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 Chemical Reactions and Equations
Introduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations

Physical and chemical changes

Chemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties
are formed.
Example: F e(s)  +  CuSO (aq) → F eSO (aq) + Cu(s) 
4 4

      (Blue)                      (Green)       
Here, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and
copper are formed.

Physical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.
Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though
steam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react
the same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid
to vapour). 

Observations that help determine a chemical reaction

A chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:
a) Evolution of a gas
b) Change in temperature
c) Formation of a precipitate
d) Change in colour
e) Change of state

Chemical reaction

Chemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by
making or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.

Types of chemical reactions

Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple
categories.
Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation

Chemical Reactions and Equations I

Word equation

A  word equation is a chemical reaction expressed in words rather than chemical

formulas. It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
For example, 
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
The above equation means: "Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride." 

Symbols of elements and their valencies

A symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic
symbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It can be considered as the number of
electrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a
molecule.

Writing chemical equations

Representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the

reactants and products is known as a chemical equation.
Zn(s) + dil. H2 SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (↑)

 (Reactants)   (Products)
• For solids, the symbol is "(s)".
• For liquids, it is "(l)".
• For gases, it is "(g)".
• For aqueous solutions, it is "(aq)".
• For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by "(↑)".
• For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by "(↓)".

Balancing of a Chemical Reaction

Conservation of mass

According to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a

chemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to
balance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.
In other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the
total mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.

Balanced chemical equation

The chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element in the reactants side
is equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.

Steps for balancing chemical equations

Hit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coefficients (the numbers in
front of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same
on each side of the chemical equation. 

Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation

Example:
aCaCO3 + bH3 P O4 → cCa3 (P O4 )2 + dH2 CO3

Set up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.

Ca: a=3c
C:   a=d
O:   3a+4b=8c+3d
H:   3b=2d
P:    b=2c
Let's set c=1
Then a=3 and
d=a=3
b=2c=2
So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3
The balanced equation is
3CaCO3 + 2H3 P O4 → Ca3 (P O4 )2 + 3H2 CO3

Chemical Reactions and Equations II

Types of chemical reactions

Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple
categories.
Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation

Combination reaction

In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two
compounds combine to give one single product.
H2 + Cl2 → 2H Cl

element + element → compound

2CO + O2 → 2CO2

compound + element → compound

N H3 + H Cl → N H4 Cl

compound + compound → compound

Decomposition reaction

A single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or
more products.
Types of decomposition reactions:
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.
 Thermal decomposition of HgO

b. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition or photolysis.

Photolytic decomposition of H 2 O2

c. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or

electrolysis.

Electrolytic decomposition of H 2O

Displacement reaction

More reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.
i) Zn(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

ii) Cu(s) + 2AgN O 3 (aq) → Cu(N O3 )2 (aq) + 2Ag(s)

Double displacement reaction

An exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.
For example, Al (SO ) (aq) + 3Ca(OH ) (aq) → 2Al(OH ) (aq) + 3CaSO (s)
2 4 3 2 3 4

Precipitation reaction

An insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts
are combined. 
For example, P b(N O ) (aq) + 2KI (aq) → 2KN O (aq) + P bI (↓)(s)(yellow)
3 2 3 2

Redox reaction

Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

Oxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.
Reduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.
Oxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.
Reducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.

Examples:
1. F e(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) → F eSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
        (Blue)                (Green)
Fe → Fe
+2
; Fe - reducing agent.
+ 2e −  (oxidation)

+ 2e− → Cu(s) (reduction) ; Cu - oxidising agent.

+2
Cu

2. ZnO + C → Zn + CO
ZnO reduces to Zn → reduction
C oxidises to CO → oxidation
ZnO - Oxidising agent
C - Reducing agent

Endothermic and exothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions
are exothermic.

Al + F e2 O3 → Al2 O3 + F e + heat

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O + heat

Endothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.

6CO2 + 6H2 O + Sunlight → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2

       Glucose
Most of the decomposition reactions are endothermic.

Corrosion

Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or

chemicals in the surrounding environment.

Rusting:
4F e(s) + 3O2 (f rom air) + xH2 O(moisture) → 2F e2 O3 . xH2 O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2 O(moisture) + CO2 (f rom air) → CuCO3 . Cu(OH )2 (green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2 S(f rom air) → Ag2 S(black) + H2 (g)

Rancidity

It refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell
and bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.
Prevention:
(i) Use of air-tight containers
(ii) Packaging with nitrogen
(iii) Refrigeration
(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives
 Acids, Bases and Salts
Introduction to Acids, Bases and Salts
Classification of matter

On the basis of
a) composition -  elements, compounds and mixtures
b) state - solids, liquids and gases
c) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions

Types of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous

Types of compounds - covalent and ionic

What Is an Acid and a Base?

Ionisable and non-ionisable compounds

An ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions
almost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.
A non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or in its
molten state. Example: glucose, acetone, etc.

Arrhenius theory of acids and bases

Arrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H (aq) or H

+
3O
+
ion.
Arrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH ion.
−

Examples 

Acids 

Hydrochloric acid (H Cl)

Sulphuric acid  (H 2 SO4 )

Nitric acid (H N O 3)

Bases 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH ) 2)

Bronsted Lowry theory

A Bronsted acid is a H +
(aq) ion donor.
A Bronsted base is a H +
(aq) ion acceptor.

Example
In the reaction: H Cl(aq) + N H 3 (aq) → NH
+

4
(aq) + Cl
−
(aq)

H Cl - Bronsted acid and Cl - its conjugate acid

−

  - Bronsted base and N H - its conjugate acid

+
N H3
4

Physical test

Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.

a. Taste

An acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.

The method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.

b. Effect on indicators by acids and bases

An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,

mainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.
Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit: 

a) Litmus
In neutral solution - purple
In acidic solution - red
In basic solution - blue

Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.
An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.
A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.

b) Methyl orange
In neutral solution - orange
In acidic solution - red
In basic solution - yellow

c) Phenolphthalein
In neutral solution - colourless
In acidic solution - remains colourless
In basic solution - pink

Acid Base Reactions

Reactions of acids and bases
a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals

Acid + active metal →  salt + hydrogen + heat

2H Cl  + M g → M gCl2 + H2 (↑)

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2N aOH   + Zn → N a2 ZnO2 + H2 (↑)

A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
2N a + M g(OH )2 → 2N aOH + M g

b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates

Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate →  salt + water + carbon dioxide.

2H Cl  +  CaCO3 → CaCl2   +  H2 O  +  CO2

H2 SO4   +  M g(H CO3 )2 → M gSO4   +  2H2 O  +  2CO2

Effervescence indicates liberation of CO  gas.

2

c) Neutralisation reaction

1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids

Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.
Acid + base → salt + water + heat
H2 SO4   +  M gO → M gSO4   +  H2 O

2H Cl + M g(OH )2 → M gCl2 + 2H2 O

2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases

Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature

Base + Non-metal oxide →  salt + water + heat
2N aOH + CO2 → N a2 CO3 + H2 O

Water
Acids and bases in water

When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in
conducting electricity.

Difference between a base and an alkali

Base-
 Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.
They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal
bicarbonates.
Most of them are insoluble in water. 

Alkali - 

An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).

It dissolves in water and dissociates to give  OH ion. −

All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

Hydronium ion

Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the
oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Formation of a hydronium ion

Dilution

Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent
(usually water) to it.
It is a highly exothermic process.
To dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.

Strength of acids and bases

Strong acid or base: When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate
completely in water to furnish their respective ions, H (aq)  for acid and OH (aq) for base).
+ −

Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base
dissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H (aq) for acid and OH (aq) for base). 
+ −

Dilute acid: contains less number of H +

(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H +
(aq) ions per unit volume.
Universal indicator

A universal indicator has pH range from 0 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution.
A neutral solution has pH=7

pH

      pH = −log [H ]
10
+

In pure water,  [H ] = [OH ] = 10

+ − −7
mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
If pH < 7 - acidic solution
If pH > 7-  basic solution

pH scale

Importance of pH in everyday life

1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals

Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,
functions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.

2. pH of a soil

The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.

3. pH in the digestive system

The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.

The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by HCl in
our stomach. 

4. pH in tooth decay

Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH
5.5 and below.  

5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants

Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,
bee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted
acidic substances have a specific pH.

Manufacture of Acids and Bases

Manufacture of acids and bases

a) Non-metal oxide + water → acid

SO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO3 (aq)

SO3 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO4 (aq)

4N O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + O2 (g) → 4H N O3 (aq)

Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.

b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2H Cl(g)

H Cl(g) + H2 O(l) → H Cl(aq)

c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid

2N aCl(aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) → N a2 SO4 (aq) + 2H Cl(aq)

2KN O3 (aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) → K2 SO4 (aq) + 2H N O3 (aq)

d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)
4N a(s) + O2 (g) → 2N a2 O(s)

2M g(s) + O2 (g) → 2M gO(s)

e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen

Zn(s) + H O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H (g)
2 2

f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali

N a2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2N aOH (aq)

g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide

N H3 (g) + H2 O(l) → N H4 OH (aq)

Salts
Salts

A salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.

Examples - KCl, N aN O , CaSO , etc.
3 4

Salts are usually prepared by neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.

Common salt

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s used all over the world for
cooking.

Family of salts

Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,
LiCl.

pH of salts

A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.

Preparation of Sodium hydroxide 

Chemical formula - NaOH

Also known as - caustic soda
Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):
Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl  is released
2

At cathode: H  is released

2

Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.

Bleaching powder

Chemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2

Preparation - Ca(OH ) (aq) + Cl (g) → CaOCl (aq) + H O(l)

2 2 2 2

On interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for
bleaching action.

Baking soda

Chemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Chemical formula - N aH CO 3

Preparation (Solvay process) - 

a. Limestone is heated: CaCO → CaO + CO
3 2

b. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:

N aCl(aq) + N H3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → N aH CO3 (aq) + N H4 Cl(aq)

Uses:
1. Textile industry
2. Paper industry
3. Disinfectant

Washing soda

Chemical name  - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.

Chemical formuala - \(Na_2CO_3 \)
Preparation: By heating N aH CO 3

2N aH CO3 (s) → N a2 CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(g)

N a2 CO3 (s)  +  10H2 O(l)  →  N a2 CO3 .10H2 O(s)

Uses
1. In glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner

Crystals of salts

Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The water that
combines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.

Plaster of paris
 1 3
Gypsum,  CaSO4 .2H2 O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4 . H2 O and  H2 O
2 2

 is plaster of paris.

1
CaSO4 . H2 O
2

CaSO4 .
1

2
H2 O means two formula units of CaSO share one molecule of water.
4

Uses - cast for healing fractures.

 Metals and Non-metals
Corrosion
Alloys

Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metal with other metals or nonmetals. Alloy formation

enhances the desirable properties of the material, such as hardness, tensile strength and
resistance to corrosion.
Examples of few alloys -
Brass: copper and zinc
Bronze: copper and tin
Solder: lead and tin
Amalgam: mercury and other metal

Corrosion

Gradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or

chemicals in the surrounding environment.
Rusting:
4F e(s) + 3O2 (f rom air) + xH2 O(moisture) → 2F e2 O3 . xH2 O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2 O(moisture) + CO2 (f rom air) → CuCO3 . Cu(OH )2 (green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2 S(f rom air) → Ag2 S(black) + H2 (g)

Prevention of Corrosion

Prevention: 
1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or oil or grease on metal surfaces
keep out air and moisture.

2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.

3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a
protective layer and prevents corrosion.

4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.
This method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.
Example: silver plating, nickel plating.

5. Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the

articles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacrifice) instead
of iron and protects the articles.
Physical Properties
Physical Properties of Metals

● Hard and have a high tensile strength

● Solids at room temperature
● Sonorous
● Good conductors of heat and electricity
● Malleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets
● Ductile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires
● High melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))
● Dense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density
● Lustrous
● Silver-grey in colour, (except gold and copper)

Non-Metals

Nonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.

Physical Properties of Nonmetals

Occur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature

Brittle
Non-malleable
Non-ductile
Non-sonorous
Bad conductors of heat and electricity

Exceptions in Physical Properties

Alkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.

Mercury is a liquid metal.
Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
Mercury expands significantly for the slightest change in temperature.
Gallium and caesium have a very low melting point
Iodine is non-metal but it has lustre.
Graphite conducts electricity.
Diamond conducts heat and has a very high melting point.

Chemical Properties
Chemical Properties of Metals
● Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.
● Mg reacts with hot water.
● Al, Fe and Zn react with steam.
● Cu, Ag, Pt, Au do not react with water or dilute acids.

Reaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)

Metal + Oxygen  →  Metal oxide (basic)

● Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch
fire.
4K(s) + O (g) → 2K O(s) (vigorous reaction)
2 2

● Mg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.
2M g(s) + O (g) → 2M gO(s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)
2

4Al(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Al2 O3 (s)

● Silver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.

Basic Oxides of Metals

Some metallic oxides get dissolved in water and form alkalis. Their aqueous solution turns
red litmus blue.

N a2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2N aOH (aq)

K2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2KOH (aq)

Amphoteric Oxides of Metals

Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form
salt and water.
For example - Al O , ZnO, P bO, SnO
2 3

Al2 O3 (s) + 6H Cl(aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 O(l)

Al2 O3 (s) + 2N aOH (aq) → 2N aAlO2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2H Cl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2N aOH (aq) → N a2 ZnO2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

Reactivity Series

The below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order.

Symbol               Element
K Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)
Ba Barium
Ca Calcium
Na Sodium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
H Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum

Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

M etal + W ater → M etal hydroxide or M etal oxide + H ydrogen

2N a + 2H2 O(cold) → 2N aOH + H2 + heat

Ca + 2H2 O(cold) → Ca(OH )2 + H2

M g + 2H2 O(hot) → M g(OH )2 + H2

2Al + 3H2 O(steam) → Al2 O3 + 3H2

Zn + H2 O(steam) → ZnO + H2

3F e + 4H2 O(steam) → F e3 O4 + 4H2

Reaction of Metals with Acid

M etal + dilute acid → Salt + H ydrogen gas

2N a(s) + 2H Cl(dilute) → 2N aCl(aq) + H2 (g)

2K(s) + H2 SO4 (dilute) → K2 SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Only Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas. 
M g(s) + 2H N O3 (dilute) → M g(N O3 )2 (aq) + H2 (g)

M n(s) + 2H N O3 (dilute) → M n(N O3 )2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Displacement Reaction
A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.

How Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts

M etal A + Salt of  metal B → Salt of  metal A + M etal B

F e(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → F eSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

Cu(s) + 2AgN O3 (aq) → Cu(N O3 )(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Reaction of Metals with Bases

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen

2N aOH (aq) + Zn(s) → N a2 ZnO2 (aq) + H2 (g)

2N aOH (aq) + 2Al(s) + 2H2 O(l) → 2N aAlO2 (aq) + 2H2 (g)

Extraction of Metals and Non-Metals

Applications of Displacement Reaction

Uses of displacement reaction

1. Extraction of metals
2. Manufacturing of steel
3. Thermite reaction: Al(s) + F e 2 O3 (s) → Al2 O3 + F e(molten)

The thermite reaction is used in welding of railway tracks, cracked machine parts, etc.

Occurrence of Metals

Most of the elements especially metals occur in nature in the combined state with other
elements. All these compounds of metals are known as minerals. But out of them, only a few
are viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.
Au, Pt - exist in the native or free state.

