Date: 03/06/2023

Class: Crash Course 12 hour Session

Syllabus Topic: Review of Syllabus

Title: Review on all CSEC Physics Sections

Sections of the CSEC Physics Syllabus

There are 5 sections of the CSEC Physics Syllabus.

Part 1 – Mechanics

Part 2 – The Physics of the Atom

Part 3 – Thermal Physics and Kinetic Theory

Part 4 – Waves and Optics

Part 5 – Electricity and Magnetism

Part 1 - Mechanics

Scientific Method

Objective 1: Discuss how the methodology employed by Galileo contributed to the

development of Physics

Some key aspects of Galileo's methodology and their contributions to the field of physics

are as follows:

1. Experimental Approach

2. Quantitative Analysis

3. Laws of Motion

4. Telescope Observations

5. Concept of Inertia

6. Experimental Error and Uncertainty

Objective 2: Investigate the factors which might affect the period of a simple pendulum

Definition for period of a simple pendulum:

The period of a simple pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to complete one

full oscillation.

Factors which might affect the period of a simple pendulum:

1. Length of the Pendulum: As the length of the pendulum increases, the period also

increases.

2. Amplitude of Swing: The amplitude of a pendulum refers to the maximum angle

it swings away from its vertical position. For small amplitudes the period

remains nearly constant and is unaffected by the amplitude. However, for larger

amplitudes, the period can deviate slightly from the constant value, and the

pendulum's motion becomes more complex.

3. Mass of the Pendulum Bob: The mass of the bob, or the weight attached to the

end of the pendulum, does not affect the period of a simple pendulum.
Objective 3: Use graphs of experimental data from simple pendulum

Objective 4: Draw a line of ‘best fit’ for a set of plotted values

Objective 5: Determine the gradient of the straight line graph

Tip:

• Use ⊙ or × to denote plotted points.

• Student should be able to plot 𝑇 vs. 𝐿 and 𝑇 2 vs. 𝐿.

• Use a triangle that covers at least half of the ‘best fit’ line.

• Include the derivation of the unit of the gradient

Objective 6: Express the result of a measurement or calculation to an appropriate number

of significant figures

Scientific Notation is of the form : 𝑨 × 𝟏𝟎𝑩

• where 1 ≤ 𝑨 < 10

i.e. 𝐴 is always a number between 1 and 10, not including 10

• and where 𝑩 ∈ ℤ

i.e. 𝐵 is always an integer (either negative or positive)

Tip:
When the decimal point moves to the left, the value of B becomes positive.
When the decimal point moved to the right, the value of B becomes negative.
Objective 7: Discuss possible types and sources of error in any measurement

Error

Systematic Random
Error Error

Causes Minimizing Causes Minimizing

Method Method

Zero Error By Parallax By repeatedly

error taking the
improving
the structure readings
The error cause by zero of apparatus Incorrectly
error is reduced by using the
subtracting the obtained apparatus
reading from the zero
error.

Incorrect
Calibration
Objective 8: Use a variety of instruments to measure different quantities

• Length – rulers, vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge

• Mass – balances

• Time – clocks, stop clocks or watches

• Volume – measuring cylinder

Objective 9: Assess the suitability of instruments on the basis of sensitivity, accuracy and

range

An easy way to understand the difference between precision and accuracy is to consider

a game of darts. The objective of the game is to hit the bull’s eye with the darts. Let us

look at the various scenarios.

We notice that accuracy has to do with how close the darts are to the bull’s eye (or true

value), whereas precision has to do with how close the darts are as a group.

• Measurements are accurate if the systematic errors are small.

• Measurements are precise if the random errors are small.

 𝑚
Objective 10: Apply the formula for density: 𝜌 = 𝑉

Definition:

Density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of a material substance.

Formula:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝒎
𝝆= 𝑽

where mass is measured in kilograms (𝑘𝑔),

volume is measured in cubic metres (𝑚3 )

density is measured in kilogram per cubic metre (𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ).

Vectors

Objective 1: Distinguish between scalars and vectors and give examples of each

Definition:

A scalar quantity has magnitude only whereas a vector quantity has magnitude and

direction.

Examples of Scalar Quantities Examples of Vector Quantities

• distance • displacement
• area • velocity
• speed • acceleration
• energy • momentum
• length • force
• work done
• power
• volume
Objective 2: Use scale diagrams to find the resultant of two vectors

Objective 3: Calculate the resultant of vectors which are parallel, anti-parallel and

perpendicular

Example 1:

3𝑁
6𝑁

Resultant force = 6 + 3

Resultant force = 9 𝑁 to the right

Example 2:

2.5 𝑁 6𝑁

Resultant force = 6 − 2.5

= 3.5 𝑁 to the right

Example 3:

40 𝑁

30 𝑁

What is the resultant force?

Solution:

Let 𝑅 be the resultant force.

40 𝑁 𝑥 40 𝑁

𝜃
30 𝑁
By Pythagoras’ Theorem,

𝑅 2 = (𝐹1 )2 + (𝐹2 )2

𝑅 2 = (30)2 + (40)2 Note: When writing your

final answer for force, state:
𝑅 2 = 900 + 1600
• direction
𝑅 2 = 2500
• size
𝑅 = √2500

𝑅 = 50 𝑁

Now,
𝑜𝑝𝑝
tan 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗

40
tan 𝜃 = 30

4
𝜃 = tan−1 (3)

𝜃 = 53.1° (to 1 decimal place)

Answer: Resultant force is 50 𝑁 in the direction shown, 53.1° from the horizontal.
Objective 4: Explain that a single vector is equivalent to two other vectors at right angles

This pertains to everyday examples of motion and force, for example, velocity of a ball

thrown through the air.

