Lecture four:

(( Manufacturing ))
Permanent Mold Casting Processes:
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times. The processes include:
1 ) Basic permanent mold casting. 2 ) Slush Casting. 3 ) Low Pressure casting.
4 ) Vacuum Permanent mold casting. 5 ) Die casting. 6 ) Centrifugal casting.
1. The Basic Permanent Mold Process:
It is a process in which fluid metal is poured into metal molds & subjected to hydrostatic
pressure [see fig. (1) below]. For hollow parts, either permanent core made of metal or
sand is used.

Fig. (1): Steps in Permanent mold casting.

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities to both
sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a mold
which is clamped shut until the material cools and solidifies into the desired part shape.
Permanent mold casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold (die) that can be
reused for several thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and
not forcibly injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting.
 Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening
and closing [see fig. (1) above].
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or
cast iron.
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material, due to the very
high pouring temperatures.
Steps in permanent mold casting (referring to fig. (1) above):
(1) Mold is preheated and coated.
(2) Cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed [see fig. (1) above].
(3) ) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.
Advantages of permanent mold casting:

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Lecture four:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer
grain structure, so castings are stronger
Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to open
the mold
 High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting:
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can
be automated accordingly.
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft
and missiles.
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron.
2. Slush Casting:
Slush Casting is a special type of permanent mold casting to create a hollow
casting without using cores [see fig. (2) below]. In the process the material is poured into
the mold and allowed to cool until a desired wall thickness is obtained, the not yet
solidified molten metal is poured out. It is a relatively inexpensive process.
 This is useful for making hollow ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamp's
holder, statues etc.

Fig. (2): The steps to form a Slush casting.

Fig. ( 3 ): Variation of the Shell thickness with time of solidification.

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Lecture four:

 The thickness of the shell is controlled by the amount of time allowed before the
mold is drained as shown in Fig. (3) above.
 Low-melting-point metals such as lead, zinc, and tin are used.
 The exterior appearance is important, but the strength and interior geometry of
the casting are minor considerations.
3. Low Pressure Casting:
Instead of using gravity to assist in the metal pour and flow in the mold, a low pressure
of up to 0.1 MPa (15 psi) gas is applied to the molten metal [see fig. (4) below].

Fig. ( 4 ): Low Pressure Casting process.

 The maintenance of pressure on the melt causes complete fill of the mold and
compensates for any shrinkage on cooling.
 Thin wall castings can be made.
 The metal cools inwardly in the mold to the stalk and freezes while the pressure
(P) is held, then (P) is released & the still molten in stalk return to the pot, the
process is used to cast :
1 – Al in plaster. 2 – Cast Iron. 3 – Steel mold.
 Mechanical properties are superior.
 Gas porosity and oxidation defects are minimized.
Low – Pressure Casting (L– P casting ) is a stage between hydrostatic casting (Permanent
mold) & high – pressure die casting.
4. Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting:
It is similar to the low-pressure permanent mold casting, except a vacuum is used
instead of a pressure [see fig. (5) below].
 Reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the mold is used to draw the liquid
metal into the cavity (rather than forcing it by pressure).
 Thin wall castings can be made as in the low-pressure permanent mold casting.
In addition, the yields are high since no risers are used.
 Advantages: Reduced air porosity, greater strength.

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Lecture four:

Fig. ( 5 ): Vacuum Permanent mold casting (a) before the process (b) Casting perfomed.
5. Squeeze Casting:
Squeeze casting is a combination of casting and forging in which a molten metal is
poured into a preheated lower die, and the upper die is closed to create the mold cavity
after solidification begins [figure (6)].

Fig. ( 6 ): Squeeze Casting Process.

 This differs from the usual permanent-mold casting process in which the die
halves are closed prior to pouring or injection.
 Owing to the hybrid nature of the process, it is also known as liquid–metal
forging.
 The pressure applied by the upper die in squeeze casting causes the metal to
completely fill the cavity, resulting in good surface finish and low shrinkage.
 The required pressures are significantly less than in forging of a solid metal billet
and much finer surface detail can be imparted by the die than in forging.
 Squeeze casting can be used for both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, but
aluminum and magnesium alloys are the most common due to their lower
melting temperatures.
 Automotive parts are a common application.
6. Semi – Solid Metal Casting:
It is a family of net-shape and near net-shape processes performed on metal alloys at
temperatures between the liquidus and solidus [figure (7)].
 The alloy is a mixture of solid and molten metal during casting; it is in the mushy
state.

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Lecture four:

 In order to flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid metal globules in a
liquid rather than the dendritic solid shapes that form during freezing of a
molten metal, with the fraction solid being in the range of 30 to 65%.