Extraction of Metals
Metals of high reactivity - Na, K, Mg, Al.
Metals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.
Metals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg

Roasting

Converts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
It also removes volatile impurities.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) + H eat → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

Calcination

Converts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of
limited air. It also removes volatile impurities.

ZnCO3 (s) + heat → ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)

CaCO3 (s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Al2 O3 .2H2 O(s) + heat → 2Al2 O3 (s) + 2H2 O(l)

2F e2 O3 .3H2 O(s) + heat → 2F e2 O3 (s) + 3H2 O(l)

Extracting Metals Low in Reactivity Series

By self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,
are heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the
remaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no
external reducing agent is used.

1. 2H gS(Cinnabar) + 3O 2 (g) + heat → 2H gO(crude metal) + 2SO2 (g)

2H gO(s) + heat → 2H g(l) + O2 (g)

2. Cu 2 S(Copper pyrite) + 3O2 (g) + heat → 2Cu2 O(s) + 2SO2 (g)

2Cu2 O(s) + Cu2 S(s) + heat → 6Cu(crude metal) + SO2 (g)

3. 2P bS(Galena) + 3O 2 (g) + heat → 2P bO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

P bS(s) + 2P bO(s) → 2P b(crude metal) + SO2 (g)

Extracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series

Smelting - it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore(metal oxide) to a high temperature
with a suitable reducing agent. The crude metal is obtained in its molten state.
F e2 O3 + 3C(coke) → 2F e + 3CO2

Aluminothermic reaction - also known as the Goldschmidt reaction is a highly exothermic

reaction in which metal oxides usually of Fe and Cr are heated to a high temperature with
aluminium.
F e2 O3 + 2Al → Al2 O3 + 2F e + heat

Cr2 O3 + 2Al → Al2 O3 + 2Cr + heat

Extraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series

Electrolytic reduction:

1. Down’s process:  Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.

At the cathode (reduction) - 

+ −
Na (molten) + e → N a(s)

Metal is deposited.

At the anode (oxidation) -

− –
2Cl (molten) → Cl2 (g) + 2e

Chlorine gas is liberated.

2. Hall’s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a fluoride solvent usually cryolite,
(N a AlF ) is electrolysed.
3 6

At the cathode (reduction) -

3+ –
2Al + 6e → 2Al(s)
Metal is deposited.

At the anode (oxidation) -

6O
2–
 
→ 3O2 (g) + 12e
–

Oxygen gas is liberated.

Enrichment of Ores

It means removal of impurities or gangue from ore, through various physical and chemical
processes. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the
properties of the ore and the gangue.

Refining of Metals

Refining of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in
metallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal and the gangue.

Electrolytic Refining

Metals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are refined electrolytically.
Anode – impure or crude metal
Cathode – thin strip of pure metal
Electrolyte – aqueous solution of metal salt

From anode (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution

At cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited
Impurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.

The Why Questions

Electronic configuration

 Group 1 elements - Alkali metals

Element Electronic conf iguration

Lithium(Li) 2, 1

Sodium(N a) 2, 8, 1

P otassium(K) 2, 8, 8, 1

Rubidium(Rb) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
  Group 2 elements - Alkaline earth metals
Element Electronic conf iguration

Beryllium(Be) 2, 2

M agnesium(M g) 2, 8, 2

Calcium(Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2

Stronium(Sr) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2

How Do Metals and Nonmetals React

Metals lose valence electron(s) and form cations.

Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.
The cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus
forming an ionic bond. 
For example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged
calcium and chloride ions.
Calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.

The two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain
the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).

Ionic Compounds
The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound
together.
Example: M gCl , CaO, M gO, N aCl, etc.
2

Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic compounds

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).

2. Have high melting and boiling points.
3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution and when melted.
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.

Physical Nature

Ionic solids usually exist in a regular, well-defined crystal structures.

Electric Conduction of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free
and act as charge carriers.
In solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to
move; hence do not conduct electricity.

For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity when solid
conduct electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it will
conduct electricity.

Salt solution conducts electricity

Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of
energy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually
very high.

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This
occurs due to the polar nature of water. 
For example, N aCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of N a and Cl ions bound together
+ −

through electrostatic forces of attractions. When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with
water, the partial positively charged ends of water molecules interact with the Cl ions,
−

while the negatively charged end of the water molecules interacts with the N a ions.

+

This ion-dipole interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the
strong electrostatic forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of
the crystal. 
 Carbon and Its Compounds
Soaps and Detergents:-
Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form
spherical shape micelles.

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of
the fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO N a , remains attracted to water
− +

molecules.

The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles
and detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
Hard Water

Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,
and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard
water react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium
salts of fatty acids.

2C17 H35 COON a + M gCl2 → (C17 H35 COO)2 M g + 2N aCl

2C17 H35 COON a + CaCl2 → (C17 H35 COO)2 Ca + 2N aCl

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the cleaning
ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.

Covalent Bonds
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion

To achieve the electronic configuration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses
four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C  ion hence formed will
4+

be highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of
the noble gas, Ne, C ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.
4−

Moreover, in C  ion it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its
4+

tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a
nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the
compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is
primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with
similar electronegativity.

Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it
represent the valence electrons of the element. 

Lewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2

Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:

Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to
acquire nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.
Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:
Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to
acquire nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons
to acquire nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths

A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them,
i.e., one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,
i.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines
between the two atoms.

A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them,
i.e., two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines
between the two atoms.
Bond strength:
- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a
bond.
- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two
bonds or a single bond.

Bond length:
- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (N H ), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen
3

atom and form three covalent bonds.

Ammonia has one lone pair.

All the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards N atom.
This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight
positive charge.
In water (H O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and
2

form two covalent bonds.

Water has two lone pairs. 

The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight
positive charge.
Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH ) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four
4

hydrogen atoms as shown below.

Mp,Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon

- The phenomenon of existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar
chemical properties is known as allotropy.
- Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
- Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
- Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.

Diamond

Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected to
four neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a
crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other,
 resulting in a rigid three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.

Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

Graphite

In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving
each carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in a
single plane and such rings are stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.

Graphite:

1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.

C60

C60 , also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known
fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities in
soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer
ball.

Chains, Branches and Rings

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These
are known as alkanes. General formula = C H
n where n = 1,2,3,4…..
2n+2

Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or

triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General
formula = C H n where n = 2,3,4…..
n 2

Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General
formula = C H
n where n = 2,3,4…..
2n−2

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring. 

Structural Isomers
The compounds with same molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties
are known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called
structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.

Structural isomers with molecular formula - C 5 H12

Benzene

Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.

Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula, C H , i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged
6 6

in a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.

It includes 3-double bonds which are separated by a single bond. 
Hence this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable
resonance structures exist for the ring.
 Resonating structures of Benzene

Functional Groups and Nomenclature

Functional Groups

An atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives specific physical and
chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a
functional group.

Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH 3 OH ) , Ethanol (CH 3 − CH2 − OH ) , etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing  -CHO group are known as
aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH CH O), etc.
3

(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two
alkyl groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH 3 COCH3 ) , Butanone
(CH COCH CH ), etc.
3 2 3

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence
they are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH COOH ), Propanoic acid (CH
3 3 CH2 COOH ) , etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom
is substituted by - X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane
(CH Cl), Bromomethane (CH Br), etc.
3 3

Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, similar
chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in
their molecular formula by −CH .2

Physical Properties

The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the
same functional group. Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling point,
density, etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
Combustion Reactions

Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of

air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

Flame Characteristics

Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky
flame. In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.

Oxidation

Oxidation
By use of mild oxidizing agent, CrO (chromic anhydride), ethanol CH CH OH is oxidised
3 3 2

to ethanal (CH CH O).

3

Whereas, by use of a strong oxidizing agent like (alkaline KM nO or acidified K Cr O

4 2 2 7

), ethanol CH CH OH is oxidised to ethanoic acid (CH COOH ).

3 2 3

al
ka
li
n
e 
K
M
n
O
4
 o
r

CH3 CH2 OH −
a−−−−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOH
ci
d
i
f
ie
d 
K
2

C
r
2

O
7
 al
ka
li
n
e 
K
M
n
O
4
 o
r

CH3 CH O −
a−−−−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOH
ci
d
i
f
ie
d 
K
2

C
r
2

O
7

Addition

The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of
the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction,
hydrogen is added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like nickel,
palladium or platinum.
N
i 
o
r 
P
t 
o
r 
P
d

C 2 H2 + H2 −−−−−−−−−→ C 2 H4

Substitution

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by

different atoms or group of atoms is called substitution reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen
atoms are replaced by other elements.

CH4 + Cl2 + Sunlight → CH3 Cl + H Cl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol

(i) Ethanol, C H OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.

2 5

(ii) It boils at 351 K.

(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

Uses:

1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.

2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss
3

of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction
supports the acidic character of ethanol.
− +
2C2 H5 OH + 2N a → 2C2 H5 O Na + H2 (↑)

Elimination Reaction

An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a
molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction

Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction
is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed
from the ethanol molecule. 
c
o
n
c.
H
2

S
O
4

CH3 CH2 OH −−−−−−−→ CH2 = CH2 + H2 O

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH COOH 3

(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.

(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is named as glacial
acetic acid.

Esterification

When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with an alcohol in presence of small quantity of conc.
H SO , a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called
2 4

esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H 2 SO4 , ethyl ethanoate and
water are formed.       
(

C
o
n
c.
H
2

S
O
4
)

CH3 COOH + C2 H5 OH −−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOC2 H5 + H2 O

Saponification

A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap
molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group
and  −COO N a  ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a
− +

concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap
and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as
saponification.

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate
hydrogen gas.
2CH3 COOH + 2N a → 2CH3 COON a + H2 (↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3 COOH + N aOH → CH3 COON a + H2 O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO gas. For
2

example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate, CO gas is evolved.
2

2CH3 COOH + N a2 CO3 → 2CH3 COON a + H2 O + CO2

CH3 COOH + N aH CO3 → CH3 COON a + H2 O + CO2

Friendly Carbon
Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic configuration
and unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation and tendency to
form multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon
compounds.

Catenation

Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent

bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and
rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.

S8

In its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S molecule. It has
8

puckered ring structure.

Periodic element classification is the process of categorising the elements into various classes. This
strategy involves grouping like things together and separating those that are unrelated by comparing the
characteristics of several elements. It aids in our comprehension of how various compounds combine to
form various elements.

Introduction to Periodic Classification of Elements

Why Classification?

Without the classification of elements, it would be extremely difficult and time-consuming to

individually study the chemistry of all the elements. Hence, to simplify and systematize the study of
elements and their compounds, they are classified into groups and periods.

Early attempts of classification

The chemical and physical characteristics that scientists had noticed served as the foundation for the
early attempts to classify elements. We compared a few reactions using well-known substances and
elements.

They were arranged according to their atomic weights. They tried to study the periodicity of the
properties as the atomic weight increased in order to categorise them into groups.

The law of octaves was then put forth after the law of triads. These laws were proposed by Doberneiner,
Chancourtois, and Newlands, who also created several tables.

Early Models of Periodic Table

Dobereiner's Triads

Dobereiner arranged a group of three elements with similar properties in the order of increasing atomic
masses and called it a triad. He showed that the atomic mass of the middle element is approximately the
arithmetic mean of the other two. But, Dobereiner could identify only the following three triads from the
elements known at that time.
Newlands' Law of Octaves

sa (do) re (re) ga (mi) ma (fa) pa (so) da (la) ni (ti)

H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P F
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr ______ _____

When the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic masses, the physical and chemical
properties of every eighth element are similar to that of the first.
Newlands compared these octaves to the series of eight notes of a musical scale.

Assumptions and Limitations:

1. The law was applicable for elements with atomic masses up to 40.
2. Properties of new elements discovered did not fit into the law of octaves.
3. In a few cases, Newlands placed two elements in the same slot to fit elements in the table.
4. He also grouped unlike elements under the same slot.

Mendeleev's Periodic Table and Law

The physical and chemical characteristics of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses, in
accordance with Mendeleev's Periodic Law. Mendeleev organised the elements in ascending order of
their atomic masses after classifying them according to their atomic masses.

The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.

Features of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

● Twelve horizontal rows, which were condensed to 7, known as periods.
● Eight vertical columns known as groups.
● Groups I to VII subdivided into A and B subgroups.
● Group VIII doesn't have any subgroups and contains three elements in each row.
● Elements in the same group exhibit similar properties.

Achievements of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

1. A systematic study of elements: Elements with similar properties were grouped together, that made
the study of their chemical and physical properties easier.
2. Correction of atomic masses: Placement of elements in Mendeleev’s periodic table helped in
correcting the atomic masses of certain elements. For example, the atomic mass of beryllium was
corrected from 13.5 to 9. Similarly, atomic masses of indium, gold, platinum etc., were also corrected.
3. Prediction of properties of yet to be discovered elements: Eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-
silicon were the names given to yet to be discovered elements. The properties of these elements could be
predicted accurately from the elements that belonged to the same group. These elements, when
discovered were named scandium, gallium, and germanium, respectively.
4. Placement of noble gases: When discovered, they were placed easily in a new group called zero
group of Mendeleev’s table, without disturbing the existing order.

Limitations of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

1. Position of hydrogen: Hydrogen resembles both, the alkali metals (IA) and the halogens (VIIA) in
properties, so, Mendeleev could not justify its position.
2. Position of isotopes: Atomic weight of isotopes differ, but, they were not placed in different positions
in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
3. Anomalous pairs of elements: Cobalt (Co) has higher atomic weights but was placed before Nickel
(Ni) in the periodic table.
4. Placement of like elements in different groups: Platinum (Pt) and Gold (Au) have similar properties
but were placed in different groups.
5. Cause of periodicity: He could not explain the cause of periodicity among the elements.

The Modern Periodic Table

In the past, scientists believed that an element's qualities were periodic functions of its atomic mass.
Mendeleev arranged 63 elements in a vertical column named groups and horizontal rows called periods
based on this idea.

This approach was disregarded since it was unable to account for the locations of several elements, rare
earth metals, and isotopes. Henry Moseley, a scientist, corrected these flaws and proposed the modern
periodic table and periodic rule.

Modern Periodic Law

The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Cause of periodicity - It is due to the repetition of the same outer shell electronic configuration at a
certain regular interval.

Features of Modern Periodic Table

The vertical columns and horizontal rows that make up the long version of the periodic table are called
groups and periods, respectively.

 According to their increasing atomic numbers, elements are organised.

 The contemporary periodic table divides the elements into 7 periods and 18 groups.
 Vertical columns are known as groups, and horizontal rows are known as periods.
 Depending on how many atomic shells each element has, it is classified into periods.
 The first period, which only has two elements—hydrogen and helium—is the shortest.
 The sixth period in the periodic table is regarded as the longest period. It contains substances ranging
from Radon to Cesium.
 The seventh period is a blank period.
 Actinides and Lanthanides are included at the bottom of the periodic table.
Periods in Modern Periodic Table

Elements present in the same period have the same number of shells which is equal to the
period number. A period is a row of the periodic table that is horizontal. The periodic table contains
seven periods, each of which starts at the left.

On moving from left to right in a given period, the number of electrons in the valence shell increases
from one to eight while the number of shells remains the same.

Number of Elements in a Period

The first period contains only two elements 1Hand2He and is known as the shortest period.

The second period (3Li to 10Ne) and the third period (11Na to 18Ar) contain 8 elements each and are
known as short periods.