Statics

Objective 1: Explain the effects of forces

A force can cause a change in the size, shape or motion of a body.

Here are some key effects of forces:

1. Change in Motion: When a force is applied to an object, it can accelerate,

decelerate, change direction, or stop the object depending on the magnitude and

direction of the force relative to the object's mass. (Newton’s First Law of Motion)

2. Acceleration: Forces cause acceleration, which is the rate of change of an object's

velocity. (Newton’s Second Law of Motion)

3. Deformation: When external forces are applied to an object, it may experience

compression, tension, bending, twisting, or shearing forces.

4. Equilibrium: When the forces acting on an object are balanced, meaning the net

force is zero, the object is in a state of equilibrium. In this state, the object remains

at rest or moves with a constant velocity. If unbalanced forces act on an object, it

will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force until a new equilibrium is

reached.

5. Friction: Friction can slow down or stop the motion of an object, prevent sliding

or slipping, enable objects to grip or hold onto each other, and provide stability or

traction. Friction can be beneficial, such as when walking or driving, but it can also

be undesirable, causing wear and energy loss in mechanical systems.

Objective 2: Identify types of forces

We can separate forces into two categories:

• Contact force

• Non-contact force

Contact Force Non-contact Force

• Tension • Gravitational force
• Frictional • Nuclear force
• Upthrust • Magnetic force
• Normal contact force • Electrostatic
• Elastic
• Mechanical force
Objective 3: Determine the weight of objects

Definition:

Weight is defined as the force of gravity on a body.

Formula:

Weight = mass × gravitational pull

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

where

𝑊 = weight (𝑁)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑔 = gravitational pull/acceleration (𝑚𝑠 −2)

Objective 4: Show how derived quantities and their related units are produced

Objective 5: Recall the special names given to the units for some derived quantities

Objective 6: Express derived units using the index notation

Note how unit 𝜌 may be derived by multiplying and dividing fundamental quantities and

their units.

From the definition of the quantity, for example: 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2

Objective 7: Identify situations in which the application of a force will result in a turning

effect

This pertains to situations that are relevant to everyday life, for example, opening a door,

sitting on a ‘seesaw’, using a spanner.

Objective 8: Define the moment of a force, 𝑇

Definition:

A moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular

distance from the pivot to the line of action.

Formula:

Moment of a force = Force × perpendicular distance

𝑇 = 𝐹𝑑

where

𝑇 = moment of a force (𝑁𝑚)

𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝑑 = distance (𝑚)
Objective 9: Apply the principle of moments

Definition:

The Principle of Moments state that the sum of anticlockwise moments is equal to the

sum of clockwise moments about a pivot.

Objective 10: Explain the action of common tools and devices as levers

Types of levers:
According to where the load and effort are located with respect to the fulcrum, there are
three types or classes of lever.

First Class Lever

This is a type of level which has the fulcrum in between the weight and the force
applied. Its order is represented as force-fulcrum-weight. This is the most basic type of
lever.

Diagram:

applied
force
load

fulcrum

Examples:

• see-saw
• scissors, pliers, hole puncher
• crowbar
• nail clipper
• a wheel and axle
• pulling a nail out of a wooden plank
Second Class Lever

In this, the fulcrum is at one end and the force applied is on the other end. The weight is
situated in the middle of these two. The order of this would be fulcrum-weight-force. The
application of force at one end will result in some work done on the other end.

Diagram:

load

fulcrum
force

Examples:

• wheelbarrow

• doors or gates

• bottle openers

• nutcracker
Third Class Lever

These are the levers in which the fulcrum is at one end and the force is applied in the
middle and the weight is on the other end. The order is represented as a weight-force-
fulcrum. In this case, we have to apply more energy to displace the weight to a longer
distance.

Diagram:

force
load

fulcrum

Examples:

• fishing rod
• a broom
Note: Reason for third class levers
• a baseball bat
is you want more dexterity.
• a bow and arrow
• human jaw
• tweezer
Objective 11: Determine the location of the centre of gravity of a body

Specifically, you need to determine the centre of gravity of a variety of regular and

irregular shaped solids, including lamina

Objective 12: Relate the stability of an object to the position of its centre of gravity and its

weight

The orientation of an object can change the position or height of its centre of gravity and

affect its stability. You should be able to compare the stability of the same regular solid,

for example, cylinder, metre rule, cuboid in different positions, for example, horizontal,

vertical, inclined.
Objective 13: Investigate the relationship between extension and force

Graphs:

Title: Graph showing 𝐹/𝑁 vs. 𝑒/𝑚.

Force, 𝐹/𝑁

Elastic limit, 𝐸

Extension, 𝑒/𝑚

Title: Graph showing 𝑒/𝑚 vs. 𝐹/𝑁.

Extension, 𝑒/𝑚

Elastic limit, 𝐸

Force, 𝐹/𝑁
Objective 14: Solve problems using Hooke’s law

Law:

Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the stretching

force, provided that the stretching force does not extend the spring beyond its elastic

limit.

