The Physical Domain (Gross and Fine Motor) added stability. In addition, they can step sideways.

Children of this age begin mastering new forms

The term "gross motor" development refers
of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin
to physical skills that use large body movements,
to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own.
normally involving the entire body. In the sense
They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting
used here, gross means "large" rather than
balls with bats, and so on. Many children of this
"disgusting.
age enjoy learning to play organized sports such as
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop soccer, basketball, t-ball or swimming. In addition, 5
"toddling," or using the awkward, wide-legged to 6 year olds often like to participate in physical
robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics,
walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they or dance. Children continue to refine and improve
also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
Children of this agecan participate in throwing and
Physical Development: FineMotorSkills
catching games with larger balls. They can also
push themselves around with their feet while sitting Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in
on a riding toy. smaller, more precise movements, normally using
the hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs
than gross motor skills which require less precision
using a method of bringing both feet together on each
to perform.
step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast,
adults place one foot on each step in sequence). By ages 2 to 3years, children can create things
However, young children may still need some with their hands. They can build towers out of
"back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case they blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble
become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this with a crayon or pen. Children of this age can
age will also be stumped when it's time to go back also insert objects into matching spaces, such as
down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3 year-
down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 year olds can jump olds often begin showing a preference for using
and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. one hand more often than the other, which is the
Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of beginning of becoming left or right-handed.
time.
Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate
Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps, and
better upper body mobility. As a result, their continue to gain independence in dressing and
catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and undressing themselves. Before they enter school,
accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit a most children will gain the ability to completely
stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole dress and undress themselves (even though they
body coordination improves, children of this age may take a long time to finish the task). At this
can now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can age,children can also begin using scissors to cut
also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children
their bodies. blunt, round-edged "kid" scissors for safety reasons!
By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down 3 to 4 year-olds continue to refine their eating skills
the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking and can use utensils like forks and spoons. Young
one step at a time). Their running continues to children at this age can also use larger writing
smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing hold
age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They rather than just grasping them with their fist. They
also have more control when riding their tricycles (or can also use a twisting motion with their hands,
bicycles), and can drive them faster. useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids
off containers. Because children can now open
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to
containers with lids, caregivers should make
refine earlier skills. They're running even faster
certain that harmful substances such as cleaners and
and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for
medications are stored out of reach in a locked area activities that meet each child’s needs. As you
to prevent accidental poisonings. meaningfully plan and implement your work in
preschool, you are setting the foundation for
During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine
children’s school readiness and success. You
fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills. For
have an important role in promoting preschoolers’
instance, they can now button and unbutton their
gross-and fine-motor skills that will help them
clothes by themselves. Their artistic skills improve,
reach their full overall potential. This means that:
and they can draw simple stick figures and copy
shapes such as circles, squares, and large letters. You give all children access to opportunities that
Drawing more complex shapes, however, may promote physical development.
take longer.
You are responsive to children’s individual
5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for differences.
starting or succeeding in school, such as printing
letters and numbers and creating shapes such as You establish appropriate expectations about what
triangles. They are able touse paints, pencils and children should be able to do in terms of physical
crayons with better control. Children can also development and growth.
complete other self-care tasks beyond dressing and Promoting children’s physical development builds a
undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing foundation for long-term health and well-being.
their hair. Children of this age can also
independently feed themselves without an adult's Ways to Encourage Motor or Physical Development
immediate supervision or help. Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five
Physical Activity and Children’s Development years across the four main areas of development.
These areas are motor (physical), communication and
Physical activity is critical for young children’s language, cognitive, and social and emotional.
development. Considering that preschool children
learn best when they are actively engaged in Motor development means the growth and
their environments, it is essential that we provide strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles and ability
them with ample opportunities to explore the to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s
environments by moving, touching, experimenting, motor development falls into two categories: fine
and manipulating different toys, objects, and motor and gross motor.
materials. Studies indicate that physical activity in Fine motor skills refer to small movements in
young children is linked to braingrowth and the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips and
development. One study that explored body and brain tongue. Gross motor skills involve development
connections found that preschoolers’ motor-play of muscles that enable babies to hold up their
activities activate visual brain centers (James, 2010). heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump
Findings like this suggest that motor activity and skip.
contributes to the general organization of the brain,
ultimately supporting the notion that young children
need time to be active. Parents and caregivers can help develop a child’s
Physical well-being is also linked to mental motor skills at all ages, starting by recognizing its
health. The World Health Organization defines general sequence. It starts from the inner body,
health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then
social well-being and not merely the absence of moves to the outer body, such as hands, feet,
disease or infirmity. fingers and toes.
However, it’s important to remember that each child
develops differently. Here are ideas to encourage
As a preschool teacher, it is your responsibility to motor development at different ages.
help children learn and develop, and to provide
developmentally appropriate experiences and Infant/baby:
Practice tummy time for a few minutes, increasing physical strength so that we can do bigger
the time slowly as muscles get stronger. movements, such as walking and jumping.