The fourth period (19K to 36Kr) and the fifth period (37Rb to 54Xe) contain 18 elements each and are
called long periods.
The sixth period contains 32 elements (55Cs and 86Rn) and is also known as the longest period.

The seventh period is an incomplete period.

(After the recent discoveries of the new elements and their addition to the periodic table, the seventh
period is officially complete)

Groups in Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table contains 18 vertical columns known as groups.

Group 1 elements are known as alkali metals.

Group 2 elements are known as alkaline earth metals.
Group 15 elements are known as pnicogens.
Group 16 elements are known as chalcogens.
Group 17 elements are known as halogens.
Group 18 elements are known as noble gases.

Alkali Metals

The elements in the first group, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs),
and francium (Fr) are called alkali metals.
They were given the name because they all react with water to form alkalis.
The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive solids at standard temperature and pressure and
readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1.
Number of valence electrons = 1

Alkali Earth Metals

The elements in the second group, beryllium(Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba),
and radium (Ra) are called alkaline earth metals.
They were given the name because their oxides are alkaline in nature.
They are all shiny, silvery-white, somewhat reactive hard solids at standard temperature and pressure. They lose
two electrons from their outermost shell to form cations with charge +2.
Number of valence electrons = 2

Halogens
The elements in the seventeenth group (F, Cl, Br, I and As) are called halogens and exist as diatomic molecules.
The symbol ‘X’ is often used generically to refer to any halogen.
They were given the name halogen, from the Greek words, Hal (“salt”) and gen (“to produce”), because they all
produce a wide range of salts on reacting with metals.
The halogens exist at room temperature in all three states of matter: Solid - Iodine, Astatine. Liquid - Bromine.
Gas - Fluorine, Chlorine.
Number of valence electrons = 7
Noble Gases
The elements in the eighteenth group, helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the
radioactive radon (Rn) are called noble gases.
They are all odourless, colourless and monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity.
Since their valence shell is considered to be "full", they have little tendency to participate in chemical reactions.
When discovered and identified, scientists thought they are exceedingly rare, as well as chemically inert, and
therefore these gases were also given the names ‘rare’ or ‘inert’ gases.
Number of valence electrons = 8

Classification of Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table is also classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Metals
Metals are electropositive as they form bonds by losing electrons.
In general cases, oxides of metals are basic in nature.
Examples: Includes iron, copper, silver, mercury, lead, aluminum, gold, platinum, zinc, nickel and tin.

Non-metals
Nonmetals are electronegative as they form bonds by gaining electrons.
In general cases, oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature.

Metalloids
The elements which show the properties of both metals and nonmetals are called metalloids or semimetals.
For example - Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium.

Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

Trends in Modern Periodic Table

In a group - Elements have the same number of valence electrons.
Down the group - number of shells increases.
In a period - Elements have the same number of shells.
Along the period - valence shell electrons increase by one unit.

Variation of Valency
Valency of an element can be calculated from the electronic configuration in two ways –
Valency = number of valence electrons (if they are 1, 2, 3 or 4).
All the elements of a group have the same number of valence electrons. Therefore, they all have the same valency.

Variation of Atomic Size

Atomic size or radii: It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the valence shell of
the atom.

Along the period - Atomic radius decreases because effective nuclear charge increases by one unit and it
pulls valence electrons or the electron cloud closer to the nucleus.
Down the group - Atomic radius increases because new shells are added, hence, the distance between
the nucleus and valence electrons or the electron cloud increases.

Variation of Metallic Properties

Along the period - Metallic character decreases because the tendency to lose valence electrons decreases
due to increasing nuclear charge.
Down the group - As the distance between the nucleus and outermost electron increases, nuclear pull
decreases. This increases the tendency of an atom to lose valence electron/s, hence metallic character
increases.

Variation of Nonmetallic Properties

Along the period - Non-metallic character increases as the tendency to gain electrons in the valence shell
increases due to increasing nuclear charge.
Down the group - As the distance between the nucleus and valence shell increases, nuclear pull
decreases. This decreases the tendency of an atom to gain an electron its valence shell, hence non-
metallic character decreases.

Variation of Electronegativity

Along the period - Electronegativity increases as the tendency to gain electrons in the valence shell
increases due to increasing nuclear charge.
Down the group - As the distance between the nucleus and valence shell increases, nuclear pull
decreases. This decreases the tendency of an atom to gain an electron, hence electronegativity decreases.
 Introductio
All living organisms have certain common characteristics such as breathing, growing, requiring
nutrition, producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc. that distinguish them from non-living things.
There are certain vital processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body, they are
called life processes. These processes continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing
any action. These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and animals. These
life processes are nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and
excretion

In this chapter, we will learn about the details of these processes occurring in plants, animals and human
beings in particular

Lif

Earth happens to be the only known planet having a life. There are beings who live, die and become part
of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various
parameters of life processes

Life Proces
e

 • The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are moving, resting or even
sleeping
• The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of 'life' are called as life
processes
• Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of essential life processes
• In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell
• In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes

To know more about Life Process, visit here

Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with a separate solution pdf of this
chapter for quick revision from the links below

• Life Processes Short Notes

• Life Processes MCQ Practice Questions
• Life Processes MCQ Practice Solutions


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 Nutritio
Nutritio

The process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is called
nutrition

•
There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic
•
Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some bacteria. Organisms produce their own
food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively
• Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from
organic compounds. Such as animals eating plants or other animals for food
• Heterotrophic nutrition has subtypes such as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition
To know more about Nutrition, visit here

Autotrophic Nutritio

If an organism can nourish itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of
nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition

• Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs

• Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs
.

Photosynthesi

• Photosynthesis is an important process by which food is formed

• The plants make food using sunlight and water, which provides nourishment to other organism
and themselves
• Chlorophyll present in the green parts absorbs light energy
• This light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
• Hydrogen is then used to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose
• Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and stomata to facilitate intake of carbon dioxide
The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

To know more about Photosynthesis, visit here

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 Stomat

• Stomata are pores on the leaves that help in the exchange of gases
• They are mostly found on the underside of the leaf
• Each stoma is guarded by guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the pore
• The water content of the guard cells is responsible for their function

To know more about Stomata, visit here

Saprophytic Nutritio

Some organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. This mode of nutrition is called
saprophytic nutrition

• The food is partially digested outside the body and then it is absorbed

• E.g. Fungi are saprophytes

Parasitic Nutritio

Some organisms feed at the expense of another organism and in turn cause harm. This is called the
parasitic mode of nutrition

• These parasites live on the body or in the body of a host organism and derive the nutrients
directly from the body of the host
• E.g. Leech is an ectoparasite while Ascaris is an endoparasite. Cuscuta is a parasitic plant
a

 Nutrition in Amoeb

• Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition

• It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is called phagocytosis
• The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole
• As the food vacuole passes through the cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and assimilation take
place
• When the food vacuole opens to outside, the egestion of undigested food takes place
.

To know more about Nutrition in Amoeba, visit here

Nutrition in Paramoeciu

• Paramoecium also exhibits holozoic nutrition

• However, they have cilia that help them to engulf the food through the oral groove
• A food vacuole is created enclosing the food
• It moves through the cytoplasm, the process is called cyclosis
• Food digested in the food vacuole is absorbed by the cytoplasm
• Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore called anal pore or cytopyge

 Nutrition in Human

• Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food
• Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system
• The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together
function to nourish the body
• There are ve stages in human nutrition; Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and
Egestion
• Four stages i.e. ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion take place in the alimentary canal
while assimilation of food takes place in the whole body
To know more about Nutrition in Humans, visit here

Alimentary Cana

• The alimentary canal in humans is a long tube of varying diameter

• It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus
• Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine are the parts of the alimentary canal
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 To know more about Alimentary Canal, visit here

 Mout
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 • It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food
• The buccal cavity which is present behind the mouth is also commonly referred to as the mouth
• The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue
• The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food
• The tongue has taste buds on it and thus helps in tasting the food
• The salivary glands open also in the buccal cavity and pour saliva which initiates the process of
digestion
Teet

• Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity

• They help us to cut, shear and masticate the food we eat
• The vertical section of a tooth shows four layers enamel, dentine, cement and dental pulp
• Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the hardest part of the human body
• Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts
• Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket
• The dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph
vessels along with connective tissue
• There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars, each with a
speci c function
• Incisors cut the food, canines tear the food while molars and premolars crush it
• The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3
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 Oesophagus & Stomac

Oesophagu

• The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus

• It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end
• Its function is to transport food and uid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach
• Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements
Stomac
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 • The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure

• It receives food from the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other
end
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices
• Food is churned into a semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme
• Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the food
• Hydrochloric acid helps in the partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria
• The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach resists the action of HCl on itself

Small Intestin

• The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans
• It has regions, duodenum, the region which follows the stomach, jejunum is the middle part and
the ileum is the later region which continues further into the large intestine
• The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into nger-like projections called villi
• A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas and liver opens into the duodenum
• Most of the chemical digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine

Large Intestin

• The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long

• It has two regions, colon ( about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult)
• The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called the rectum
• Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon
• At the base of the ascending colon, a small nger-like out-growth is seen and is called an
appendix
• It houses many useful bacteria required for digestion of food
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 • Rectum opens to outside by anus

• The anus has internal and external anal sphincters

Peristalsi

A constant wave-like movement of the alimentary canal right from the oesophagus to the small intestine
is called as peristalsis

• Muscles present in the wall of the alimentary canal are responsible for peristalsis
• This movement helps to push the food through the alimentary canal
To know more about Peristalsis, visit here

Digestive Gland

• Several glands produce digestive juices that help in digestion of the food
• Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas are few to name
• Salivary glands secrete saliva which initiates digestion in the mouth itself
• Gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin
• The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in digestion of fats
• The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice
s

 • Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice

Pancrea

• The pancreas is a long, at gland present behind the stomach in humans

• It is one of the major digestive glands and is of mixed nature i.e. endocrine as well as exocrine
• As an endocrine organ, it secretes two hormones called insulin and glucagon which maintain the
blood sugar level
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which is nothing but a mixture of many
digestive enzymes
• The digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas include trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases
which digest proteins
• It also includes amylase which digests the starch content of the food
• Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats

To know more about Pancreas, visit here

Holozoic Nutritio

The mode of nutrition in which animals take their food as a whole is called as holozoic nutrition
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 In holozoic nutrition, food passes through ve steps as ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion

Physiology of Digestio

• Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate the food,
saliva gets mixed and it turns into a bolus
• Digestion of starch starts in the buccal cavity itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in
the saliva
• Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose
• In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the muscular contraction and relaxation
of its wall. It breaks down the food into simpler substances
• Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down
into smaller fragments called peptide by the action of pepsin
• The bolus after mixing with gastric juice, turn into a ne soluble form known as the chyme
• Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of
various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice
• The digested food is completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine
• Undigested food then enters into the large intestine
• The colon is responsible for absorption of water and salts whereas rectum stores the undigested
food temporarily before defaecation

To know more about Digestive System, visit here

Digestive System in Other Animal

• Digestive systems in different animals vary in structure and function

• The structure of the digestive system depends on the food habits of the animal
• Alimentary canal in herbivores is long as the cellulose content of their plant-based diet takes a
long time to digest
• On the other hand, the alimentary canal of carnivorous animals is comparatively shorter because
meat gets digested faster

Anatomy of Digestive Trac

• The alimentary canal in humans is approximately 30 feet (9m) long. It is also called
the gastrointestinal tract
• It starts with the mouth and ends in the anus
• Between these two openings, the alimentary canal is a tube of varying diameter
• Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (divided into three regions duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
and large intestine(having two regions colon and rectum) are the parts of the alimentary canal
• Salivary glands, pancreas and liver act as major digestive glands
• Glands present in the wall of the stomach and small intestine also contribute to the digestion of
food
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 Role of HC

• Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands present in its wall
• the pH of the gastric acid is usually between 1.5 to 3.
• This acid serves the following functions
1. Converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin respectively
2. Provides an acidic medium for protein digestion
3. Kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection
4. Prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach
• A thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucous glands of the stomach prevents itself from the
action of gastric acid
• Excess acid damages gastric mucosa and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers

Salivary Gland

• Salivary glands are the exocrine glands that secrete saliva and through a system of ducts, it is
poured into the mouth
• In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and
sublingual
• In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day
• Saliva serves the following functions in the oral cavity
1. It lubricates and protects the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavit
2. It also gives protection from dental carie
3. Saliva prevents microbial growth in the oral cavity
4. Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound
contractio
5. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin.
Hence saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomac
6. Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds
located on the tongue
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 Heterotrophic Nutritio

When an organism depends on others for food, such a mode of nutrition is called as a heterotrophic
mode of nutrition

• These organisms depend on autotrophs for their nutritional requirements

• E.g. Animals which eat plants as their food are called herbivores
• Animals which eat other animals as their food are called carnivores
• Holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition are all types of heterotrophic nutrition

To know more about Heterotrophic Nutrition, visit here

Glandular Epitheliu

• Many small glands present in the inner layer of the stomach and intestine take part in the
digestion of food
• These glands are present in the epithelial lining of the stomach and intestine
 

 • The glands present in different regions of the stomach are called gastric glands
• They are responsible for the secretion of mucus, hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsinogen
• The glands present in the epithelial lining of the small intestine and large intestine are called
intestinal glands
• Glands of the small intestine are responsible for the secretion of intestinal juice also called
succus entericus
• Intestinal juice contains hormones, digestive enzymes, alkaline mucus, and substances to
neutralize hydrochloric acid coming from the stomach
• Intestinal juice completes the digestion started by the pancreatic juice
• Glands of the large intestine are associated with the absorption of water and electrolytes

Villi and Micro Vill

• Complete digestion and absorption of food take place in the small intestine
• Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the
intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material
• All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long nger-like projections present in the ileum of
the small intestine
• These small nger-like projections of the inner wall of intestine are called as villi (singular:
villus)
• Each villus has its cell membrane of the lumen side again folded into microscopic processes,
called microvilli
• Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface
area for absorption
• Digested nutrients pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion
• Villi also help in chemical digestion of food by secreting digestive enzymes
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Live

 • The liver is the largest and major digestive gland of human

• Liver, in humans, is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdomen
• This organ is dark reddish-brown in colour due to an extensive blood supply
• Some of the important functions of the liver are as follows
1. It secretes bile that helps in digestion
2. It lters the blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body
3. It detoxi es various metabolites and antidote
4. The liver makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions
5. It stores and releases glucose as needed
6. It processes haemoglobin, from the dead and worn out RBCs, for the iron content (the
liver stores iron)
7. Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver

To know more about Liver, visit here

Digestive Juice
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 • Pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice (succus entericus) are collectively called digestive
juices
• A common duct from digestive glands pours the secretions into the duodenum
• Chyme enters the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of
various enzymes
• In the duodenum, the acidity of chyme is turned to alkalinity by the action of bile coming from
the liver. This is necessary for pancreatic enzyme action
• Bile also emulsi es the fats into smaller globules
• Pancreatic and intestinal amylases break down carbohydrates into glucose
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the proteases responsible for the breakdown of proteins nally into
amino acids
• Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the emulsi ed fats and breaks them down into glycerol and
fatty acids

Water Absorption in Large Intestin

• The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients
• The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food
matter and make the stool solid
• The large intestine also helps in the absorption of vitamins made by bacteria that normally live in
the large intestine
• The innermost layer of the large intestine also acts as a barrier and protects from microbial
infections and invasions
• Rectum stores the undigested food temporarily until defecation