Formula:

𝐹∝𝑒

𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆

where 𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝑘 = spring constant

𝑒 = extension (𝑚)

Note:

Force is proportional to the extension.

In other words, as force increases, the extension also increases.

Dynamics: Motion In a Straight Line

Objective 1: Define the terms: distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration

Distance

Distance refers to the total length of the path travelled by an object during its motion. It

is a scalar quantity and is always positive or zero.

Displacement

Displacement is a vector quantity that measures the change in position of an object from

its initial point to its final point. It considers both the magnitude and direction of the

change in position.

Speed

Speed is a scalar quantity that measures the rate at which an object covers distance.

Formula:

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒅
𝒗= 𝒕

where 𝑣 = speed (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

𝑑 = distance (𝑚)

𝑡 = time (𝑠)
Velocity

Velocity is a vector quantity that measures the rate at which an object changes its

displacement.

Formula:

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒔
𝒗= 𝒕

where 𝑣 = velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

𝑠 = displacement (𝑚)

𝑡 = time (𝑠)

Formula:

𝒖+𝒗
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟐

where 𝑢 = initial velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

𝑣 = final velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Acceleration

Acceleration is a vector quantity that measures the rate at which an object changes its

velocity.

Formula:

∆ 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∆ 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

∆𝒗
𝒂= ∆𝒕

where 𝑎 = acceleration (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

∆ 𝑣 = change in velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

∆ 𝑡 = change in time (𝑠)

Objective 2: Apply displacement-time and velocity-time graphs

Here are some points you should take note of:

Distance vs. Time Velocity vs. Time

Gradient speed acceleration

zero speed constant speed

(at rest)

▪ distance increasing ▪ velocity increasing

▪ constant speed ▪ constant acceleration

▪ (forward direction)

▪ distance increasing ▪ velocity decreasing

in opposite direction ▪ constant deceleration

▪ constant velocity

▪ (reverse direction)

You will be asked to find the gradient for straight lines only.
Objective 3: Discuss Aristotle's arguments in support of his "law of motion”, that is,

𝑣 ∝ 𝐹′′

Aristotle proposed a "law of motion" that states that the velocity (𝑣) of an object is

directly proportional to the force (𝐹) acting upon it. According to Aristotle, this law

implies that the greater the force applied to an object, the greater its resulting velocity.

However, it's important to note that Aristotle’s law was eventually discredited.
Objective 4: State Newton's three laws of motion

Newton’s 1st law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that a body remains in a state of rest of uniform

motion/velocity unless acted upon by a resultant force.

Newton’s 2nd law of motion

Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is

proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of a force.

Formula:

𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

where

𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑎 = acceleration (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

Newton’s 3rd law of motion

Newton’s third law of motion states that if an object 𝐴 exerts a force on object 𝐵, then,

object 𝐵 also exerts an equal and opposite force on object 𝐴.

Objective 5: Use Newton's laws to explain dynamic systems

Rockets

Rockets operate based on Newton's third law of motion, which states that for every

action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket works by expelling high-speed

exhaust gases in one direction, which generates a force that propels the rocket in the

opposite direction.

Garden Sprinklers

The operation of garden sprinklers can be understood using Newton's second and third

laws of motion. When water flows into a sprinkler system and is forced out through the

nozzles, it generates a reaction force that causes the sprinkler to rotate.

Trampolines

When a person jumps on a trampoline, the physics involved can be explained using

Newton's laws of motion. Let's focus on the upward bounce of the person.
Objective 6: Define linear momentum

Definition:

The linear momentum of an object is the product of the mass of the object and its velocity.

Formula:

𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗

where 𝑝 = momentum (𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑣 = velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
Objective 7: Describe situations that demonstrate the law of conservation of linear

momentum

Objective 8: Apply the law of conservation of linear momentum

Formula:

Total Momentum before collision = Total Momentum after collision

Energy

Objective 1: Define energy

Definition:

Energy means the ability to do work. The unit of energy is the Joule (𝐽).
Objective 2: Identify the various forms of energy

Types of energy include:

➢ Nuclear

➢ Thermal

➢ Light

➢ Kinetic

➢ Potential

➢ Sound

➢ Mechanical

➢ Chemical
Objective 3: Describe the energy transformation(s) in a given situation

• Transformations should be limited to one-step or two-step only.

• Note that thermal energy is always a product and by-product of every

transformation.

• You should be aware of examples of the conversion of electrical energy to other

forms and vice versa.

Example:

The main energy conversions taking place when a flashlight is turned on are:

turn on switch
kinetic/ Chemical Light + Heat
Electric
mechanical (battery) Energy

circuit
is
closed
Objective 4: Apply the relationship: work = force × displacement

Definition:

• Work done is when a force moves its point of application.

• Work done by a force is the product of the magnitude of a force and the

distance moved in the direction of the force.

• Unit: Joule (𝐽)

Formula:

Work done = Force × displacement

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔

where

𝑊 = work done (𝐽)

𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝑠 = displacement (𝑚)
Objective 5: Discuss the use of energy from alternative sources, and its importance to the

Caribbean

Alternative sources of energy in the Caribbean:

• Solar - water heating, generate electricity

• Wind - generate electricity

• Geothermal - generate electricity

• Hydro - generate electricity

Objective 6: Define potential energy

Objective 7: Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy using: ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ

Definition:

Potential energy, 𝐸𝑝 , the energy a body possesses as a result of its position or state.