Place toys nearby so your baby can move and reach Motor skills enable the movements children need
for them. for everyday tasks, from feeding themselves to
moving from place to place. Typically, children
Around the age of 1:
develop certain motor skills at specific ages, but not
Let your baby turn the pages of a book when you every child will reach milestones at precisely the
read with him/her. same time.1A child with motor impairments has
trouble moving in a controlled, coordinated, and
Provide toys with moving parts that stay attached. efficient way. If your child seems to be delayed
Play games and sing songs with movements that in developing fine or gross motor skills, they
your child can imitate. will likely undergo an assessment and may require
physical or occupational therapy to catch up
At 2 years old:
Fine Motor Skills
Encourage your toddler to build a tower of four or
Fine motor skill activities involve manual
more blocks.
dexterity and often require coordinating
Play parade or follow the leader with your toddler. movements of the hands and fingers with the
eyes, which is known as hand-eye
Help your toddler to explore things aroundhim/her coordination. Components of fine motor skills
by going on a walk or wagon ride. include being able to grip and manipulate
Gently roll a ball to your little one, and ask your objects ,use both hands for a task, and use just the
toddler to roll it back. thumb and one finger to pick something up rather
than the whole hand.
From ages 3 to 5:
The following are just a few examples of fine motor
When outdoors, have your child run between you skills that typically occur at different phases of child
and another adult or a landmark. development.
Practice standing on one foot, and count to see how
long he/she can stay still.

Throw a soft, squishy ball back and forth.

Do arts and crafts projects using playdough, scissors

and small beads on a string. Birthto3Months
Have your child help with simple household chores. Uses arms to swing or "bat" at objects
Give your child crayons, markers and a variety of Watches hands move and brings them to the
play materials. mouth3to6Months
Fine and Gross Motor Skills in Children Begins to transfer objects from one hand to another
By Terri Mauro Updated on January 26, 2022 Holds own hands together

Motor skills are skills that enable the movements Reaches for toys using both arms6to9Months
and tasks we do everyday. Begins to grasp & hold onto objects, such as a bottle
Fine motor skills are those that require a high Squeezes objects
degree of control and precision in the small
muscles of the hand (such as using a fork. Uses a raking grasp to move objects with fingers.
9to12Months
Gross motor skills use the large muscles in the body
to allow for balance, coordination, reaction time, and
Begins to show a preference for one hand over the Ties shoelaces
other
Age6
Puts small objects in a cup or container
Builds a small structure with blocks
Turns pages in a book a few pages at a time
Puts a 16 to 20 piece puzzle together
Develops pincer grasp (using index finger and
Cuts well with scissors
thumb to grasp objects)
Uses a knife to cut food
Feeds themselves finger foods
1012to18Months
You can encourage your baby to improve their fine
Builds a tower two blocks high motor skills by laying them under a play gym, using
Scoops objects with a spoon or small shovel wrist or ankle rattles, or moving a colorful toy around
so they can visually track it.
Claps hands
For toddlers, activities that might improve fine
Scribbles with crayons on paperWaves goodbye
motor skills include encouraging them to pick up
18Monthsto2Years objects with tongs, building with blocks, and doing
craft projects. You can also encourage toddlers and
Begins holding a crayon with fingertips and thumb
preschoolers to play with play-dough, sponges,
Builds a tower three to four blocks high pasta, or water toys.
Opens loosely wrapped packages or containers
Turns pages in a book one page at a time Gross Motor Skills
Puts rings on pegs Gross motor skills are movements that involve
Age2 large muscle groups and are generally more broad
and energetic than fine motor movements. These
Stacks a block tower nine blocks high movements include walking, kicking, jumping, and
Turns doorknobs climbing stairs. Some milestones for gross motor
skills also involve eye-hand coordination, such as
Washes hands independently
throwing or catching a ball.
Zips and unzips large zippers
The following are some examples of gross motor
Manipulates clay or play dough skills that typically occur at different phases of
Age3 childhood development.