Respiratio
Introduction to Respiratio

• Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases

• Animals and plants have different means of exchange of gases
• At a cellular level, respiration means the burning of the food at the for generating the energy
needed for other life processes
• Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen
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 To know more about Respiration, visit here

Respiration in Human

• The human respiratory system is more complex and involves breathing, exchange of gases and
cellular respiration
• A well de ned respiratory system helps breathing and exchange of gases
• Breathing involves the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide
• The gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and oxygen is supplied to all cells of the body
• Cellular respiration takes place in each and every cell

Respiratory Syste

• The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea/
windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
• Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs
• The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, all help in inhalation and
exhalation of gases
• Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels
• Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases

To know more about Respiratory System, visit here

Physiology of Respiratio

• Breathing in humans is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external intercostal
muscles attached to the ribs and the diaphragm
• When the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and becomes attened and the rib cage is expanded
due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume of the lungs increases, pressure there drops
down and the air from outside gushes in. This is inhalation
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 • To exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, becomes dome-shaped again, chest cavity contracts due to the
action of intercostal muscles, the volume inside the lungs decreases, pressure increases and the
air is forced out of the lungs
• Inhaled air increases the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli,  so oxygen simply diffuses into
the surrounding blood vessels
• Blood coming from cells has more concentration of carbon dioxide than outside air and thus
carbon dioxide simply diffuses out of the blood vessels into the alveoli
• Thus, breathing takes place due to the combined action of intercostal muscles and diaphragm
while the exchange of gases takes place due to simple diffusion

Inhalation and Exhalatio

• The process of taking in air rich in oxygen is called inhalation

• Similarly, the process of giving out air rich in carbon dioxide is called exhalation
• One breath comprises one inhalation and one exhalation
• A person breathes several times in a day
• The number of times a person breathes in one minute is termed as his/her breathing rate
To know more about Inhalation and Exhalation, visit here

Diffusio
 

 Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area
without spending any energy

Cellular Respiratio

Cellular respiration is set of metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells to convert biochemical energy
obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• Metabolism refers to a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining the living state of the
cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories
• Catabolism – the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy
• Anabolism – the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells
• Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones,
releasing energy to fuel cellular activities
• Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are the important processes of the cellular
respiration
 

 To know more about Cellular Respiration, visit here

Aerobic Respiratio

Aerobic respiration is a process in which the food i.e. glucose is converted into energy in the presence of
oxygen

• The general equation of aerobic respiration as a whole is as given below

Glucose + oxygen ⇒ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energ

• This type of respiration takes place in animals, plants and other living organisms
Respiration in Lower Animal

• Lower animals lack a sophisticated respiratory system like lungs, alveoli etc
• Respiration in them takes place by simple exchange mechanisms
• Animals like earthworms take in gases through their skin
• Fishes have gills for gaseous exchange
• Insects have a tracheal system, which is a network of tubes, through which air circulates and
gaseous exchange takes place
• Frogs breathe through their skin when in water and through their lungs when on land
 

 Respiration in Muscle

• Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough oxygen

• Glucose gets broken down into carbon dioxide and lactic acid
• This results in the accumulation of lactic acid that makes the muscles sore
• This type of anaerobic respiration is also known as lactic acid fermentation

AT

• It is the energy currency of the cell

• ATP stands for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate
• This molecule is created as a result reactions like photosynthesis, respiration etc
• The three phosphate bonds present in the molecule are high-energy bonds and when they are
broken, a large amount of energy is released
• Such released energy is then used for other metabolic reactions
P

 Respiration in Plant

• Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous exchang
• They have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are involved in the
exchange of gases
• Compared to animals, plant roots, stems, and leaves respire at a very lower rate
 

To know more about Respiration in Plants, visit here

Transpiratio

• Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form of water vapour from the
aerial parts of the plants
• This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) occurs
• Transpiration helps in the transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants and this is
explained by 'transpirational pull theory'
• Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as a straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots
• Transpiration also acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water

To know more about Transpiration, visit here

Why Do We Need Lung

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 • In unicellular organisms like an amoeba exchange of gases takes place through a general body
surface by osmosis
• In lower animals like an earthworm, the gaseous exchange takes place through their moist skin
• The requirement for oxygen is suf ciently met in these ways
• But as the animal starts becoming more and more complex, for example, humans, the
requirement of oxygen cannot be met alone by diffusion
• Moreover, diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated cells
• This dif culty has led to the evolution of a more complex mechanism of gaseous exchange and
that is the development of lungs
• The alveoli present in the lungs provide a large surface area required for the necessary gas
exchange

Read more: Facts about Lungs

Transportation in Human Being

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 Transportatio

• All living organisms need a few necessary components like air, water, and food for their survival
• On a regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating
• The required elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a  transportation system
• In plants, the vascular tissue is responsible for transporting the substances

Transportation in Human

• Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system

• The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart
• It is responsible for the supply of oxygen, and nutrients, and the removal of carbon dioxide and
other excretory products
• It also helps to ght infections

To know more about Transportation in Animals and Plants, visit here

Hear
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 • The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the thoracic
region
• The heart is the main pumping organ of the body
• The human heart is divided into four chambers which are involved in the transportation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
• The upper two chambers are called atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as ventricles
.

 To know more about Human Heart, visit here

• The ow of blood through the heart is as follows

Blood Vessel

• Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body

• There three types of blood vessels; arteries, veins and blood capillaries
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood
• Gaseous exchange takes place between blood and cells at capillaries

Difference between Arteries and Veins

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 Blood Pressur

The pressure exerted by the blood when it ows through the blood vessels is called blood pressure

• There are two different variants of blood pressure; systolic and diastolic blood pressure
• The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is lling with blood is called
diastolic pressure. It constitutes the minimum pressure on arteries
• The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 – 80 mm Hg
• The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is pumping the blood is called
systolic pressure. It constitutes the maximum pressure applied to the arteries
• The normal range of systolic blood pressure should be 90 – 120 mm Hg

To know more about Blood Pressure, visit here

Bleedin

• Bleeding occurs when the blood vessels rupture

• Bleeding is stopped by the platelets that help in the clotting of blood at the site of the injury
• Blood Clotting is the process of forming a clot in order to prevent excess loss of blood from the
body
• It is a gel-like mass which is formed by the platelets and a bre-like protein in the blood
 

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 Double Circulatio

• In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice

• Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second time during systemic
circulation
• Hence, circulation in human beings is called double circulation
.

 To know more about Double Circulation, visit here

Transportation in Plant
Transportation in Plant

• Transportation is a vital process in plants

• The process involves the transportation of water and necessary nutrients to all parts of the plant
for its survival
• Food and water transportation takes place separately in plants
• Xylem transports water and phloem transports food

To know more about Transportation in Plants, visit here

Phloe
 

 • The phloem is responsible for translocation of nutrients and sugar like carbohydrates, produced
by the leaves to areas of the plant that are metabolically active
• Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem bres, and phloem parenchyma cells are the components
of this tissu
• The ow of material through phloem is bidirectional

Translocatio

• Transport of food in the plant through phloem via a process such as mass ow is called as
translocation.
• Photosynthates i.e. sugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, proteins and
inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron from source
tissues (mature leaves) to the sink cells (areas of growth and storage) are transported through the
phloem
• Material like sucrose is loaded from leaves to phloem using the energy of ATP
• Such a transfer increases the osmotic pressure causing the movement of water from nearby cells
into phloem tissue and the material gets transported through the phloem
• The same pressure is also responsible for the transfer of substances from phloem to tissues where
food is required
• Thus the bulk ow of material through phloem takes place in response to an osmotically
generated pressure difference
 

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 Xyle

• Xylem tissue transports water in plants from root to all other parts of the plant
• Xylem tissue is made up tracheids, vessels, xylem bres and xylem parenchyma
• The ow of water and minerals through xylem is always unidirectional
 

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Root Pressur

• Conduction of water through the xylem, from roots to upper parts of plants, is due to many
forces acting together
• One of the forces responsible for this is root pressure
• Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through
a plant stem to the leaves
• Root pressure helps in the initial transport of water up the roots
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 To know more about Root Pressure, visit here

Transport of Wate

• Water is absorbed by the roots and is transported by xylem to the upper parts of the plant
Imbibition, osmosis, root pressure and transpiration are the forces that contribute towards the upward
movement of water, even in the tallest plants

• Imbibition is a process in which water is absorbed by the solids. E.g. seeds take up water when
soaked
• Osmosis is a process where water moves from the area of its lower concentration to the area of
its higher concentration
• At the roots, the cells take up ions by an active process and this results in the difference of
concentration of these ions
• It leads to movement of water, in the root cells, by osmosis
• This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards. This is root pressure
• Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a staw effect
• It pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water from leaves
• All these forces act together for water transport through the xyle

Excretion in Human
Excretio

Excretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and other non-useful substances

• Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for excretion
• But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in animals
• They do not have special organs for excretion and thus excretion in plants is not so complex

Excretion in Unicellular Organism

• In unicellular organisms such as amoeba and bacteria, the waste product is removed by simple
diffusion through the general body surface
• Unicellular organisms like the amoeba, and paramecium excrete excess through tiny organelles
called contractile vacuoles
• Undigested food in unicellular animals is excreted when the food vacuole merges with the
general body surface and opens to the outside

Excretory System of Human

• The excretory system in humans include

◦ a pair of kidneys
◦ a pair of ureters
.

 ◦ a urinary bladder an
◦ urethra
• It produces urine as a waste product

To know more about Human Excretory System, visit here

Kidney

• Paired kidneys are the main excretory organs of the body

• They are basically the ltration units of the human body
• Each kidney is made up of many tiny ltration units called nephrons
• Kidneys perform crucial functions like
1. Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the blood
2. Regulation of osmolarity i.e. uid balance of the body
3. Regulation of ion concentration in the body
4. Regulation of pH
5. Regulation of extracellular uid volume
6. Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone health, and regulate
blood pressur
Nephro

Nephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney

• Each kidney has millions of nephrons and it forms the basic structural and functional unit of the
kidney
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 • Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian body and renal tubule
• Malpighian body is made up of cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule which encloses a
bunch of capillaries called glomerulus
• They together lter waste materials along with many useful substances
• Renal tubule has regions called proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle and distal convoluted
tubule
• These regions absorb back useful substances into the blood and also lter remaining waste
substances
• The output from nephrons is called urine

Haemodialysi

◦ When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications and to compensate this situation
a technology called dialysis has been developed
◦ It uses a machine lter called a dialyzer or arti cial kidney
◦ This is to remove excess water and salt, to balance other electrolytes in the body and
remove waste products of metabolism
 

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 ◦ Blood from the body is removed and owed through a series of tubes made up of a
semipermeable membrane
◦ A dialysate ows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the
membrane

Excretion in Plant

• The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a lot of excretory
products in plants
• Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced
during protein metabolism are the major excretory products in plants
• Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide
during respiration
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 • Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves
• Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released
during respiration is used for photosynthesis
• Excess water is excreted by transpiration
• Organic by-products generated by the plant are stored in different forms in different parts
• The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems,
leaves, etc
• Eventually, plants shed off these parts
• Few examples of the excretory products of plants are oil produced from orange, eucalyptus,
jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and gums from acacia
• Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil

To know more about Excretion in Plants, visit here

Also Check:

• CBSE Class 10 Chapter 5 Periodic Classi cation of Elements Notes

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes
• NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 6 Life Processes
• NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 6 - Life Processes
• Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1
• CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frequently Asked Questions on Life Processe

 

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Q. The instrument used for measuring blood pressure is called

Ans. A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used for measuring blood pressure

Q. The phloem tissue in plants is responsible for doing which function

Ans. Phloem is the vascular tissues that is responsible for the transport of substances in plant

Q. Why aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy than fermentation
Ans. Aerobic respiration produces more usable chemical energy in the form of ATPs than fermentation
because aerobic respiration involves the complete oxidation of glucose and the release of carbon dioxide
and water as end products

 Introductio
The human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and
sustain life. Explore how the body controls its movements and coordinates its actions with other parts of
the body and the environment by exploring notes for Class 10 Chapter 7 Control and Coordination

The Nervous Syste

Movement in organism

The ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement

When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion

Organisms show movements in response to stimuli

Introduction to control & coordinatio

• Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc
• All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine
systems
• Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carrying out various
functions. They are secreted by endocrine glands
• Hormones in plants coordinate the movements

To know more about The Nervous System, visit here

THE NERVOUS SYSTE
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 Neuro

Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system

• Each neuron has three main parts: dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon
• Dendrites receive impulses from other neurons
• Cyton/soma processes the impulse
• Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, etc
• Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated
• The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons
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 Central nervous syste

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Functions of different
parts of the brain are

• The cerebrum is responsible for reasoning, logic, emotions, speech, memory, visual processing,
recognition of auditory and taste stimuli, etc
• Cerebellum regulates and coordinates body movements, posture and balance
• Pons relays signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain
• Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing, yawning,
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc
• Medulla oblongata continues as the spinal cord which runs through the vertebral column and it
controls re ex actions
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 Read more: Central Nervous System

Peripheral nervous syste

• The nerves coming out from the brain and the spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
• There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves in humans
Read more: Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic nervous syste

• It forms a part of the PNS

• The nerves of PNS that control the voluntary actions of the body form the somatic nervous
system
Autonomic nervous syste

• All the nerves of the PNS that control the involuntary actions in the body form the autonomic
nervous system. E.g. respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, etc. are regulated by the
autonomic nervous system
.

 • Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system
• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often
referred to as the ght-or- ight response, while the parasympathetic nervous system has almost
the exact opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high-energy functions
Re ex actio

Re ex action is a sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to stimuli

To know more about Re ex Action, visit here

Re ex ar

• It is the path followed by an electrical impulse during a re ex action

• The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the
information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action
• Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and
effector organ are the components of a re ex arc
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Protection of CN

The brain is protected by 3 main layers

• The bony skull (cranium

• The cerebrospinal ui
• The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater)

Plant Hormones and Movement

Plant hormone

Control and coordination in plants are carried out by hormones

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 Plant
Function
Hormone
Auxin Helps in Growth of Plant Tissue
Cytokinin Promotes Cell division, delays ageing of cells
Helps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, promotes flowering, cell
Gibberellins
division and seed growth after germination
Abscisic acid Inhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of buds and seeds
Ethylene This is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits

To know more about Plant hormones, visit here

Growth independent movement

The movements which are not growth related are called nastic movements. These movements occur in
response to environmental stimuli but the direction of response is not dependent on the direction of the
stimulus

• The movement in the touch-me-not plant is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to

touch)
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 Growth-related movements in plant

The movements which are growth related are called tropic movements. These movements occur in
response to environmental stimuli and the direction of the response is dependent on the direction of the
stimulus

To know more about Tropic Movements in Plants, visit here

Examples

• Phototropic movement (light-dependent

• Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent
• Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent
• Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent
• Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent

Geotropis

Movement of plant parts in response to earth's gravitational force is known as geotropism/gravitropism

• Towards gravity - positive geotropis

• Away from gravity - negative geotropis
• The root grows towards gravity and shoot grows away from gravit
 

Phototropis

Movement of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism

• Towards light-positive phototropis

• Away from light - negative phototropis
• Stems move towards light and roots move away from ligh

To know more about Phototropism, visit here

Hydrotropis

Movement of plant parts in response to water or moisture

• Towards water-positive hydrotropis

• Away from water - negative hydrotropis
• Again, root movement in search of water is positive hydrotropis
• E.g. movement of roots towards high humidity leve

Chemotropis

Movement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism

• Towards chemical - positive chemotropis

• Away from chemical - negative chemotropis
• The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule is positive chemotropis
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 Thigmotropis

Movement of plant parts in response to touch is called as thigmotropism

• Towards touch - Positive thigmotropis

• Away from touch - negative thigmotropis
• Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropis

The Endocrine Syste

Exocrine gland

Exocrine glands are glands that discharge secretions by means of  ducts, which open onto an epithelial
surface

Endocrine gland

Endocrine glands are the ductless glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream in humans

The endocrine glands present in the human body are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas,
ovary (female), testis (male), etc. Let us now learn more about each of the glands below
 

To know more about Exocrine glands, visit here

Pituitary glan

•It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain

•It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands
•It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH). Under-secretion of GH causes Dwar sm and over-
secretion causes Gigantism in children and ‘Acromegaly’ in adults
To know more about Pituitary gland, visit here

Thyroid glan

• It is a butter y-shaped gland located in the throat

• It secretes the hormone ‘Thyroxine’ which regulates the metabolism of the body
• Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body
• In the case of iodine de ciency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre
To know more about Thyroid gland, visit here
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 Pancrea

• It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen

• It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland
• As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones - Insulin and glucagon. Both these
hormones act antagonistically and regulate the sugar level in the blood
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and
nucleic acids in food
• An insuf cient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes
To know more about Pancreas, visit here

Adrenal glan

• Occurs in pairs above each kidney

• It decreases in size with age
• Secrets the hormone adrenaline which helps in ight and ght response
• Also secretes nor adrenalin
To know more about the Adrenal gland, visit here

Gonad

• Gonads are the gamete-producing organs - testes in males and ovaries in females
• The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones
oestrogen and progesterone
• Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for the sexual
characteristics of males and females respectively
• Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone
To know more about Gonads, visit here

Other endocrine organ

• The other endocrine organs include the hypothalamus, parathyroid, pineal and thymus glands
To know more about The Endocrine System, visit here

Also Check:

• CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 6 Life Processes

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes
• NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination
• NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 7 - Control And Coordination
• Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1
• CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
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Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 7: Control and
Coordinatio

What is the function of the Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two
parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the centre of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external
environment, and the origin of control over body movement

What are some facts about the human brain

1. 60% of the human brain is composed of fa

2. The brain contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion connection

3. The texture of the brain is similar to that of rm jell

How many parts does the human eye have

The human eye totally consists of 7 parts that work together
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 Introductio
All living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an
essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life

Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as
bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive
structures and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual
reproduction, and sexual reproduction

Reproductio

Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population

To know more about Reproduction, visit here

Asexual reproductio

Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism
reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some
multicellular organisms and a few plants

To know more about Asexual reproduction, visit here

Sexual reproductio

The mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex
cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism

To know more about Sexual reproduction, visit here

Asexual Reproductio
Fissio

• Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms

• When the ssion results in two daughter cells, it is binary ssion (e.g. paramecium)
• When ssion results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple ssion (e.g. Plasmodium)
• Planes of ssion may be different for different organisms
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 To know more about Binary Fission, visit here

Buddin

• Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the
parent’s body, which gives rise to a new individual
• Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual
(hydra)
 

 To know more about Budding, visit here

Regeneration and fragmentatio

• Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g.
lizard)
• Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each
piece grows into a whole new organism
• E.g. Planaria, Hydr
.

 • Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra

To know more about Regeneration and fragmentation, visit here

Spore formatio

Organisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from
their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that
protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate
and begin to grow


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Read more: Spore Formation

Vegetative propagatio

 • This is a type of asexual reproduction seen in plants

• The vegetative part of the plant, like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant
• Vegetative propagation can be arti cial or natural
• Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric,
ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc
• Arti cial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture
To know more about Vegetative propagation, visit here

Sexual Reproductio
Types of Cell divisio
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Two types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms

Mitosis

• Takes place in somatic cell
• Maintains the chromosome numbe
• Produces two, diploid daughter cell
• Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and  regeneratio
Meiosis

 • Takes place in sex cell
• Reduces the number of chromosomes by hal
• Produces four haploid daughter cell
• Required for sexual reproduction, i.e gamete formatio

To know more about Cell division, visit here

The Reproductive Syste

In humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the
main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female
gamete) is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive
systems in humans

To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here

Male reproductive syste

• The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes

• They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the male sex hormone
testosterone
 

Male main reproductive organs

• The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes

• They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the
structural and functional unit
• Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis
• Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone
testosterone
Male accessory reproductive organ

• Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive process

• The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the reproductive system which make
semen and nourish the sperm
• Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ
Male Duct

• In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts
• A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to the urethra
.

 • The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine

To know more about Male Reproductive System, visit here

Female reproductive syste

The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts
and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina

Female main reproductive orga

 

 • The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries

• They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones
called estrogen and progesterone
Female accessory reproductive orga

• Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females
• The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male. Ovum is
carried from ovaries to the uterus through a pair of oviducts

To know more about the Female reproductive system, visit here

Menstrual Cycl
Menstruatio

• Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal
from the body when fertilization does not happen.
• During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum
is removed from the body
• Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all
have their roles in menstruation
• In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days

To know more about Menstrual Cycle, visit here

Fertilizatio
Human reproductio

Humans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female produces eggs. When the sperm
fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny

To know more about Fertilization, visit here

Contraceptive Method
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Reproductive healt

Reproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the
reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness

Contraceptive

• Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs
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 • Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods,

surgical methods, etc
Coitus Interruptu

• It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male
ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts
Rhythm Metho

• Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile
and the chances of fertilization are very high
Condom

• One of the most effective methods of contraception

• A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy
• It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs
Diaphragm

• Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts
• They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy
Contraceptive Pill

• Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception

• They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the
ovaries
Emergency Pil

• Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy
• They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation
even if the egg gets fertilized
IU

• IUD stands for Intrauterine Device

• They can be used for a couple of years
• It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful
implantation of the zygote
Sterilizatio

• Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile

• This can be done in both males and females
• In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation
To know more about Contraceptive Methods, visit here
D

 Reproduction in Plant
Plants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual
reproduction in plants. Let’s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants

To know more about Reproduction in Plants, visit here

Sexual reproduction in owering plant

• Sexual reproduction in plants happens through owers

• Essential whorls of the owers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual
reproduction of plants

Read more:  Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Non-essential parts of ower

• The typical structure of owers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls
• Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in
reproduction
• Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if
they are green in colour
• Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination
Essential whorls of ower

• Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a ower

• Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules
which are female gametes
• Bisexual owers contain both the whorls while unisexual owers contain either of them
• Each individual member of androecium is called a stamen and consists of anther and lament
• Anther produces haploid pollen grains
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 • Each individual member of gynoecium is called pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary.

Pollinatio

The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a ower is known as pollination

•
It is required for fertilization
•
Pollination has two types, self-pollination (autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy)
•
In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the
same ower or another ower of the same plant
• In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another ower
• Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects,
birds, bats, etc
Know more: Pollination

Fertilizatio

Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization

• In owering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and
generate two male nuclei
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 • Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei

• One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm
• Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo
and future plant
• After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away

Know more: Fertilisation in Plants

Also Check:

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 7 Control and Coordination Notes

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity And Evolution Notes
• NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8: How do Organisms Reproduce?
• NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 8 - How Do Organisms Reproduce
• Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 8: How do Organisms
Reproduc

What is difference between ssion and fusion

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Fission is the process where an atom splits into two or more smaller parts. Whereas fusion involves the
fusing of two or smaller atoms into a larger particular

What is fragmentation
Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where the parent organism breaks into fragments. Each
of these fragments are capable of growing independently into a new organism

What is a gamete cell

Gamete cell are the reproductive cells of an organism. Female gametes are referred to a ova or egg cells
and male gametes are known as sperms

 Introductio
Heredity refers to the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next. Evolution is de ned as
the gradual process by which a simple life form leads to the development of complex organisms over a
period of time, spanning several generations

Here in this chapter, we will learn about the mechanism by which variations are created, the rules of
heredity determining their pattern of inheritance, and how the accumulation of these variations leads to
evolution

Heredit
The transfer of traits from one generation to the next is termed heredity. Genes are the functional units of
heredity, that transfer characteristics from parents to offspring. Genes are short stretches of DNA that
code for a speci c protein or RNA.

Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of genes, heredity and variations

Sexual reproductio

• The mode of reproduction involves two individuals; one male and one female
• They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism
Gene

• Gene is the functional unit of heredity

• Every gene controls one or several particular characteristic features in living organisms

Read more: Genes

Heredit

The process by which the features of an organism are passed on from one generation to another is called
heredity

• The process is done by genes, which de ne the characters in the organism

To know more about Heredity, visit here

Mendel's wor

• Gregor Johann Mendel, known as 'Father of Genetics', was an Austrian Monk who worked on
pea plants to understand the concept of heredity
• His work laid the foundation of modern genetics
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 • He made three basic laws of inheritance - The Law of Dominance, The Law of Segregation and
The Law of Independent Assortment

Dominant trait

The traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination and can be seen are
called Dominant traits

• In Mendel’s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea plants tends to express more than the
short trait
• Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be dominant over the short trait

Recessive trait

A trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as recessive

• So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant allele
exists
To know the difference between Dominant traits and Recessive traits, visit here

Monohybrid cros

• When only one character is considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known
as a monohybrid cross
.

 • The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the monohybrid ratio
• E.g., If a tall plant (TT) is crossed with a dwarf plant (tt), we get 3 tall:1 short plant at the end of
the F2 generation
• So, 3:1 is a monohybrid ratio
• Here, the height of the plant is considered at a time

Below is the example of a monohybrid cross between a true-breeding pea plant with green pods (GG)
and yellow pods (gg). Here, the green colour of the pod is the dominant trait. Hence, in the F1
generation, all plants contain green pea pods

To know more about Monohybrid cross, visit here

Dihybrid cros

• When two characters are considered while crossing two organisms, then such a cross is known as
a dihybrid cross
• The ratio of characters, arising out of this cross, at F2 generation is called the dihybrid ratio
• E.g., If a plant with round and green pea is crossed with a plant with wrinkled and yellow pea
• The rst generation plants would all have round and green peas
• On crossing the same for an F2 generation, we would observe four combinations of characters in
the ratio of 9:3:3:1
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 • Thus, 9:3:3:1 is the dihybrid ratio

To know more about Dihybrid cross, visit here

Inheritanc

In Biology, inheritance pertains to the transfer of traits from one generation to another

To know more about Mendel's laws of inheritance, visit here

Laws of Mende
e

 Law of Dominance says that a gene has two contrasting alleles and one always expresses itself in the
organism

It is called the dominant gene and it expresses in any possible combination

Law of Segregation says that traits get segregated completely during the formation of gametes without
any mixing of alleles

Law of Independent Assortment says that the traits can segregate independently of different characters
during gamete formation

Sex determinatio

• The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on the composition of the genetic
material is called sex determination
• In different animals, sex of an embryo is determined by different factors
• In humans, sex determination happens on the basis of the presence or absence of Y chromosome
• XX is female and XY is mal
• An ovum always contains X chromosome
• An ovum, upon fusion with Y containing sperm, gives rise to a male child and upon fusion with
X containing sperm gives rise to a girl child
To know more about Sex determination, visit here

Trait

Traits are characteristic features of an organism, manifested in a physical form that is visible or in a
physiological aspect of the organism

Acquired character

• The traits that are acquired by an organism over the period of its lifetime are termed acquired
characteristics
• These characters that are not passed on to the DNA of germ cells do not get transferred to the
next generation. E.g. loss of muscles and less weight due to starvation, loss of limb or tails due to
injury, etc
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 Inherited character

• The traits that are inherited from the parents are called inherited characters
• These traits always get transferred to the next generation but depending on the dominance or
recessiveness they may or may not be expressed
• Examples are height, skin colour and eye colour

To know more about Acquired and Inherited Traits, visit here

Variatio
Variation is the measure of the difference between individuals of the same species. Offspring is not
identical to parents, there exist some variations. Each individual in a population differs from the others.
Recombination and mutation are the main causes of variations

Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation among individuals of a species and the long-term
accumulation of variations plays a signi cant role in evolution. The selection of variants by
environmental factors is one of the driving factors of evolutionary processes

Genetic variation

The differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool are called
genetic variations. These differences lead to different/varied physical characters or biochemical
pathways

To know more about Genetics, visit here

Natural selectio

• It is the phenomenon by which a favourable trait in a population of a species is selected

• Changing natural conditions exert equal pressure on all the existing species
• The species/organisms which are better adapted to the changing conditions survive and
reproduce i.e. selected by nature and species/organisms which cannot adapt perish i.e. rejected by
nature
Speciatio
Genetic drif

Natural selection can play an important role in deciding the traits that survive in a population. However,
random uctuations in gene variants are seen on many occasions. This phenomenon is known as genetic
drift. Thus, genetic drift is a change in the frequency of an existing allele in a small population
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 Genetic drift may cause a gene variant to disappear from the population and thus reduce genetic
variation

Speciatio

It is the process of formation of a new species from existing ones due to several evolutionary forces like
genetic drift, isolation of populations, natural selection, etc.  Speciation leads to diversity in the
ecosystem and the diversity and diversity lead to evolution

To know more about Speciation and evolution, visit here

Gene o

Gene ow is the transfer of genes from one population to the next. This occurs due to migration or the
introduction of organisms to a new population. This results in the change in gene frequencies of a
population

Populatio

A population is a community or a group of animals, plants or any living organism that can reproduce
with each other and have fertile, viable offspring

Charles Darwi

•
Charles Darwin also called the "Father of Evolution" was an English Naturalist and Biologist
•
Five years of the expedition in a ship called HMS Beagle to Galapagos Island helped him write
his theory of evolution
• In 1859 he published a book called Origin of Species, in which he put his theory of evolution in
detail
To know more about Charles Darwin's Contribution to the Theory of Evolution, visit here

Evolution and Fossil

Evolutio

Evolution is a tangible change in the heritable characteristics of a population over several generations.
These changes can give rise to a new species or the species might change themselves to become better
adapted to the surrounding environment

Read more: Evolution

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 Origin of specie

• After a successful expedition on HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote a book on what he
observed on the Galapagos Islands
• In the book named 'The Origin of Species, he wrote a detailed theory of evolution which was
mostly based on Natural Selection
Origin of life - Haldane's theor

• JBS Haldane was a British Scientist who theorized that life originated from organic and lifeless
matter
• His theory was proved to be correct by Urey and Miller’s experiment
• It was called the theory of abiogenesis
Evolutionary evidence - fossil

• There are plenty of pieces of evidence to support the theory of evolution

• Fossils happen to be the biggest of them
• Fossils are the preserved remains of ancient animals or plants that died millions of years ago
• The fossils help us understand the anatomy and even physiology of these organisms and
understand how evolution worked and led to the formation of organisms that we see today

Formation of Fossil

Fossils are important pieces of evolutionary evidence and are formed by the following steps

• Organisms die and they get buried in mud and silt

• The soft tissues of the body get quickly leaving behind the hard bones or shell
• Over time sediments build over it and harden into roc
• As the bones decay, mineral seep in to replace the contents cell by cell, process called as
petri catio
• If bones decay completely, it leaves behind the cast of the animal

To know more about Fossils, visit here

Evolutionary relationship

Evolutionary relationships of animals can be deduced by studying the homologous organs and analogous
organs

Homologous organs are those which have a similar structure but different function.