Equation:

𝑬𝒑 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

where 𝐸𝑝 = potential energy (𝐽)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

ℎ = height (𝑚)
Objective 8: Define kinetic energy
1
Objective 9: Calculate kinetic energies using the expression 𝐸𝑘 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Definition:

Kinetic energy, 𝐸𝑘 , the energy a body possesses as a result of its motion.

Equation:

𝟏
𝑬𝒌 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐

where 𝐸𝑘 = kinetic energy (𝐽)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑣 = velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
Objective 10: Apply the law of conservation of energy

Principle of Conservation of Energy:

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; if energy disappears in one form, it re-appears

in another.
Objective 11: Define power and apply definition

Definition:

Power is defined as the rate of work done.

Unit: Watts (𝑊)

Formula:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑾
𝑷= 𝒕

where

𝑃 = power (𝑊)

𝑊 = work done (𝐽)

𝑡 = time taken (𝑠)

Objective 12: Explain the term efficiency

Objective 13: Calculate efficiency in given situations

Definition:

Efficiency is the ratio of the useful work performed by a machine or in a process to the

total energy expended or inputted into a system.

Formula:

𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Alternatively,

𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 × 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Note:

• No machine is 100% energy efficient.

• There will always be energy lost.

• Efficiency is usually calculated as a percentage.

Hydrostatics

Objective 1: Define pressure and apply definition

Definition:

Mechanical pressure is defined as a normal force acting on a surface per unit area.

Unit: Pascals (𝑃𝑎)

Formula:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑭
𝑷=𝑨

where

𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑎)

𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝐴 = area (𝑚2 )
Objective 2: Relate the pressure at a point in a fluid to its depth and the density

Definition:

Pressure in liquids is defined as a normal force acting on a surface per unit area. Pressure

increases with depth.

Formula:

𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

where

𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑎)

ℎ = height from surface (𝑚)

𝜌 = density (𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

5 Facts on pressure in liquids:

1. Not affected by cross-section

2. All points on same horizontal depth = Same pressure

3. Acts equally in all directions (same depth)

4. Pressure is directly proportional to depth

5. Pressure is directly proportional to density

Objective 3: Apply Archimedes’ principle to predict whether a body would float or sink in

a given fluid

Definition:

Archimedes principle states that the upthrust force on an object wholly or partially

immersed in a fluid is equal (and opposite) to the weight of fluid displacement by the

object.
Part 2 – The Physics of the Atom

Models of the Atom

Objective 1: Describe the work done in establishing the modern view of the atom

Evolution of the Concept of the Atom

≈400BC − The Greek philosopher, Democritus, suggested that matter consisted of small

indivisible particles. He called these particles ‘atomos’, from the Greek word

for indivisible.

𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟕 − Joseph John Thomson viewed the atom as a positively charged sphere with

smaller, negatively charged, fixed particles (electrons) interspersed within it, the

resultant charge being zero. This is known as the plum pudding model of the

atom.

𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟏 − Ernest Rutherford proposed that most of the atom is empty space and that it

contains a nucleus of very concentrated positive charge. He suggested that small

negatively charged particles exist in a surrounding ‘electron cloud’, making the

net charge zero.

𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟑 − Niels Bohr suggested that the negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in

particular shells. A unique energy value is required by an electron to exist within

any shell.
𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟐 − James Chadwick discovered neutrons, uncharged particles that exist together

with protons within the nucleus of an atom. Neutrons were difficult to detect

because, unlike protons and electrons, they have no charge, and are therefore

unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.

Timeline:
Objective 2: Describe the Geiger-Marsden experiment

Ernest Rutherford worked with Hans Geiger, investigating the behaviour of alpha

particles when fired through metals. In 1911, Geiger, together with a student, Ernest

Marsden, carried out a research project in Rutherford’s laboratory, measuring the angles

of deflection of the alpha particles. The schematic arrangement of the experiment is

shown below.

They shot alpha particles through a thin sheet of gold foil and observed the scintillations

produced as the particles struck a zinc sulfide screen. The chamber was evacuated

because alpha particles are stopped by just a few centimetres of air. The microscope could

be rotated to observe the scintillations received at any angle. The paths of the alpha

particles are shown below.

Observations:

1. Most of the particles passed straight through the foil without deflection.

2. Very few were deflected, but those that were, did so with extremely high speeds,

even at large angles of deflection.

Conclusions:

1. Most of the atom is empty space.

2. The nucleus is extremely dense, and consists of positive charges which repelled

the positively charged alpha particles.

Structure of the Atom

Objective 1: Sketch the structure of simple atoms

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an

element.

Atomic Particles

Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons.

• The nucleus (center) of the atom contains the protons (positively charged) and

the neutrons (no charge).

• The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and contain the

electrons (negatively charged). Atoms have different properties based on the

arrangement and number of their basic particles.

Objective 2: Compare the mass and charge of the electron with the mass and charge of

the proton

• The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so

electrons contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom.

• Electrons have an electric charge of −1, which is equal but opposite to the charge

of a proton, which is +1.

Objective 3: Explain why an atom is normally neutral and stable

An atom is normally neutral and stable due to the balance between the positive charge of

its protons and the negative charge of its electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus

determines the atom's atomic number and defines its identity as a particular element.