Folds a piece of paper in half 3to6Months

Draws a circle after being shown an example Raises arms and legs when placed on the stomach

Fastens and unfastens large buttons Rolls over

Age4 Supports own head when in a sitting position
Gets dressed and undressed without help 6Monthsto12Months
Touches the tip of each finger to the thumb Crawls
Uses a fork correctly
Pulls self from a sitting to a standing position
Age5
Sits without support
Cuts out a circle
Age1
Copies a triangle shape
Climbs onto low furniture
Grasps a pencil correctly
Climbs stairs with assistance Children with neurological conditions or
developmental delays may have difficulty with fine
Pulls or pushes toys with wheels motor skills. Difficulties with fine motor skills often
Walks with one hand held aren't diagnosed until preschool when it becomes
more obvious that children are struggling with
Age2 different school activities, such as learning to copy
Jumps using both feet simultaneously shapes or letters.
Some children will be diagnosed with dysgraphia,
Runs very stiffly on toesWalks upstairs without a a learning difference that affects writing skills
banister while others might be diagnosed with
Age3 developmental coordination disorder (DCD or
dyspraxia), a condition that is still not widely
Rides tricycle using pedals, unassisted by an adult understood. Kids with fine motor skill difficulties
might need occupational therapy, modifications, or
Runs without falling
assistive technology.
Throws a ball to an adult standing 5 feet away
It maybe easier to notice if your child isn't reaching
Age4
gross motor skill milestones than fine motor
Catches a ball with arms and body milestones because gross motor skills are among
the most anticipated; you're probably eagerly
Runs smoothly with changes in speedWalks anticipating your baby rolling over, crawling, pulling
upstairs by alternating feet themselves up along furniture, and taking their first
Age5 steps. As a child grows, you note when they are
running and playing and how well they do in physical
Catches a ball with two hands games and sports.
Hops on one foot Children with neurological problems, developmental
delays, or disabilities will usually be diagnosed by
Performs jumping jacks and toe touches their pediatrician if they consistently miss major
milestones. Gross motor skill delays may also be a
Walks up and down the stairs while carrying objects
sign of dyspraxia. If children's gross motor delays
Age6 affect movements, they may receive physical therapy
to help with gross motor skills or they may need
Kicks rolling ball
modifications or assistive technology to keep up with
Jumps over objects 10 inches high mobility or athletics.