• Wings of birds and forelimbs of mammals: they have similar structure but are modi ed to suit
different function
• A tendril of pea plant and spine of barberry plant: both are modi ed leaves, but perform
different functions
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 Analogous organs are those which have a similar function but a different structure and origin too.

• Wings of bats, birds and wings of insects: both are used for ying, but structurally are very
differen
• Leaves of opuntia and peepal: both perform photosynthesis, but leaves of Opuntia are modi ed
stem whereas peepal leaves are normal leaves

To know more about Fossils Evolutionary Relationships, visit here

Evolution by stag

• Evolution is a slow process and does not happen overnight

• There are several stages in the evolution of almost every animal that we see today
• Complexities do not evolve suddenly, but evolve bit by bit and may have limited use at certain
stages
• This gradual evolutionary process is called evolution by stages
To know more about Evolution by Stages, visit here

Arti cial selectio

• Sometimes a single species can evolve into several different species due to arti cial selection
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 • E.g. the cabbage family. A single ancestor in the cabbage family gave rise to several different
species due to the selection of different traits

Molecular phylogen

• The evolutionary relationship among different biological species is called phylogeny

• It gives rise to an evolutionary tree
• In molecular phylogeny these relationships are studied at the hereditary molecular level, mainly
using DNA sequences
• It involves the analysis of DNA composition and gene comparison between different species

Human Evolutio
• Humans are known to belong to the primate family
• Humans today have a very close genetic connection to chimps and other primates
• While the complete evolutionary process of Humans from Primates is still a mystery, a larger
picture of human evolution has been formed
• Some of the ancestors of Humans include Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo
erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Cro-magnon man, and nally us, the Homo sapiens
• Human evolution traces back to Africa. Then they migrated all over the world

 
                                                                             Migration of Early Human

To know more about Human Evolution, visit here

Also Check:

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce Notes

• NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 9 Heredity and Evolution
• NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 9 - Heredity And Evolution

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 9: Heredity and Evolutio

What is evolution
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The development of plants, animals, etc over many thousand years from simple forms to complex
advanced forms

What does the Law of Segregation state

The law of segregation states that each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles (copies) for a
particular trait

What is meant by natural selection

The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is known as
natural selection
.

CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 10 Light: Reflection and Refraction Notes

Introduction to Light – Reflection & Refraction

In Class 10 Science chapter 10 Light, the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light using the
straight-line propagation of light are taught to students. Furthermore, optical phenomena in nature is
examined. The reflection of light by spherical mirrors is discussed in the chapter so that their applications
are studied in real-life situations.

Light: Definition
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see things. Light starts from a source and bounces off objects
which are perceived by our eyes and our brain processes this signal, which eventually enables us to see.
Maxwell predicted that magnetic and electric fields travel in the form of waves and these waves move at the
speed of light. This led Maxwell to predict that light itself was carried by electromagnetic waves which
means that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Nature of Light
Light behaves as a:
● ray, e.g. reflection
● wave, e.g. interference and diffraction
● particle, e.g. photoelectric effect
According to the concept of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics light exhibits both particle and
wave nature, depending upon the circumstances. Phenomena like diffraction, polarisation and interference
could be explained by considering light as a wave. The phenomenon of the photoelectric effect is explained
by assuming that light consists of particles called photons.

Laws of Reflection

Light incident on a surface separating two media

When light travels from one medium to another medium it either:
● gets absorbed (absorption)
● bounces back (reflection)
● passes through or bends (refraction)

When light is incident on a plane mirror, most of it gets reflected, and some of it gets absorbed in the
medium.

Characteristics of light
 ● Speed of light is given as c=λμ, where λ is its wavelength and μ is its frequency.
● Speed of light is a constant which is 2.998×108m/s or approximately 3.0×108m/s.

To know more about Properties of Light, visit here.

Reflection of light by other media

A medium that is polished well without any irregularities on its surface will cause regular reflection of light.
For example, a plane mirror. But even then some light gets absorbed by the surface.

Laws of Reflection
The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane. Angle of incidence = Angle of
reflection
[∠i=∠r]

To know more about the Law of Reflection, visit here.

Propagation of light
Rectilinear propagation of light: Light travels in a straight line between any two points.
Fermat’s Principle
● The principle of least time: Light always takes the quickest path between any two points (which may
not be the shortest path).
● Rectilinear propagation of light and the law of reflection [∠i=∠r] can be validated by Fermat’s
principle of least time.

Applications of Fermat’s Principle

We can make several observations as a result of Fermat’s Principle which will prove useful as we explore the
realm of geometric optics:
● In a homogeneous medium, light rays are rectilinear. That is, in any medium where the index of
refraction is constant, light travels in a straight line.
● The angle of reflection of a surface is equal to the angle of incidence. This is the Law of Reflection.

Example of Fermat’s Principle

Mirage is an example of this phenomenon. Sometime, we feel like we are seeing water on the road, but when
we get there, the road is dry. What we really witness is the light of the sky which is reflected on the road.
Since the air is very hot just above the road but it is cooler up higher. Hot air expands more than cool air and
is thinner, this leads to less decrease in the speed of light.
Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions along with separate solutions based on this
chapter for quick revision from the links below:
● Light: Reflection and Refraction Short Notes
● Light: Reflection and Refraction MCQ Practice Questions
● Light: Reflection and Refraction MCQ Practice Solutions

Plane mirror
Any flat and polished surface that has almost no irregularities on its surface that reflect light is called as a
plane mirror.

Image formation by a plane mirror

● The image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect.
● Object and image are equidistant from the mirror.
Characteristics of images
● Images can be real or virtual, erect or inverted, magnified or diminished. A real image is formed by
the actual convergence of light rays. A virtual image is the apparent convergence of diverging light
rays.
● If an image formed is upside down then it is called inverted or else it is an erect image. If the image
formed is bigger than the object, then it is called magnified. If the image formed is smaller than the
object, then it is diminished.

To know more about the Plane mirror, visit here.

Principle of Reversibility of light

If the direction of a ray of light is reversed due to reflection off a surface, then it will retrace its path.

Spherical Mirrors

Spherical mirror
Consider a hollow sphere with a very smooth and polished inside surface and an outer surface with a
coating of mercury so that no light can come out. Then if we cut a thin slice out of the shell, we get a curved
mirror, which is called a spherical mirror.

Relationship between focus and radius of curvature

Focal length is half the distance between the pole and the radius of curvature.

F = R/2
Curved Mirror
A mirror (or any polished, reflective surface) with a curvature is known as a curved mirror.

To know more about Spherical Mirrors, visit here.

Important terms related to spherical mirror

● Pole (P): The midpoint of a spherical mirror.

● Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the sphere that the spherical mirror was a part of.
 ● The radius of curvature (r): The distance between the centre of curvature and the spherical mirror.
This radius will intersect the mirror at the pole (P).
● Principal Axis: The line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature is the main or principal
axis.
● Concave Mirror: A spherical mirror with the reflecting surface that bulges inwards.
● Convex Mirror: A spherical mirror with the reflecting surface that bulges outwards.
● Focus (F): Take a concave mirror. All rays parallel to the principal axis converge at a point between
the pole and the centre of curvature. This point is called as the focal point or focus.
● Focal length: Distance between pole and focus.

Rules of ray diagram for representation of images formed

● A ray passing through the centre of curvature hits the concave spherical mirror and retraces its path.
● Rays parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point or focus.

Image formation by spherical mirrors

For objects at various positions, the image formed can be found using the ray diagrams for the special two
rays. The following table is for a concave mirror.

Uses of spherical mirror based on the image formed

Concave and Convex mirrors are used in many daily purposes.
Example: Rear view mirrors in vehicles, lamps, solar cookers.
Mirror formula and Magnification
1/v + 1/u = 1/f

where ‘u’ is object distance, ‘v’ is the image distance and ‘f’ is the focal length of spherical mirror, which is
found by similarity of triangles.
The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object. It is usually represented as ‘m’.
To know more about Mirror Formula, visit here.

Sign convention for ray diagram

Distances measured towards positive x and y axes (coordinate system) are positive and towards negative x
and y-axes are negative. Keep in mind the origin is the pole (P). Usually, the height of the object is taken as
positive as it is above the principal axis and height of the image is taken as negative as it is below the
principal axis.

Position and Size of image formed

Size of image can be found using the magnification formula m = h’/h = – (v/u) If m is -ve it is a real image
and if it is +ve it is a virtual image.
Refraction Through a Glass Slab and Refractive Index

Refraction
The shortest path need not be the quickest path. Since light is always in a hurry, it bends when it enters a
different medium as it is still following the quickest path. This phenomenon of light bending in a different
medium is called refraction.

Laws of Refraction
● The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
● The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, for
the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.

To know more about Refraction and Law of Refraction, visit here.

Absolute and Relative Refractive Index
Refractive index of one medium with respect to another medium is called the relative refractive index. When
taken with respect to vacuum, it’s known as an absolute refractive index.

Refraction through a rectangular glass slab

When the light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it emerges out parallel to the incident ray and is
laterally displaced. It moves from rarer to denser medium and then again to the rarer medium.

Refraction at a planar surface

Following Snell’s Law:

● Light bends towards the normal when moving from rarer to denser medium at the surface of the two
media.
● Light bends away from the normal when moving from denser to rarer medium at the surface of
contact of the two media.

Refractive Index
The extent to which light bends when moving from one medium to another is called the refractive index. This
depends on the ratio of the speeds in the two media. The greater the ratio, the more the bending. It is also
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction, which is a constant for
any given pair of media. It is denoted by:
n = sin∠i/sin∠r = speed of light in medium 1/speed of light in medium2.
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of monochromatic light in the substance of interest
is known as the relative refractive index. Mathematically, it is represented as:
n = c/v
where n is the refractive index of a medium, c is the velocity of light in a vacuum and v is the velocity of light
in that particular medium.
To know more about Refractive Index Formula, visit here.

Total internal reflection

● When the light goes from a denser to a rarer medium it bends away from the normal. The
angle at which the incident ray causes the refracted ray to go along the surface of the two
media parallelly is called the critical angle.
● When the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, it reflects inside the denser medium
instead of refracting. This phenomenon is known as Total Internal Reflection.
E.g mirages, optical fibres.
To know more about Total internal reflection, visit here.

Spherical Lens

Refraction at curved surfaces

When light is incident on a curved surface and passes through, the laws of refraction still hold true. For
example lenses.

Spherical lenses
Spherical lenses are lenses formed by binding two spherical transparent surfaces together. Spherical lenses
formed by binding two spherical surfaces bulging outward are known as convex lenses while the spherical
lenses formed by binding two spherical surfaces such that they are curved inward are known as concave
lenses.
To know more about Spherical Lenses, visit here.

Important terms related to spherical lenses

● Pole (P): The midpoint or the symmetric centre of a spherical lens is known as its Optical Centre. It is
also called the pole.
● Principal Axis: The line passing through the optical centre and the centre of curvature.
● Paraxial Ray: A ray close to the principal axis and also parallel to it.
● Centre of curvature (C): The centres of the spheres that the spherical lens was a part of. A spherical
lens has two centres of curvatures.
● Focus (F): It is the point on the axis of a lens to which parallel rays of light converge or from which
they appear to diverge after refraction.
● Focal length: Distance between optical centre and focus.
 ● Concave lens: Diverging lens
● Convex lens: Converging lens

Rules of ray diagram for representation of images formed

● A ray of light parallel to the principal axis passes/appears to pass through the focus.
● A ray passing through the optical centre undergoes zero deviation.

Image formation by spherical lenses

The following table shows image formation by a convex lens.

Lens Formula, Magnification and Power of Lens

Lens formula and magnification

Lens formula: 1/v = 1/u = 1/f, gives the relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v), and
the focal length (f) of a spherical lens.
To know more about Lens formula and magnification, visit here.

​Uses of spherical lens

Applications such as visual aids: spectacles, binoculars, magnifying lenses, telescopes.

Power of a Lens
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length i.e 1/f (in metre). The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre
(D).
To know more about Power of a Lens, visit here.

Frequently Asked Questions on Light: Reflection and Refraction

Refractive index of diamond is 2.42 and that of carbon disulphide is 1.63.

Calculate the refractive index of diamond with respect to carbon disulphide?

The Refractive index of diamonds with respect to carbon disulphide will be 1.48.

An object kept at 20 cm from a spherical mirror gives rise to an image 15 cm

behind the mirror. What is the focal length of the mirror?

The focal length of the mirror is 60 cm.

A 3 cm high object is placed at a distance of 80 cm from a concave lens of a

focal length of 20 cm. Find the size of the image formed.

The height of the image is 0.6 cm.

CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 11 The Human Eye and the Colourful
World Notes

Introduction to The Human Eye and the Colourful

Using the knowledge of light and some of its properties which students study in the previous chapters,
students study how these concepts apply to the human eye in the class 10 Science chapter The Human Eye
and the Colourful World. Students also study some of the optical phenomena. The nature and the formation
of the rainbow, the splitting of white light and the blue colour of the sky are also examined in the chapter.

Structure of a Human Eye

Of all the sense organs, the human eye is the most significant one as it enables us to see the beautiful,
colourful world around us. The eye is spherical in shape and has a diameter of 2.3 cm on average. The
internal structure of the eye includes- the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, ciliary muscles, retina, nerve cells, optic
nerve, yellow spot, aqueous and vitreous humor, and suspensory ligament.
The lens system of the human eye forms an image on the light-sensitive screen called the retina. The cornea
is the thin membrane of the eye through which light enters. Most of the light refraction occurs at the outer
surface of the cornea. A dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil, known as Iris is present
behind the cornea. The pupil is a structure in the eye that controls and regulates the amount of light entering
the eye. The light-sensitive cells get triggered upon illumination and induce electrical signals. These signals
are sent to the brain through the optic nerves. The brain analyses these signals, and finally, processes the
information so that we sense objects as they are.
To know more about the Structure of a Human Eye, visit here.

Defects of a Human Eye

There are few common eye disorders seen in all individuals and are caused by several factors. These
conditions can be improved by the corrections. The defects include:
Myopia – This is also called short-sightedness. A person with this eye defect can only see the nearby
objects clearly compared to distant objects. This condition can be corrected using a concave lens.

To know more about Myopia, visit here.

Hypermetropia – This is also called farsightedness. A person with this eye defect can only see distant
objects clearly compared to near objects. This condition can be corrected using a convex lens.
To know more about Hypermetropia, visit here.
Presbyopia – This is an age-related condition caused due to the weakening of ciliary muscles, hardening of
the lens, and reduced lens flexibility. A person with this defect usually finds it difficult to focus on nearby
objects unable to read or write.
Cataract – This is an age-related condition caused due to the loss of transparency of the lens by erosion of
lens proteins. It usually results in blurry vision, and cloudy lenses and can be corrected by replacing the old
lens with an artificial lens.

Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

A prism splits the incident white light into a band of seven colours. The band of the coloured components of
a light beam is called its spectrum. Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the sunlight
spectrum. Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they
pass through a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most. Thus the rays of each colour
emerge along different paths and thus become distinct.
Atmospheric Refraction
The refraction of light by the Earth’s atmosphere is known as atmospheric refraction. Atmospheric refraction
is caused by the bending of light rays when they pass through the layers of the earth’s atmosphere, which
are of different optical densities.

Twinkling of Stars
The twinkling effect of stars is due to the atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight undergoes
continuous refraction as it passes through the atmosphere before it reaches earth. As the path of rays of
light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star fluctuates and the
amount of starlight entering the eye flickers.