Surrounding the nucleus are electrons, which carry negative charge. For an atom to be

electrically neutral, the number of electrons must equal the number of protons. The equal

and opposite charges cancel each other out, resulting in a net charge of zero.
Objective 4: Apply the relationship 𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑁

Formula:

𝑨=𝒁+𝑵

where

𝐴 = mass number

𝑍 = atomic number (number of protons)

𝑁 = the number of neutrons

Note:

You should be aware of the use of standard notation for representing a nuclide, 𝐴𝑍 𝑋.

For example. 126 𝐶 .

Objective 5: Explain what is meant by the term "isotope”

The term "isotope" refers to different forms of an element that have the same number of

protons but different numbers of neutrons. In other words, isotopes are variants of an

element with varying atomic masses.

Objective 6: Relate the shell model of the atom to the periodic table

1. The number of outer shell electrons determines the group number of the element.

2. The number of occupied shells (energy levels) determines the period of the

element.

3. The proton number determines the element itself and its position.

For example:

Sodium has 11 protons. If you look into its electronic configuration, that is, 2,8,1. You can

tell that since it has one outer electron, it is in group 1. And since it occupies three shells,

it's in period 3.

Note:

Any element in the periodic table has one more proton than an element before it.
Radioactivity

Objective 1: Describe Marie Curie’s work in the field of radioactivity

Here are some key aspects of Marie Curie's work in the field of radioactivity:

1. Discovery of Polonium and Radium: This discovery marked the first time that new

chemical elements were isolated based on their radioactivity.

2. Pioneering Radioactive Studies: Marie Curie developed techniques to quantify

radioactivity, which involved using electrometers and carefully calibrating

instruments.

3. Development of the Theory of Radioactivity: This theory challenged the prevailing

understanding of atoms as stable and indivisible entities and introduced the

concept of nuclear instability.

4. Isolation of Pure Radium: Marie Curie made significant efforts to isolate pure

radium from uranium ores. She developed intricate extraction and purification

techniques to separate radium from other elements.

5. Pioneering Radiological Applications: During World War I, she established mobile

radiography units, known as "Little Curies," to provide X-ray diagnostics for

wounded soldiers on the front lines. This led to significant advancements in

medical imaging and the use of radioisotopes for diagnostic and therapeutic

purposes.
Objective 2: State the nature of the three types of radioactive emissions

Atomic nuclei that are not stable, tend to approach stable configurations, by the process

of radioactivity. Atoms are radioactive because the ratio of neutrons to protons is not

ideal.

• Alpha (𝛼) decay occurs when the neutron to proton ratio is too low.

• Beta (𝛽) decay occurs when the neutron to proton ratio is too high.

• Gamma (𝛾) rays are not particulate radiation like the alpha and beta, but a form of

high-energy electromagnetic wave.

Objective 3: Describe experiments to compare the ranges of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 emission

Some examples of such experiments are:

1. Absorption test

2. Electric-field deflection

3. Magnetic field deflection

4. Diffusion cloud chamber test

Objective 4: Describe the appearance of the tracks of radioactive emissions in a cloud

chamber

• 𝜶 tracks:

An 𝛼-particle has a mass of more than 7000 times that of a 𝛽-particle. The 𝛼-

particles are strongly ionising on collision with other particles and produce thick

tracks. The tracks are straight because α-particles are not easily deviated on

collision with other particles.

• 𝜷 tracks:

𝛽-particles are only weakly ionising, due to their relatively small mass, and

produce weak tracks. The tracks are randomly directed because these particles

deviate readily on collision with other particles.

• 𝜶 tracks:

These tracks are extremely weak and dispersed. The ions in this case are

produced when a 𝛾-wave is absorbed by an atom, resulting in the ejection of an

electron.
Note:

The details of the operation of the cloud chamber are not required.
Objective 5: Predict the effects of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of 𝛼 and 𝛽

particles and 𝛾 rays

Magnetic Field Electric Field

Alpha Particles (𝛼) Alpha particles, being charged Alpha particles will be

particles, will experience a affected by an electric field

deflection when passing due to their positive

through a magnetic field. The charge. They will be either

direction of the deflection will attracted or repelled based

depend on the charge and on the polarity of the

velocity of the alpha particle, as electric field. The

well as the orientation of the acceleration of alpha

magnetic field. particles will depend on

the strength and direction

of the electric field.

Beta Particles (𝛽) Beta particles will experience a Beta particles will also be

deflection when passing influenced by an electric

through a magnetic field. The field due to their charge.

deflection direction will The direction and

depend on the charge, velocity, acceleration of beta

and polarity of the magnetic particles will depend on

field. the polarity and strength

of the electric field.

Gamma Rays (𝛾) Gamma rays, being Similarly, gamma rays,

electromagnetic radiation, are being electrically neutral,

not charged and do not have a do not experience any

mass or charge to experience a significant effect in an

direct deflection in a magnetic electric field.

field.
Objective 6: Interpret nuclear reactions in the standard form

Examples:

• 226
88 𝑅𝑎 → 222
86 𝑅𝑛 + 42 𝐻𝑒

• 14
6 𝐶→ 14
7 𝑁 + −10 𝑒
Objective 7: Conduct an activity to demonstrate the random nature of radioactive decay

Objective 8: Recall that the decay process is independent of the conditions external to the

nucleus

This pertains to an activity from which a radioactive decay curve can be obtained. You

should be able to perform analogue demonstrations to illustrate random processes, for

example, throwing of dice, tossing of coins.