Rides a bicycle with training wheels The social domain

Throws with accurate placement

Encourage your baby to work on their gross

motor skills by doing lots of tummy time. Once
they master that, encourage them to reach for (and
later crawl towards) toys placed in front of them. To
encourage your baby to walk, help them stand and
take steps by holding their arms. With toddlers and
preschoolers, encourage them to build forts, dance to
songs like "Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes," play
pretend, and pull their toys in wagons.
GrossMotorSkillsActivitiesforLittleKidsMotorSkillD Playgrounds can be special places where the
elays developmental needs of all children, including
those with disabilities, can be secured by
intentionally providing opportunities for physical, its process categories and specialized skills include
social- emotional, sensory, cognitive, and interpersonal performance in a wide variety of
communicative benefits of play. social circumstances.
Investing in inclusive play for children with Role of the Social Domain
disabilities requires supporting their interactions
Bloom (2.2.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy—Expanding its
with peers to develop social learning, problem
Meaning) did not author a social domain of
solving, social exchanges, cooperation, turn-taking,
learning skills to complement his cognitive,
roles, and the empathy necessary for social and
affective, and psychomotor taxonomies. However,
emotional development.
sociocultural and constructivist philosophies of
education strongly incorporate social domain
 The coordination of joint activity,
learning skills.
which occurs across the social
environment of play, is critical to
cognitive development and must be The socio-cultural approach is associated with
available to children with disabilities. theorists such as the Russian psychologist Lev
 Positive sensory development requires Vygotsky (1934/ 2006) and the American
children with disabilities be able to philosopher/educator John Dewey (2005) who
regulate their sensory input within an assume that learning is a developmental process that
environment. starts with “external” stimulation and emerges as
Communication development occurs when “internalized” abilities.
children
with disabilities are able to In Process Education, this approach is used in the
independently model social interactions and “scoping” of learning activities to assure that the
effectively communicate with their peers. learning expectations are within the present
capabilities of the learners and that they are
compatible with the time constraints and other
The developmental domains are linked not only
available resources.
with one another, but also with factors such as
culture, social relationships, experience, physical
The emergent/constructivist theories are often
health, mental health, and brain functioning.
associated with Jean Piaget’s (1970) developmental
Therefore, the process of creating truly inclusive
theory.
and embracing play experiences should start with
an appreciation of the five domains of child
Process Education assumes that learners not only
development.
continually construct knowledge but that the quality
of that construction can be facilitated as suggested by
Social-Emotional Domain
the five levels of skill competency presented in
Social opportunities are one of the most important Table 2.
benefits of play for child development. The social-
emotional domain includes the child's experience, Social Domain Learning Skills (Table 1)
expression, and management of emotions and the
ability to establish positive relationships with Communicating
others. It encompasses both intra- and interpersonal
processes such as social interaction, cooperation, Receiving a Message
self-confidence, and community roles. Attending –mindful focusing by a listener Reading
body language –gathering information from
A hierarchy of abilities relating to communication,
nonverbal cues
teamwork, management, and leadership are
Responding –giving appropriate and timely responses
included in the social domain of learning skills
Checking perceptions –feeding back implied
(Table 1). This domain differs from the cognitive,
meaning
emotional, and psychomotor domains in that all of
Preparing a Message Generalizing appropriately –validly
Defining purpose –specifying outcomes for a acknowledging cultural differences
message Using culture-specific expertise –possessing
Knowing the audience –predicting the detailed knowledge about a culture
background and interests of receivers Relating with OthersInviting Interaction Taking an
Organizing a message –sequencing elements for interest in others –enjoying personal differences
the best impact Initiating interaction –approaching and engaging
Selecting word usage –using language that others
matches the audience’s background Hosting –using social events to build social
Formatting a message –selecting a mode or style that cohesion
fits the purpose Expressing positive nonverbal signals –
Illustrating –enhancing a message with images, accurately projecting feelings
tables or drawings Assisting others –being kind without expecting a
reward
Delivering a Message Being non-judgmental –responding with an
Selecting a venue –deciding when and where to assessment mindset
present a message Relating for Meaning Belonging –gaining
Generating presence –delivering a message with acceptance in a group
authority Befriending –initiating a supportive relationship
Sharing knowledge –effectively presenting relevant Empathizing –taking another’s emotional
facts and interpretations perspective
Persuading –using information selectively to Collaborating –working together for mutual benefit
convince Parenting –guiding the social-emotional
Story telling –relating what happened development of children
Managing transitions –using planned techniques to Mentoring –encouraging one’s growth through an