Scattering of Light
When a light beam goes through a medium, it hits the particles existing in them. Due to this phenomenon,
some of the light rays get absorbed while a few get scattered in various directions. The intensity of the
scattered light rays depends on the particles’ size and wavelength.
Know More: Scattering of Light
Students can refer to the short notes and MCQ questions of this chapter for quick revision from the links
below. They can also access the solution pdf for MCQs.
● The Human Eye and the Colourful World Short Notes
● The Human Eye and the Colourful World MCQ Practice Questions
● The Human Eye and the Colourful World MCQ Practice Solutions
Few Important Questions
● What is the Tyndall effect?
● What are Myopia and Hypermetropia?
● Explain in detail Newton’s prism experiment.
● Explain why stars twinkle and why the planets do not twinkle.
● Explain the structure and function of a human eye with a neat labelled diagram.
● Does our eyes have blind spots?

Access Notes of CBSE Class 10 Science all Chapters here.

Learn more about the human eye from the topics given below:

The Human Eye Eye Defects: Myopia

Structure And Functioning of a Human Eye Defects – Hypermetropia Or

Eye Hyperopia

Also Access

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 11

NCERT Exemplar Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 11

CBSE Class 10 Science Sample Questions

CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 10 Light: Reflection and Refraction

CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 12 Electricity

CBSE Class 10 Maths Chapter 1 Real Numbers

Frequently Asked Questions on The Human Eye and the Colourful
World

If Ram is facing west and he sees a rainbow in front of him then, in which
direction most probably the Sun is?

The Sun and the rainbow will always be in opposite directions. A Rainbow is formed when a raindrop causes
the light from the Sun to undergo partial internal reflection. This means that the light is reflected back in the
direction it came from (from the Sun). Hence, we can see a rainbow only if our back is facing the Sun. Hence,
in this case, the Sun will be in the east direction.

Which colour will be refracted the most when white light is dispersed from a
prism?

The refractive index of the medium is maximum for the violet light and minimum for the red light. Therefore,
when white light enters a prism, it disperses into seven constituent colours and violet light shows the
maximum deviation.

Why one cannot see through the fog?

Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals that remain near the surface of the
earth. When light travels through the fog, it interacts with the water droplets of the fog and is scattered by
them. The scattering of light by fog droplets is not uniform in all directions. The light from various objects
gets scattered by water droplets, so the eye cannot distinguish the objects, and thus one cannot see through
the fog.
 Electricity
Current and Voltage
Atomic Structure
An atom has a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons revolving
around it.
Valence electrons in metals are free to move within the conductor and constitute an
electric current.

Charge

The charge is an intrinsic property of matter by virtue of which it can exert electromagnetic
force.

Interaction between charges

Conductors and Insulators

A substance which offers comparatively less opposition to the flow of current is known as
conductors and substances which offer larger opposition are insulators.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

The electric potential at a point is defined as work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point. The potential difference between two points is defined as the
difference in electric potentials at the two given points.

Models of Electric Current

Electric Current(I)

Flow of electric charges is called electric current, i.e, I .

Q
=
t

Electron sea model

Electric current in a solid conductor is due to drift of a ‘sea’ of free electrons, which are free
to jump onto any neighbouring atom.

Electron sea model

Drift velocity of Electron

Average velocity which an electron attains inside a metallic conductor due to the
application of an electric field due to the potential difference.

Drift velocity of an electron

Battery and its working

A cell is a source of potential difference, which is created inside it due to internal chemical
reactions.

At anode:      Cu(s) ⇌ Cu
2+
(aq) + 2e−

At cathode:  Ag(aq) + 2e− ⇌ 2Ag(s)

A combination of cells is called a battery.

Electric Circuit
Electric circuit and circuit diagram

A closed-loop path which a current take is called an electric circuit.

Representation of an electric circuit through symbols is called a circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram

Resistance and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law

The current flowing through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the applied
potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
 Ohm's law

Resistance

Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current flow in an electric circuit.

Factors affecting Resistance & How they affect

Resistance is:

directly proportional to the length of the conductor.

directly proportional to nature of the conductor.
directly proportional to the temperature of the conductor.
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Resistivity

The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit cross-sectional area
is called resistivity.

Ohmic and Non-Ohmic resistors

Resistors which follow Ohm’s Law are called Ohmic resistors, and those which do not follow
it are called Non-Ohmic resistors.

Ohmic vs Non-Ohmic conductors

Superconductors

Conductors which offer zero resistance to the flow of current are called superconductors.

Combination of Resistors
Combination of resistors

Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they carry the same current.
Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if the same potential difference is
applied to them.

Equivalent Resistance of a system of resistors

The equivalent resistance of two resistors is given as:

In series, R eq = R1 + R2

In parallel, 1 1 1
= +
Req R R
1 2

EMF and Terminal Voltage

EMF: The potential difference between the two terminals of a cell, when there is no
current flowing through the circuit.
Terminal voltage: The potential difference between the two terminals of a cell, when
current is flowing through the circuit. 

EMF and Terminal voltage

Electric Power and AC
Heating Effect of Current

Joule's Law:

Heat (H) ∝  square of the current (I).

H ∝ Resistance of the given circuit.
H ∝  Time (t) for which current flows through the conductor.

When a potential difference is established, it causes electrons to move i.e. flow of current.

Electric Power

The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy is called Electric
Power. If W is work done in time t, then P = . W

S.I unit is Watt(W). One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a
potential difference of 1 V.
The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
6
1kW h = 3, 600, 000J = 3.6 × 10 J
2

Represented as P and P
V
2
= I R =
R

One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of power
is used for 1 hour.
 Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
Field and Field Lines
Magnet

A magnet is a material that produces a field that attracts or repels other such materials of
magnetic nature.
Lodestone is a naturally occurring magnet. It attracts materials like Iron, Nickel, Cobalt etc.

Two magnets attracting each other

North and South Poles

A magnet is always bipolar with poles named north and south poles. These two poles always
exist together and can not be separated. North pole of a magnet is the side which points to
Earth's geographic north when it is freely suspended.

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

Similar to charges, the poles attract and repel. Like poles repel while unlike poles attract
each other.

Bar magnet

A bar magnet is a rectangular object, made up of iron, steel or any other ferromagnetic
substance, that shows permanent magnetic properties. It has two poles, a north and a south
pole such that when suspended freely, the north pole aligns itself towards the geographic
north pole of the Earth.

Magnetic field

The region around a magnet where its magnetic influence can be experienced is called a
magnetic field. The direction and strength of a magnetic field are represented by magnetic
lines of force.
 Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

Iron filings test around a bar magnet

Iron filings around a bar magnet show us the magnetic field lines that surround the bar
magnet. The magnetic field lines can be defined as imaginary lines that graphically
represents the magnetic field that is acting around any magnetic substance.

Iron fillings around the bar magnet

Magnetic field lines

The magnetic field lines of a magnet form continuous closed loops.

The tangent to the field line at any point represents the direction of the net magnetic
field at that point.
The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the
magnitude of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field lines do not intersect.
 Direction of the magnetic field at different points

Magnetic field lines for a closed loop

Since magnets have dipoles, magnetic field lines must originate and end. Therefore by
convention, it starts at the north pole and moves towards the south pole outside the bar
magnet and from south → north inside the magnet. Hence it forms closed loops.

No two magnetic field lines intersect

Magnetic field lines do not intersect as there will be two tangential magnetic field
directions associated with the same point, which does not occur. If a compass needle is
placed at that point, it will show two different directions of the magnetic field which is
absurd.

Relative strength of magnetic field inferred from magnetic field lines

The closer or denser the magnetic field lines, greater is the magnetic field's strength.

Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Conductor

Oersted's experiment

When electric current flows through a current carrying conductor, it produces a magnetic
field around it. This can be seen with the help of a magnetic needle which shows deflection.
The more the current, the higher the deflection. If the direction of current is reversed, the
direction of deflection is also reversed.
 Oersted's experiment

Electromagnetism and electromagnet

An electromagnet is an artificial magnet which produces a magnetic field on the passage of

electric current through a conductor. This field disappears when the current is turned off.
The phenomenon of producing or inducing a magnetic field due to the passage of electric
current is called as electromagnetism.

Electromagnet

Magnetic field due to a straight current carrying conductor

When current is passed through a straight current carrying conductor, a magnetic field is
produced around it. Using the iron filings, we can observe that they align themselves in
concentric circles around the conductor.
 Magnetic field due to current carrying wire

Right-hand thumb rule

If a straight conductor is held in the right hand in such a way that the thumb points along
the direction of the current, then the tips of the fingers or the curl of the fingers show the
direction of magnetic field around it.

Right-hand thumb rule

Magnetic field due to current through a circular loop

The right-hand thumb rule can be used for a circular conducting wire as well as it
comprises of small straight segments. Every point on the wire carrying current gives rise to
a magnetic field that appears as straight lines at the centre.
 Magnetic field due to a circular loop

Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

A solenoid is a coil of many circular windings wrapped in the shape of a cylinder. When
current is passed through it, it behaves similar to a bar magnet, producing a very similar
field pattern as that of a bar magnet. To increase the strength a soft iron core is used.

Solenoid

Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

Ampere's experiment

When an electric conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force
is directly proportional to the current and is also perpendicular to its length and magnetic
field.
 Force due to a magnetic field

Force on a straight current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic

field

Force on a straight current carrying conductor is mutually perpendicular to the magnetic

field and the direction of the current.

Fleming's left-hand rule

Fleming’s left hand rule states that the direction of force applied to a current carrying wire
is perpendicular to both, the direction of current as well as the magnetic field.

Fleming's left-hand rule

Electric motor

Electric Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

 Electric motor

Current enters arm AB through brush X and current flows through brush Y from C to
D. Using Fleming’s LHR we find that the force pushes AB downwards and pushes CD
upwards.
In electric Motor the split rings PQ act as a commutator that reverses the direction of
the current. The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise
to a continuous rotation of the coil.

Electromagnetic Induction and Electric Generators

Faraday's experiment

Faraday discovered that a magnetic field interacts with an electric circuit by inducing
a voltage known as EMF (electromotive force) by electromagnetic induction.
Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up a current in the coil circuit, as indicated by
deflection in the galvanometer needle.
 Deflection in galvanometer

Electromagnetic induction

The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the production of induced EMF and

thereby current in a coil, due to the varying magnetic field with time. If a coil is placed near
to a current-carrying conductor, the magnetic field changes due to a change in I or due to
the relative motion between the coil and conductor. The direction of the induced current is
given by Fleming’s right-hand rule.

Fleming's right-hand rule

According to Fleming's right-hand rule, the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right
hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other as shown in the illustration, and if the
thumb represents the direction of the movement of conductor, fore-finger represents
direction of the magnetic field, then the middle finger represents direction of the induced
current. 

Fleming's right-hand rule

Electric generator

The device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. 

Operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
AC Generation: The axle attached to the two rings is rotated so that the arms AB and
CD move up and down respectively in the produced magnetic field. Thus the induced
current flows through ABCD.
 An AC generator

After half rotation the direction of current in both arms changes. Again by applying
Fleming's right hand rule, the induced currents are established in these arms along
directions DC and BA, therefore the induced I flows through DCBA.
DC Generation: They work just like AC, instead use half rings to produce current in
one direction only without variations in magnitude.

Domestic Electric Circuits

Fuse

Fuse is a protective device in an electrical circuit in times of overloading.

Overloading is caused when the neutral and live wire come in contact due to damage
to the insulation or a fault in the line.
In times of overloading the current in circuit increases (short circuit) and becomes
hazardous. Joule's heating(resistive or ohmic heating on the passage of current) in the
fuse device melts the circuit and breaks the flow of current in the circuit.
 Fuse

Fuse melted due to overloading

Domestic electric circuits

Livewire has a voltage of 220 V and is covered with red insulation.

Earth wire has a voltage of 0 V (same as Earth) and is covered with green insulation.
The neutral wire has black insulation.
In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.

Domestic electric circuit

Power loss in transmission

Power losses in transmission lines over long distances occur due to Joule's heating. This
heat (H ) ∝ l R losses where R is the line resistance.
2
 Sources of Energy
Why Conservation of Energy?
Energy and its sources

Energy is the ability to do work or the total power derived from our natural resources.
The energy exists in many forms and can be converted from one form of energy into
another. Energy in usable form is dissipated to the surroundings as less usable form.
Energy is mainly derived from natural sources like the sun, oceans, fossil fuels, wind
etc and is converted into electrical energy that we consume for our daily needs and
benefits.

What Is a Good Fuel?

A good source of energy

Sources can be classified as renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy.

Any source of energy that does not get depleted or gets exhausted is considered a
good source of energy and are usually called as renewable.

Good fuel

A good source of energy/fuel should be:

Easily available
(Easy to store and transport
Able to perform large amounts of work per unit mass and volume
Economical

Fossil Fuels and Thermal Energy

Conventional sources of energy

Sources of energy that have been in use for a very long time or have been used
extensively worldwide are known as conventional sources. Eg: wood as a common
source of heat energy or the usage of coal after the Industrial Revolution.
Examples: Fossil Fuels, Hydro Power

Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are formed due to compression of dead organic matter over millions of
years, buried deep under the earth. Eg. coal or natural gas.
We rely heavily on fossil fuels for most of our work.
Fossil Fuels are non-renewable sources of energy as they have limited reserves and
hence finding alternative sources is essential to avoid an energy crisis.
Disadvantages of burning fossil fuels

Fossil fuels also produce byproducts due to combustion which causes air pollution.
Burning coal and petroleum produces harmful oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur
which pollute the air leading to acid rain and greenhouse effect.
Gases emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels are the main contributor to global
warming.

Thermal power plants

Thermal power plants use steam produced by burning fossil fuels (mainly coal) to
move the turbines to generate electricity.
The burning of coal heats up the water and forms steam that is used to run the
turbine.
Usually, Thermal power plants are located near coal or oil fields as it is easier to
transmit electricity than transport coal.

Hydropower Plants
Turbines

A turbine is a rotatory mechanical device that extracts kinetic energy in various forms
and converts it into useful work. It uses a dynamo to convert this mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
Various uses of this have been implemented in power plants where the shaft of the
dynamo is made to rotate by mechanical means.

Hydropower plants

Another traditional source of energy is from the kinetic energy of flowing water or
harnessing potential energy of water falling from a height.
The falling/flowing water moves the turbine, which with the help of a dynamo
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Hydropower plants are usually constructed near dams or waterfalls.
Dams

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. The water is ejected upon
requirement by the power plant to generate hydroelectricity.

Fuels
Biomass

Biomass is the source of energy derived from living things (organic matter). For a long
time, we relied on wood for the source of heat energy. In India, we make fuel out of
biowaste such as cow dung due to the availability of a thriving population of livestock.
When wood is burnt in a limited supply of oxygen and water until volatile materials are
removed, the residue left behind is charcoal. Charcoal has good heat generating
efficiency. It also burns without flames.

Electricity generation through biomass

 Electricity generation through biomass

Bio-gas plant

In India cow dung, sewage waste, plant matter are decomposed in absence of oxygen
to produce biogas. Since it has cow dung it is often termed as gobar gas.
A biogas plant is a dome-like structure built with bricks where cow dung and other
biowaste are mixed with water to form a slurry and put into a digester.
The digester is a sealed chamber with anaerobic bacteria which breaks down the
slurry.
This decomposition process releases gases like methane, CO , hydrogen sulfide and
2

hydrogen.
These gases are drawn via pipes which are transmitted to a turbine for the production
of electricity.

Bio-gas plant

Wind Energy
Wind energy

Environment-friendly efficient source of energy.