APPARATUS: 137 dice, large box

METHOD:

1. A large number of dice will be rolled in a container with on marked dice.

2. When a die rolls a 1, that ‘nucleus’ can be said to have decayed and is removed
from the set.
3. This should be repeated at different time intervals, for example rolling the dice
every two minutes would give a half-life of 6 minutes.

RESULTS:
Number of dice

Number of rolls
Objective 9: Use graphs of random decay to show that such processes have constant half-

lives

Objective 10: Solve problems involving half-life

Definition of half-life:

The time taken for the radioactivity of a specified isotope to fall to half its original value.
Objective 11: Discuss the useful applications of radioisotope

Radioisotopes, or radioactive isotopes, have a wide range of useful applications across

various fields. Here are some notable applications:

1. Medicine:

• Radioisotopes are used in medical imaging techniques to detect and

visualize diseases, tumours, and abnormalities within the body.

• Radioisotopes can be used in radiation therapy to treat cancer.

2. Industrial Applications:

• Radioisotopes are used to inspect the integrity of materials and structures

without causing damage. They can be used to detect flaws, cracks, or

measure the thickness of materials.

• Radioisotopes are used for sterilization processes in the food,

pharmaceutical, and medical device industries. They effectively kill

bacteria, insects, and other harmful organisms.

Objective 12: Relate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction to a change in mass

Formula:

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

where

𝐸 = energy (𝐽)

𝑚 = mass (𝑘𝑔)

𝑐 = speed of light (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

The speed of light is estimated to be 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 .

Objective 13: Cite arguments for and against the utilisation of nuclear energy

Arguments for the Utilization of Nuclear Energy:

1. Low Carbon Emissions: Nuclear power is a low-carbon energy source that can help

reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate climate change.

2. High Energy Density: Nuclear energy has a high energy density, meaning a small

amount of fuel produces a large amount of energy.

Arguments against the Utilization of Nuclear Energy:

1. Safety Concerns: Accidents at nuclear power plants highlight the potential risks

associated with nuclear energy.

2. Radioactive Waste: Nuclear power generation produces radioactive waste that

requires careful management and long-term storage. The disposal of radioactive

waste poses challenges in terms of safety, storage, and potential environmental

impact.
Part 5 – Electricity and Magnetism

Electrostatics

Objective 1: Explain the charging of objects

Objective 2: Describe the forces that electric charges exert on each other

Objective 3: Explain charging by induction

There are three primary methods by which objects can become charged.

1. Friction: When two objects are rubbed against each other, electrons can be

transferred from one object to the other. The object that loses electrons becomes

positively charged, while the object that gains electrons becomes negatively

charged.

2. Conduction: Charging by conduction occurs when a charged object comes into

direct contact with a neutral object. If a negatively charged object touches a

neutral object, some of the excess electrons will transfer to the neutral object,

causing it to become negatively charged as well.

3. Induction: Induction is a process where a charged object can influence the

distribution of charges in a neutral object without direct contact. When a

negatively charged object is brought near a neutral object, the negative charges in

the neutral object are repelled, causing a redistribution of charges. As a result, the

side of the neutral object closest to the charged object becomes positively charged,

while the side farthest from the charged object becomes negatively charged. This

separation of charges is temporary and will disappear once the charged object is

removed.
Objective 4: Define an electric field

Definition:

• An electric field is the region in which a body experiences a force due to its charge.

• The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force caused by

the field on a positive charge placed at the point.

Objective 5: Describe one hazard and one useful application of static charge

Hazard:

One hazard of static charge is a fire and explosion hazard.

For example, in industries such as chemical plants, refineries, or manufacturing facilities,

the handling and transfer of flammable materials can generate static charges. If these

charges are not properly controlled and discharged, they can create sparks that may

ignite the flammable substances, causing devastating accidents.

Useful application:

One useful application of static charge is electrostatic precipitators.

Electrostatic precipitators work by creating an electric field between charged plates or

electrodes. The gas containing the particulate matter passes through this electric field.

The particulates, being charged or acquiring a charge as they move through the field, are

attracted to the oppositely charged plates and precipitated out of the gas stream. The

cleaned gas then exits the system.

Current Electricity

Objective 1: Distinguish between conductors and insulators

Conductors Insulators

Conductors are materials that allow the Insulators are materials that do not allow

easy flow of electric charges, such as the easy flow of electric charges.

electrons.

They have a large number of free electrons They have very few free electrons

that are loosely bound to their atoms and available for movement, and the electrons

can move freely within the material. are tightly bound to their atoms.

When a voltage or electric field is applied Insulators have high electrical resistance,

to a conductor, the free electrons can which means they hinder the flow of

move in response to that field, creating an electric current. When a voltage is applied

electric current. to an insulator, only a minimal amount of

current flows through it.

Common examples of conductors include Examples of insulating materials include

metals like copper, aluminium, silver, and rubber, plastic, glass, ceramics, and dry

gold, as well as materials such as graphite. wood.

Objective 2: State that an electric current in a metal consists of a flow of electrons

Note:

In other conducting media, an electric current may consist of the movement of both

negative and positive charge carriers.