lead an audience advisory relationship
Performing in a Team Goal setting –formulating
Relating Culturally shared outcomes
Accepting Constraints Obeying laws –complying Achieving consensus –agreeing on decisions based
with rules meant for the common good Inhibiting on shared values
impulses –delaying one’s reaction until one is aware Planning –deciding how to use resources to
of the situation achieve goals
Noticing social cues –recognizing situational signs Cooperating –respecting role boundaries and
that direct behavior responsibilities
Recognizing conventions –behaving politely within Compromising –modifying positions to achieve
a context common ground Performing in an Organization
Living in Society Sharing traditions –participating in Accepting responsibility –demonstrating initiative
mutually meaningful rituals and persistence
Supporting institutions –upholding important Being assertive –advocating strongly on the basis
organizations of reason and evidence
Valuing communities –recognizing the worth proposals –presenting plans for consideration
andneeds of a group Documenting –creating a record of activities, work
Reacting to history –responding with knowledge products, and processes
of past events Influencing decisions –using assessment data to
Being a citizen –participating in the political process support decision paths.
Demonstrating Cultural Competence Clarifying
stereotypes –checking assumptions about people in Managing
different cultures Managing People Building
Appreciating cultural differences –enjoying consensus –developing goals and plans that are
learning cultural knowledge well-accepted
Motivating –arranging rewards that fit individual Inspiring –being positive in the face of negative
aspirations challenges
Modeling performance –demonstrating high Sharing a vision –using empathy and imagery to help
quality in action others see a vision
Assessing performance –providing feedback for Generating commitment –asking for specific signs
improving performance of willingness to tackle challenges required for a
Evaluating performance –judging whether a vision
performance standard has been met Maintaining integrity –responding to personal
Building and Maintaining Teams Defining team issues with clear criteria/principles
roles –deciding on roles that support a goal
Setting rules –defining ethical and professional Maintaining Commitment
expectations Meeting individual needs –responding to
Delegating authority –authorizing others to evidence of needs with relevant resources
manage selected tasks Taking meaningful stands –publicly articulating
Confronting poor performance –requiring principles Thinking opportunistically –using
specific change positive strategies to predict and reduce risks
Recruiting –selecting qualified personnel for Being charismatic –displaying confidence in action
specific functions
Mediating –resolving interpersonal conflicts Empowering
Giving credit –publicly and equitably
Managing Communication acknowledging performance Encouraging ownership
Connecting with stakeholders –involving key –engaging others in important tasks for a vision
individuals at appropriate times Grooming subordinates –developing future leaders
Networking –developing relationships with to take over key roles Being a servant leader –
internal and external advocates placing interests of others before personal interests.
Marketing –initiating messages to persuade clients
of the value of something Social Domain Skill Competency Levels
Sustaining change –promoting creative
proposals for ongoing improvement Table 2 presents five levels of competency that can
Managing Resources Negotiating –making potentially be achieved in any skill in the social
agreements with other stakeholders to advance a domain. From the lowest to the highest, these five
position levels of skill use are “non-conscious use,”
Politicking –advocating positions with external “conscious use,” “consistent performance,” “self-
stakeholders reflective use,” and “transformative use.” These level
Securing resources –assuring appropriate descriptors provide a way to identify how much
funding, scheduling, and staffing competence an individual has with any social domain
Creating productive environments –arranging for skill. Brief examples are presented in Table 2 to
essential resources in a setting. illustrate what the varying levels of competency look
like at each of the five levels in the skills of
Leading Envisioning “attending” and “sharing a vision.”
Projecting the future –visualizing future status
based on trends/logic
Seeing implications –describing the operational
impacts of future trends
Balancing perspectives –maintaining the vision
while working within constraints Responding to
change –being flexible in strategic thinking

Building a Following
This module presents the processes, skill clusters,
and skills of the social domain of learning (Table 1)
and differentiates these from the processes and skills
in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
A five level rubric is presented in Table 2, analogous
to Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive learning
objectives, for assessing the level of competence with
any skill in the social domain. The socio-cultural and
constructivist philosophies of learning and
development are briefly discussed in order to
demonstrate how skills in the social domain fit into
educational theory and practice. As a systematic
approach to education, Process Education
emphasizes the significance of social domain
learning skills which in the past have often been
considered peripheral to learning. By identifying the
relevant skills from the social domain that are likely
to make a difference in a learning context, educators
will be able to integrate these skills with those from
the other domains to create truly integrated learning
experiences.