shown in figure.
The circuit action is as follows. When
positive input voltage is greater than

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Figure 20(Combination Clipper)
 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

+V1, diode D1 conducts heavily while diode D2 remains reverse biased.

Therefore, a voltage +V1 appear across the load. This output stays at +V1 as long as the input
voltage exceeds +V1.
On the other hand, during the negative half-cycle, the diode D2 will conduct heavily and the
output stays at −V2 as long as the input voltage is greater than −V2.
Note that +V1 and −V2 are less than + Vm and – Vm respectively.
Between +V1 and −V2 neither diode is on. Therefore, in this condition, most of the input
voltage appears across the load.
It is interesting to note that this clipping circuit can give square wave output if Vm is much
greater than the clipping levels.
2.12.5. Applications of Clippers:
There are numerous clipper applications. However, in general, clippers are used to perform
one of the following two functions :
Changing the shape of a waveform
Circuit transient protection
Changing the shape of waveform: Clippers can alter the shape of a waveform. For example, a
clipper can be used to convert a sine wave into a rectangular wave, square wave etc. They can
limit either the negative or positive alternation or both alternations of an AC voltage.
Circuit Transient protection: Transients can cause considerable damage to many types of
circuits e.g., a digital circuit. In that case, a clipper diode can be used to prevent the transient
form reaching that circuit.
2.13. Clampers:
A circuit that places either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired d.c. level is
known as a clamping circuit.
A clamper essentially adds a DC component to the input signal.
The figure shows the key idea behind clamper, in which the input signal is a sine wave having
a peak-to-peak value of 10 V.
The clamper adds the DC component and pushes the signal upwards so that the negative
peaks fall on the zero level.
As you can see, the waveform now has peak values of +10 V and 0 V.
It may be seen that the shape of the original signal has not changed, only there is vertical shift
in the signal. There are two kinds of clampers as follows,
Positive clamper
Negative clamper
2.13.1. Positive Clamper:
The figure shows the circuit of a positive clamper.
The input signal is assumed to be a square wave with time period T.
The clamped output is obtained across RL.
The circuit design incorporates two main features.
Firstly, the values of C and RL are so selected that time constant τ = CRL is very large. This
means that voltage across the capacitor will not discharge significantly during the interval
the diode is non-conducting.
Secondly, RLC time constant is deliberately made much greater than the time period T of
the incoming signal.

Figure 21(Positive clamper)

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Operation:
During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased.
Therefore, the diode behaves as a short .
The charging time constant (= CRf , where Rf = forward resistance of the diode) is very small so
that the capacitor will charge to V volts very quickly.
It is easy to see that during this interval, the output voltage is directly across the short circuit.
Therefore, Vout = 0.
When the input switches to +V state (i.e., positive half-cycle), the diode is reverse biased and
behaves as an open.
Since the discharging time constant (= CRL) is much greater than the time period of the input
signal, the capacitor remains almost fully charged to V volts during the off time of the diode.
Referring to figure and applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the input loop, we have,
V + V − Vout = 0
Vout = 2V
The resulting waveform is shown in figure and It is clear that it is a positively clamped output.
That is to say the input signal has been pushed upward by V volts so that negative peaks fall on
the zero level.

2.13.2. Negative Clamper:

The figure shows the circuit of a negative clamper.

The clamped output is taken across RL. Note that only change from the positive clamper is that
the connections of diode are reversed.

Figure 22(Negative Clamper)

During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased.
Therefore, the diode behaves as a short. The charging time constant (= CRf) is very
small so that the capacitor will charge to V volts very quickly.
It is easy to see that during this interval, the output voltage is directly across the short
circuit.
∴ Vout = 0.
When the input switches to −V state (i.e., negative half-cycle), the diode is reverse
biased and behaves as an open.
Since the discharging time constant (= CRL) is much greater than the time period of the
input signal, the capacitor almost remains fully charged to V volts during the off time of
the diode.
Referring to figure and applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the input loop, we have,
V − V − Vout = 0
Vout = − 2 V
Note that total swing of the output signal is equal to the total swing of the input signal.

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 (19UEL03)- Electronic Circuits II Year/III Sem

2.14. Voltage doublers:

A half-wave voltage doubler circuit is shown in figure, where C1 and D1 together behave like a
clamper .
And the clamped output voltage V1 has a peak value of 2Vm and V1 will not become negative.

Figure 23(Voltage Doubler)

The voltage V1 is a sine wave with Vm as the average value.

Diode D2 acts as a rectifier and capacitor C2 acts as a filter.
The output DC voltage V, is 2Vm, with a ripple frequency equal to that of the input.
A DC output voltage of -2Vm or +2Vmcan be produced, depending upon diode polarities.
The half-wave voltage doubler is used to provide a high DC output voltage, typically 3 kV.

2.15. Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler:

Figure 24(Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler)

The principle of the half-wave voltage doubler may be used to provide any degree of voltage
multiplication by cascading diodes and capacitors.
The voltage multiplier circuit showing tripling and quadrupling action is shown in the figure.
A load connected between A and B will have a DC voltage of 3 Vm and from C to D an output of
4 Vm, since C1 charges up to Vm and other capacitors to 2 Vm.
The voltage stored in the capacitor C2 and C4 is 2Vm and hence the voltage across the points C
and D is being 4Vm.

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