For example, the use of silicon and germanium, in semi-conductors and electrolytes in

batteries.
Objective 3: Differentiate between electron flow and conventional current

• Electron flow considers the movement of electrons from the negative terminal to

the positive terminal.

• Conventional current assumes the flow of positive charges from the positive

terminal to the negative terminal, even though in reality it is the electrons that are

moving.
Objective 4: State the unit of electrical current

Objective 5: Apply the relationship: 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡

Formula:

𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕

where

𝑄 = charge (𝐶)

𝐼 = current (𝐴)

𝑡 = time (𝑠)

The current is 1 ampere when the rate of flow of charge is 1 coulomb per second through

a point.

It can be noted that if the number if particles (𝑁) is known, together with the charge on

each particle (𝑞), then the total charge 𝑄 is given by 𝑄 = 𝑁𝑞.

Objective 6: Differentiate between direct and alternating currents

Objective 7: Analyse current-time or voltage-time graphs

Direct Current

In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction.
Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current (AC) power is the standard electricity that comes out of power

outlets and is defined as a flow of charge that exhibits a periodic change in direction.

AC's current flow changes between positive and negative because of electrons, which

can move in either a positive (upward) or negative (downward) direction. This is

known as the sinusoidal AC wave, and this wave is caused when alternators at power

plants create AC power.

Electrical Quantities

Objective 1: Cite examples of the conversion of electrical energy to other forms and vice

versa

Example: Electrical to Light

Electrical energy is converted into light energy in incandescent light bulbs. An electric

current passes through a filament, causing it to heat up and emit light.

Example: Electrical to Mechanical

Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy in electric motors. This conversion

occurs when electrical current flows through a coil, generating a magnetic field that

interacts with permanent magnets or other magnetic fields, resulting in rotational

motion.
 𝐸
Objective 2: Apply the relationship 𝑉 = 𝑄

Formula:

𝑬
𝑽=𝑸

where

𝑉 = potential difference (𝑉)

𝐸 = energy (𝐽)

𝑄 = charge (𝐶)
Objective 3: Apply the relationship 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

Formula:

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽

where

𝑃 = power (𝑊)

𝐼 = current (𝐴)

𝑉 = potential difference (𝑉)

Objective 4: Discuss the importance of conserving electrical energy and the means of

doing so

Importance of conserving electrical energy:

1. Environmental Impact: Electricity generation often relies on fossil fuels such as

coal, oil, and natural gas, which contribute to air pollution, climate change, and

environmental degradation. By conserving electrical energy, we reduce the

demand for electricity, thereby decreasing the need for fossil fuel-based power

plants and their associated greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Energy Security: Conserving electrical energy helps ensure a stable and reliable

energy supply. By reducing overall energy consumption, we can alleviate strain on

the energy infrastructure. This promotes energy security by reducing the risk of

power shortages, blackouts, and dependency on external energy sources.

3. Cost Savings: By reducing electricity consumption, energy bills can be

substantially lowered. Implementing energy-efficient practices and technologies,

such as using energy-efficient appliances, lighting, and insulation, can result in

long-term financial savings.

Ways to conserve electrical energy:

1. Use energy-efficient appliances and devices.

2. Optimize lighting by using energy-efficient bulbs and turning off lights when not

in use.

3. Insulate buildings properly to reduce energy loss.

4. Practice good energy habits, such as turning off electronics when not in use and

unplugging chargers.
Circuit and Components

Objective 1: Use symbols to construct circuit diagrams

List of graphical symbols as used in circuit diagrams

Objective 2: Differentiate between series and parallel circuits

Series Parallel

How it looks

Voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

Current 𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

1 1 1 1
Resistance 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅𝑇 1 2 3

• Closed circuit • Closed circuit

• Not common in homes • Commonly used in homes
Features • Unreliable wiring method • Reliable method of wiring
• Failure affects all • Failure does not affect all
devices/bulbs devices/bulbs
Objective 3: Explain the functions of the various parts of a zinc-carbon cell

The zinc-carbon dry cell is a primary cell. The figure below shows a zinc-carbon dry cell.

• Ammonium chloride (the electrolyte) reacts with the zinc, producing electricity.

• The manganese oxide and carbon mixture is used to prevent polarisation.

Polarisation causes the collection of hydrogen bubbles around the carbon rod,

and these bubbles would add to the unwanted internal resistance of the cell.
Objective 4: Distinguish between primary and secondary cells

Objective 5: Draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell can be recharged

Differences Between Primary Cell and Secondary Cell:

Primary cells are the ones which cannot be recharged and have to be discarded after the

expiration of the lifetime whereas, secondary cells need to be recharged when the

charge gets over. Both the types of battery are used extensively in various appliances

and these cells differ in size and material used in them.

Some differences between the cells are shown in the diagram below:
Objective 6: Investigate the relationship between current and potential difference

For a fixed resistor, the potential difference is directly proportional to the current.

Doubling the amount of energy into the resistor results in a current twice as big through

the resistor. This relationship is called Ohm's Law and is true because the resistance of

the resistor is fixed and does not change.

Definition:

Ohms law states that the current flowing through a conductor/circuit is directly

proportional to the voltage but inversely proportional to the resistance given that all

physical conditions, for example, temperature, remain constant.