M :
Fig. ( 7 ): Semi – Solid Metal Casting Process.
Metals: Aluminum, magnesium, and some copper alloys.
Size Range: Ounces to about 1 pound, limited to a diameter of feed stock. Some
SSM Houses can produce parts up to 15-20 pounds.
7. Die Casting:
Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the molten metal is injected
into the mold cavity under high pressure.
Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically complex metal
parts through the use of reusable molds, called dies, hence the name die casting. This
process is a further development of Permanent – mold casting.
 A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold
cavity under high pressure, typical pressures are (7 to 350 MPa).
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is
removed.
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this from
other permanent mold processes.
 It differs from sand casting. Sand casting uses a mold made of sand which is a
poor conductor of heat, so the cooling process is very slow, molten metal is simply
poured into the mold and the mold is expendable. In permanent mold casting, by
contrast, the mold is made from steel or other metal which is a good conductor,
so the cooling is fast, it can be reused and the molten metal is being injected.
Die Casting Machines:
Die casting operations are carried out in special die casting machines which is designed
to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity [figure( 8 )].

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Lecture four:

Fig. ( 8 ): General configuration of a Die Casting machine.

The Four Steps of Die Casting
There are four key steps in the process of die casting, the die casting machine should be
at the required temperature, to ensure the molten metal not to solidify too quickly.
According to the size of the casting, heating can take from several hours to several
minutes. The four steps are:
1) Spray the mold with lubricant and close it, allowing for an easier removal of
the cast object later on.
2) Inject the molten metal into the die. The metal is inserted at an extremely high
pressure, which allows the metal to conform to the precise shape of the die.
3) Cool the mold, and wait for the metal to solidify. In some cases, the mold may
be immersed or sprayed with cold water to help the casting become solid faster. A high
pressure is maintained inside the mold, which ensures the metal doesn't change
properties while inside the die.
4) Open the die and remove the solid cast!
There are two main types of Die – Casting machines:
1. Hot-chamber machine.
2. Cold-chamber machine.
1) Hot-Chamber Die Casting:
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die [see fig. (9) below].

Fig. ( 8 ): Cycle in hot - chamber casting.

 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon.
 Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack
plunger and other components due to the hot metal that is poured in to them.
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium.

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Lecture four:

 With die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber.
 Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
2) Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine:
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container (ladle),
and a piston injects metal under high pressure into die cavity at pressure as much as ( 10
times ) than that in the Hot – Chamber process. [see fig. (10) below]:
 High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of
pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin,
lead)

Fig. ( 10 ): Cycle in cold-chamber casting.

(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber.
(2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
Molds for Die Casting:
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel (a strong tough low-
carbon martensitic steel which contains up to 25 percent nickel and in which
hardening precipitates are formed by aging)
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die cast steel and
cast iron.
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens.
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking.
Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities.
 Good accuracy and surface finish.
 Thin sections are possible.
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting.
Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points.
 Part geometry must allow removal from die.
Dies in Die – Casting:
A die is a tool containing a cavity that imparts a shape to a solid, molten, or
powder metal or other material, such as wax or plastic [see fig. (11) below].
Die: consisting of a pair (or a combination of pairs) of mating members for producing
certain casting, including all supporting & actuating elements of the tool [fig. (12)
below].

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Lecture four:
Two dies are used in die casting; one is called the "cover die half" and the other the
"ejector die half". Where they meet is called the parting line.
The cover die contains the sprue (for hot-chamber machines) or shot hole (for cold-
chamber machines).
 One of the design considerations in dies for die casting is that a taper on cavity
walls must be added so the part can be removed from the die.
 A second concern is where to locate the parting line to form the two die halves so
the part can be easily removed after forming.
 Thermal expansion of the die material must be considered as well as thermal
contraction of the part during cooling
 The dies must be massive and strong enough to withstand the subjected high load
of metal injected inside it.

Fig. ( 11 ): The Die molds and its products.

Fig. ( 12 ): The main components of Dies in Die casting.

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Lecture four:

Types of Dies are [see fig. (13) below]:

 Single Cavity: ( turns out only ( 1 ) casting for each cycle of operation.
 Multi Cavity: large – quantity production of small & moderate size pieces, a
number of cavities may be sunk in a single Die & may be gated from common
sprue.

Fig. ( 13 ): The types of Dies in Die casting.

 Combination: the cavities are of ( 2 ) or more different shapes & produces as
many different part at one time.
 Unit: consist of a die holder in which several die elements may be placed & filled
at the same time.
8. Centrifugal Casting:
A family of casting processes in which the molten metal is pouring into mold which is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of the
die cavity.
The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting.
 Semi-centrifugal casting.
 Centrifuge casting.
Centrifugal Casting produces:
 Good quality.
 Accurate casting.
 Saves material.
 Dense product & have fine grained structure with uniform & high physical
properties.
 Less subjected to directional variation than static casting.
True Centrifugal Casting:
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part (hollow cylindrical
shapes such as pipe are produced) [ see fig. (14) below].

Fig. ( 14 ): Setup for true centrifugal casting.

 In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than before.
 The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal axis [see fig. (15) below].

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Lecture four:

 The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while
the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the
mold.
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings.
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside
shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces.

Fig. ( 15 ): Centrifugal casting (a) Horizontal axis (b) Vertical axis.