Wind is the natural phenomenon caused by pressure differentials due to unequal
heating of land and water masses on the surface of the earth. It is harnessed in the
form of kinetic energy.

Windmill

Wind Energy is harnessed by rotatory structures known as windmills.

 They have huge blades or fans attached very high on a rigid support that is attached to
turbines that rotate due to high speeds of wind and generate electricity.
A single windmill has a low output and therefore, the wind farms are built that
comprises of several windmills.

Advantages and limitations of wind energy

Advantages: Environment-friendly, efficient, renewable source, with no recurring cost for

production of electricity.

Limitations:

Wind speeds should be constant and > 15 km/h. 

Must have back up storage facilities like cells. 
Requires large land area. 
High initial cost and regular maintenance are required.

Solar Energy
Solar energy

Light energy and heat energy from the sun are known as solar energy.
Sun has been radiating energy from the past 5 billion years and will continue to do so
at the same rate for another 5 billion years or more.
We must find ways to harness the energy with maximum efficiency, although only a
small fraction of the solar energy reaches the earth’s surface.

Solar cooker

Solar cookers and water heaters use solar energy to operate.

Black surfaces absorb more energy than other surfaces and solar cookers use this
property by coating their insides black.
They use reflecting surfaces like mirrors to focus the sun’s rays.
The device is covered with a glass plate thereby establishing the greenhouse effect by
trapping heat inside the cooker.

Solar cell

A device that converts solar energy into electricity is known as a solar cell.
A typical solar cell produces a voltage of 0.5 1 V and 0.7 W of electrical power. A large
number of such cells can combine to form a solar panel which can generate power
large enough for practical uses.
Advantages: (i) no moving parts (ii) require little maintenance (iii) can be set up in
remote areas without the hassle and expenses of transmission lines.
 Disadvantages: (i) Requires a special grade silicon which is not easily available (ii)
Usage of silver for interconnections makes it expensive.
Uses: traffic signals, calculators, artificial satellites and space probes.

Cross section of a solar cell

Energy From the Sea

Energy from sea

The seas and oceans and other water bodies are a source of kinetic and potential energy
due to the immense volume of water and the motion of waves.

Tidal energy

Tides are variations in the level of water due to the gravitational pull of the moon.
The phenomenon of rise and fall of water level or high and low tide gives tidal energy.
Tidal energy is obtained by constructing dams near the narrow openings of the sea.
When the tide sets in, it moves the turbine which directly produces electricity.
It is limited to places near the sea.

Wave energy

Waves possess a lot of kinetic energy that can be harnessed to produce electricity.
Waves are produced by strong winds blowing over the sea.
Limited to places with strong winds. Devices have been designed to capture this
energy.

Ocean thermal energy

 The difference in surface temperatures of water and water at a certain depth in
oceans is exploited to harness this form of energy.
Temperature difference must be 20 between the surface and water up to depths of 2
∘

km.
Warm water is used to boil volatile ammonia to form vapours that move the turbine.
Cold water is used to condense the vapour back to liquid.

Extraction of Ocean thermal energy

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy

There is a huge amount of heat trapped inside the earth. Molten rocks from Earth’s
core sometimes come up due to geological changes and get trapped in hotspots.
Harnessing this heat energy is called geothermal energy.
Any underground water present gets heated due to the hotspots and gets converted to
steam which escapes from the surface of the earth as hot springs.
This steam is used to rotate turbines and generate electricity.
 Geothermal Power Plant

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy can be used to generate electricity by means of nuclear fission.

In a nuclear reactor, the nuclear fuel is used to carry out sustained fission chain
reaction to produce electricity at a controlled rate.

Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the process where a heavy atom (uranium or plutonium) is bombarded
with neutrons that split the atom to give lighter nuclei. This process releases tremendous
amounts of energy. For example, Fission of 1 atom of uranium gives 10 million times the
energy of combustion of 1 atom of carbon from coal.

Nuclear Fission

Disadvantages of using nuclear energy

Nuclear waste is hazardous as heavy atoms decay into harmful subatomic particles.
High setup and maintenance cost
Limited availability of uranium
Can be used for destructive purposes
Nuclear fusion

Fusion means combining lighter nuclei to produce a  heavier nucleus, usually

hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium.
It releases a huge amount of energy.The mass deficit between the product and
reactants are given by Einstein’s equation. E = mc
2

Nuclear Fusion
Introductio
Environment refers to the surrounding of an organism where it thrives. It constitutes both living and
non-living things, i.e. physical, chemical and biotic factors. Here, in this chapter, we will learn about
various components of the environment, their interactions and how our activities affect the environment

Ecosyste
The ecosystem comprises all the biotic and abiotic factors interacting with one another in a given area.
Biotic components include all living organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and humans,
etc. and abiotic components include sunlight, temperature, air, wind, rainfall, soil and minerals, etc. E.g.
pond ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, etc

Mode of nutrition in animals and plant

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic are the two modes of nutrition in living organisms. Plants and some
bacteria are autotrophic as they make their own food. Animals, fungi and some bacteria are
heterotrophic as they derive their food from other organisms

Read more: Difference between Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

m

 Saprophytes and decomposer

Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying material, e.g. fungi and microorganisms. They absorb nutrients
from dead and decaying plants and animal parts. Decomposers break down the organic matter or waste
material and release nutrients into the soil.  For example, bacteria, worms, slugs, and snails. They are
considered extremely important in soil biology. They break down the complex organic matter into
simpler substances that are taken up by the plants for various metabolic activities

Read more: Saprophytes

Abiotic component

Non-living chemical and physical components of the environment like the soil, air, water, temperature,
etc

Biotic component

Living organisms of the environment like plants, animals, microbes and fungi

Read more: Biotic and Abiotic

Trophic level

It refers to the various levels in a food web as per the ow of energy. The different trophic levels are

• Producers (T1
• Primary consumers (herbivores-T2
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores -T2
• Tertiary consumers(Sec carnivores -T3
• Quaternary consumers (Ter. carnivores T4
• Decomposer
Also see: What do you understand by trophic level?

Pyramid of trophic level

• Is a graphical representation
• Can be the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass or the pyramid of energy
• All the pyramids start with producers
a) Pyramid of numbers: gives the number of organisms present at each trophic level.
It can be upright or inverted.
b) Pyramid of biomass: gives the biomass of each trophic level and could be upright or inverted.
c) Pyramid of energy: is always upright as it shows the ow of energy from one trophic level to the
next trophic level
.



s

fl
fl
.





-

 To know more about different types of Ecological Pyramid, visit here

Law of conservation of energ

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another
• In biological systems, it gets passed from one organism to another across trophic levels
To know more about the Law of conservation of energy, visit here

Energy o

• Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another depicting its direction and amount
• Can be represented by the pyramid of energy
• In any food chain, only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to another
To know more about Energy Flow in Ecosystem, visit here

Food chai

A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food

fl
n

 To know more about Food Chain, visit here

Food we

• Is formed by interconnections of different food chains

• Is a graphical representation of ‘Who eats Whom’ in an ecosystem
 

To know more about Food Web, visit here

Characteristics of ecosyste

• Includes the summary of trophic levels

• Their energy ow and pyramids
Environmen

• Includes all living and nonliving things

• Unlike ecosystems, there need not be any necessary interaction between them
Also see: Our Environment
fl
t

 Pollutio
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials (pollutants) into the environment. Pollution can be due
to natural causes such as volcanic eruptions, forest res, etc. or due to human activities, such as carbon
emission, industrial runoff, etc

Know more: Types of Pollution

Air pollutio

Introduction of pollutants, organic molecules, or other hazardous substances into the earth’s atmosphere.
Sources:
a) Natural - forest re, dust storms, and volcanic activity
b) Man-made - power plants, homes, industries, oil re neries, and  transportatio

To know more about Air Pollution, visit here

Ozone layer depletio

The ozone layer protects the earth from the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. CFCs released into the
atmosphere react chemically with ozone molecules and are depleting the layer

Know more: Ozone Layer Depletion

Garbage managemen

• Involves all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its nal
disposal
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 • Ensures environmental best practices are followed along with proper monitoring and regulation
Steps involved:
1. Segregation of waste
2. Collection
3. Transport
4. Treatment
5. Processing & Recycling
6. Disposa

Read more: Solid Waste Management

Biodegradable wast

• Waste is derived from plants or animals

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 •  Decomposed into the soil by a natural agent such as weather, water, air, heat, micro-organisms,
etc

Biodegradatio

Decomposition of garbage or waste material by living organisms or biological processes

To know more about Different Types of Pollution, visit here.

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Science Notes Chapter 15: Our Environmen

What are the different types of landforms present in our environment

Mountains, hills, plateaus and plains are the four major types of landforms which are majorly present in
our environment.

What is 'Lithosphere'
The Lithosphere is the rocky outer part of the Earth. It is made up of the brittle crust and the top part of
the upper mantle

Where is the 'Biosphere' present

The Biosphere makes up the portion of the Earth where life exists

Also Check:

• CBSE Class 10 Science Chapter 14 Sources of Energy Notes

• Real Numbers Class 10 Notes: Chapter 1
• NCERT Exemplar Class 10 Science Solutions for Chapter 15 - Our Environment
• NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 15: Our Environment
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 Sustainable Management of Natural

Resources
Introduction
Pollution in Ganga
The river Ganga is used as a sewage dump for more than 100 cities stretching across
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Dumping of untreated sewage,  excreta, and chemicals from industries increases the
toxicity of the water.
This makes it inhabitable for the flora and fauna in the river system.
In 1985 the GAP (Ganga Action Plan) project was initialised to curb the poor quality of
the water of river Ganges.

Reduce, recycle and reuse

The 3 R's to save the environment can be performed by each individual in our society:

Reduce: Reducing our usage and wasteful habits. Eg. not wasting food, turning off the
switches to save electricity, repairing leaky taps, reducing the amount of water used
for bathing etc.
Reuse:  Using things again and again instead of discarding them. For example, reusing
plastic utensils and bottles. Many things cannot be recycled or require a lot of energy,
instead, we can utilize them for other purposes.
Recycle: Collecting discarded plastic, paper, glass or metal objects to manufacture
different products instead of synthesizing them from scratch. Must have a mechanism
to segregate and dispose of each type of waste separately.

Why Do We Need to Manage Our Resources?

Need to manage natural resources

Due to the ever-increasing population and rising demands of changing lifestyles,

natural resources are being depleted at an alarming rate. To ensure sustainable,
equitable distribution of resources and reduction of damage to the environment,
management of resources must be an integral part of our society.
We must ensure judicious use of our natural resources as it is not unlimited and
management of such requires long-term planning in order to last generations.

Increase in demand for natural resources

Increasing population is increasing demand for more resources that are getting
depleted at an exponential rate.
 Changing lifestyles and advancements in technology is compelling industries to
exploit our natural reserves to meet the demands.

Forests and Wildlife

Forests and wildlife

Forests are termed as biodiversity hotspots.

Biodiversity is the variety and range of plant and animal life in a particular habitat.
Loss of biodiversity may result in loss of ecological balance and damage to the
ecosystem.

Stakeholders of forest

When we consider conservation of forests we must consider the following stakeholders:

People who habituate around forests and are dependent on forest produce.
Forest Department of the Government that own the land and resources. 
Industrialists: who use the forest to produce certain products e.g tendu leaves
for bidis and paper mills.
Conservationists and wildlife enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine
form.

Monoculture

Monoculture is the cultivation of a single crop in a given area.

Excessive monoculture destroys the biodiversity of the area.
Various needs of the people local to forest areas are neglected such as leaves for
fodder, herbs, and fruits for consumption.

Industrialist's mentality and influence

Industrialists consider forest as a source of raw materials.

Industries have more political power than the locals and only bother about meeting
their demands. They do not care about sustainability and will move on from one
habitat to another in search of raw materials.

People intervention in forests

Human intervention is a necessity in the management of forest resources and

landscapes.
Resources must be utilised to ensure development while preserving the environment.
 Benefits must go to the local people to ensure economic growth and conservation
takes place simultaneously.
Examples: Bishnoi community in Rajasthan for saving Khejri trees in Jodhpur
Rajasthan.

Damage to forests and wildlife

Excessive and lawless utilisation of forests will deplete the resources quicker then they
can be restored.
Destroys the ecological balance and may damage the habitats for various species of
flora and fauna.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development needs all stakeholders of forest resources to be satisfied.

In reality, industries use forests at rates far below the market rates which causes
conflict between local dwellers and industrialists.

Chipko movement

The Chipko Andolan (‘Hug the Trees Movement’) is one such case of conflict between
the industrialist and local dwellers in the 1970s.

Chipko Movement

Originated in Reni Garhwal, high up in the Himalayas.

The conflict between local villagers and logging contractor → Women of the village
stopped felling of trees by hugging them → Contractor had to withdraw.

Women protecting the trees by hugging them

 The movement quickly gained popularity and media attention and forced the
government to rethink the management of forest resources.
Involvement of local people is equally important in the management of forest
resources.

Water for All

Water

Water is a necessity for all terrestrial forms of life.

In India places having water scarcity are also the places experiencing acute poverty. 
Despite the monsoon, there exists failure to retain groundwater due to loss of
vegetation and release of effluents from industries.
Decrease in fresh usable water due to the destruction of water table and disruption in
water cycle.

Rains and irrigation practices

Intervention of government to pursue mega projects neglected the local irrigation

methods
Strict regulations on usage of stored water and building dams, tanks and canals
Optimum cropping patterns must be followed based on water availability.

Involvement of local people (ex: kulhs)

Himachal Pradesh had a canal irrigation system called as kulhs where flowing stream
water was diverted to man-made channels which took it to villages down the hillside.
The water was used first by the village farthest from the source of the kulh. This
helped water percolate in the soil.
It was made defunct after government irrigation system took over.

Dams

Dams can store large amounts of water and generate electricity.

Mismanagement of dams causes exploitation and there is no equitable distribution of
this resource.
Criticism about large dams address:
(i) Displacement of tribals without compensation
(ii) Corruption and consumption of money without generation of benefits
(iii) Environmental problems like deforestation.
Coal and Petroleum
Water harvesting

Water harvesting encourages soil and water conservation in order to sustain and
increase biomass.
Increases income for the local community but also mitigates droughts and floods.
Examples :Khadins, tanks and Nadis in Rajasthan, Bandharas and Tals in Maharashtra,
Bundhis in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, Ahars and Pynes in Bihar, Kulhs in
Himachal Pradesh, ponds in the Kandi belt of Jammu region, and Eris (tanks) in Tamil
Nadu, Surangams in Kerala, and Kattas in Karnataka.
Water harvesting structures are crescent-shaped earthen embankments/concrete
check dams built in areas that are seasonally flooded
The main purpose is to recharge groundwater.

Groundwater

Advantages:

does not evaporate

recharges wells and groundwater
when flowing does not allow mosquitoes to breed
does not come in contact with human contamination

Coal and petroleum

Coal and petroleum are derived from fossil fuels which are non-renewable. They will
get depleted in due time. Hence proper management for consumption of fossil fuels is
important.
Their combustion pollutes our environment due to the production of oxides of carbon,
sulfur and nitrogen. Therefore, we need to use these resources judiciously.

Why should fossil fuels be used judiciously?

Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years of degrading biomass and have a huge
amount of carbon.
When combusted in a limited supply of oxygen they form harmful gases that pollute
the atmosphere which leads to global warming.
Judicious use of fossil fuels addresses the efficiency of our machines and ensures
sustainability of our resources for the future.