Mold Speed of Rotation:
Let us consider how fast the mold must rotate in horizontal centrifugal casting for the
process to work successfully. Centrifugal force is defined by this physics equation:
𝒎. 𝑽𝟐
𝑭=
𝑹
Where:
F = force, N; m = mass, kg; V = velocity, m/s; and R = inside radius of the mold, m.
The force of gravity is its weight W=mg, where m is given in kg, and g = acceleration of
gravity, 9.8 m/s2. The so-called G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force divided by
weight:
𝒎. 𝑽𝟐 𝒎. 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑮𝑭 = = =
𝑹. 𝑾 𝑹. 𝒎. 𝒈 𝑹. 𝒈
Velocity V can be expressed as:
𝟐 𝝅. 𝑹. 𝑵 𝝅. 𝑹. 𝑵
𝑽= =
𝟔𝟎 𝟑𝟎
Where: N = rotational speed, rev/min.
Substituting this expression into Eq. in above equation, we obtain:

𝟑𝟎 𝟐 𝒈. 𝑮𝑭
𝑵= .√
𝝅 𝑫
Where: D = inside diameter of the mold, m.
If the G-factor (GF) is too low in centrifugal casting, the liquid metal will not remain
forced against the mold wall during the upper half of the circular path but will ‘‘rain’’
inside the cavity. Slipping occurs between the molten metal and the mold wall, which
means that the rotational speed of the metal is less than that of the mold. On an
empirical basis, values of [GF = 60 to 80] are found to be appropriate for horizontal
centrifugal casting.
Example:
A true centrifugal casting operation is to be performed horizontally to make copper tube
sections with OD ¼ 25 cm and ID ¼ 22.5 cm. What rotational speed is required if a G-
factor of 65 is used to cast the tubing?

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Lecture four:
Solution:
The inside diameter of the mold D = OD of the casting = 25 cm = 0.25 m., it can
compute the required rotational speed as follows:

𝟑𝟎 𝟐 𝒈. 𝑮𝑭
𝑵= .√
𝝅 𝑫

In vertical centrifugal casting, the effect of gravity acting on the liquid metal causes the
casting wall to be thicker at the base than at the top. The inside profile of the casting
wall takes on a parabolic shape. The difference in inside radius between top and bottom
is related to speed of rotation as follows:
𝟑𝟎 𝟐 𝒈. 𝑳
𝑵= .√ 𝟐
𝝅 𝑹𝒕 − 𝑹𝟐𝒃
Where:
L = vertical length of the casting, (m), Rt = inside radius at the top of the casting, (m);
and Rb = inside radius at the bottom of the casting, (m). it can be used to determine the
required rotational speed for vertical centrifugal casting.
One can see from the formula that for Rt to equal Rb, the speed of rotation N would have
to be infinite, which is impossible of course. As a practical matter, part lengths made by
vertical centrifugal casting are usually no more than about twice their diameters.
Semi-centrifugal Casting:
It is similar to Centrifugal casting except that in this type the Centrifugal force is used to
produce solid castings rather than tubular parts [see fig. (16) below].
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal.
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of
rotation (because of condensation).
 Examples: wheels and pulleys.

Fig. ( 16 ): Semi-centrifugal casting.

Centrifuge Casting:
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation (placed at a
certain radius from the axis of rotation), so that molten metal poured from the center into
mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force [see fig. (17) below].

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Lecture four:

 Used for smaller parts.

 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting methods.

Fig. ( 17 ): Centrifuge casting.

Furnaces for Casting Processes:
Furnaces most commonly used in foundries are:
 Direct fuel-fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces
1. Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces:
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners located on side
of furnace [see fig. (18) below].
 Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against charge.
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal.
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and aluminum.

Fig. ( 18 ): Direct Fuel – Fired Furnace.

2. Crucible Furnaces:
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture. Sometimes called
indirect fuel-fired furnaces [see fig. (19) below].

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Lecture four:

 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature steel

alloy.
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting.

Fig. ( 19 ): Crucible Furnace.

3. Electric - Arc Furnaces:
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc [see fig. (20) below].
 High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for high
melting capacity.
 Used primarily for melting steel.

Fig. ( 20 ): Electric - Arc Furnace.

4. Induction Furnaces:
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal, in
which the induced current causes rapid heating and melting [see fig. (21) below].
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal.
 Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be closely
controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity.
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in
foundry work.

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Lecture four:

Fig. ( 21 ): Induction Furnace.

Ladles:
 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done using
crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles.
Fig. (22) shows the crucible and two types of ladles (a) Crane ladle (b) Two man ladle.

Fig. ( 22 ): Two common types of ladles.

Additional Steps After Solidification:
1. Trimming:
 Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and any
other excess metal from the cast part [ see fig. (23) below].
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing, abrasive wheel
cutting, or various torch cutting methods are used.

Fig. ( 23 ): Casting before and after Trimming.

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Lecture four:

2. Removing the Core:

If cores have been used, they must be removed.
 Most cores are chemically bonded or oil bonded, and they often fall out of casting as
the binder deteriorates.
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, manually or mechanically.
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving bonding agent.
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out.
3. Surface Cleaning:
It is the process of removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing
appearance of surface.
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot,
wire brushing, polishing and buffing, and chemical pickling (to give a light finish
to by bleaching or painting and wiping)
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting:
 In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided.
4. Heat Treatment:
Castings are often heat treated to enhance good mechanical properties.
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as machining.
 To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in service.

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