Objective 7: Explain the concept of resistance

Definition:

Resistance is a fundamental concept in electrical circuits that refers to the opposition

offered by a material or component to the flow of electric current. It is denoted by the

symbol "𝑅" and is measured in ohms (𝛺).

 𝑉
Objective 8: Apply the relationship 𝑅 = 𝐼

Formula:

𝑽
𝑹= 𝑰

where

𝑅 = resistance (𝛺)

𝑉 = potential difference (𝑉)

𝐼 = current (𝐴)
Objective 9: Explain why it is necessary for an ammeter to have a very low resistance

The ammeter requires a very low resistance to ensure accurate current measurements

without significant voltage drop or circuit loading. This allows for precise analysis and

understanding of the behaviour of electrical circuits and accurate assessment of current

flow.
Objective 10: Explain why it is necessary for a voltmeter to have a very high resistance

A voltmeter requires a very high resistance to ensure accurate voltage measurements

without significantly affecting the circuit being measured. The high resistance minimizes

current draw, prevents circuit loading, preserves circuit functionality, and reduces

measurement errors, allowing for precise voltage analysis and understanding of

electrical circuits.
Objective 11: Solve problems involving series and parallel resistance

Objective 12: Solve problems involving series, parallel and series-parallel circuits

Tip:

Use the formulae 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ for resistors in series,

1 1 1 1
And 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ for resistors in parallel.
𝑝 1 2 3
Objective 13: Discuss the reasons for using parallel connections of domestic appliances

Using parallel connections for domestic appliances offers:

1. independent operation

2. voltage stability

3. load sharing

4. ease of installation and maintenance

5. fault isolation

6. improved safety

7. flexibility

These advantages make parallel connections the preferred configuration for household

electrical circuits, allowing for efficient and convenient use of multiple appliances

simultaneously.
Objective 14: Explain the purpose of a fuse or circuit breaker and the earth wire

Objective 15: Select a fuse or circuit breaker of suitable current rating for a given

appliance

Fuses or circuit breakers are protective devices that monitor and interrupt electrical

circuits when excessive current occurs, while the earth wire provides a safe path for fault

currents to be directed into the ground. Together, these safety mechanisms play a crucial

role in preventing electrical hazards, protecting against electric shocks, and safeguarding

electrical systems and equipment.

Objective 16: State the adverse effects of connecting electrical appliances to incorrect or

fluctuating voltage supplies

Connecting electrical appliances to incorrect or fluctuating voltage supplies can have

several adverse effects, including:

1. Damage to Appliances

2. Reduced Lifespan

3. Safety Hazards

4. Energy Inefficiency

5. Inaccurate Readings or Malfunctioning

6. Voiding Warranty
Electronics

Objective 1: Describe how a semi-conductor diode can be used in half wave rectification

In the context of half wave rectification, a semiconductor diode is commonly used to

convert an alternating current (AC) input into a pulsating direct current (DC) output. The

diode acts as a one-way valve for the flow of current, allowing it to pass in only one

direction while blocking it in the opposite direction.

Objective 2: Differentiate between direct current from batteries and rectified alternating

current by a consideration of the 𝑉 − 𝑡 graphs for both cases

To differentiate between direct current (DC) from batteries and rectified alternating

current (AC), we can consider their voltage-time (𝑉 − 𝑡) graphs.

Direct Current (DC) from Batteries

In the case of DC from batteries, the V-t graph is a flat line at a constant voltage level.

Graph for Direct current:

𝑡
Rectified Alternating Current (AC)

In the case of rectified AC, the V-t graph shows a pulsating waveform that represents the

rectified half-cycles of the original AC waveform.

Graph for Alternating current:

Now, consider when a diode is placed in the circuit diagram.

Only half of the wave would be allowed through.

This is called half-wave rectification.

Half-wave rectification is the process of converting ac to dc by preventing one half of

each cycle from being applied to the load.

Graph for half wave rectification:

𝑡
Objective 3: Recall the symbols for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR logic gates

Objective 4: State the function of each gate with the aid of truth tables

Objective 5: Analyze circuits involving the combinations of not more than three logic

gates

NOT Gate

Symbol:

Table:

Input Output
0 1
1 0

AND Gate

Symbol:

𝐴 𝐶
𝐵

Table:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR Gate

Symbol:

𝐴
𝐶
𝐵

Table:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND Gate

Symbol:

𝐴 𝐶
𝐵

Table:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR Gate

Symbol:

𝐴
𝐶
𝐵

Table:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Objective 6: Discuss the impact of electronic and technological advances on society

Here are some key impacts of these electronic and technological advances;

1. Communication and Connectivity: Electronic and technological advances have

revolutionized communication, making it faster, more efficient, and accessible to

a broader population.

2. Information Access: Digital libraries, e-learning platforms, and open educational

resources have expanded educational opportunities, making learning more

accessible and flexible.

3. Automation and Efficiency: Technological advances have automated and

streamlined various processes, leading to increased efficiency and productivity.

4. Healthcare Advancements: Advanced medical imaging technologies, such as MRI

and CT scans, have revolutionized diagnosis, enabling non-invasive visualization

of the internal body structures.

5. Environmental Impact: On the positive side, advancements in renewable energy

technologies, energy-efficient devices, and smart grids have contributed to

reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainability. However, the

manufacturing, consumption, and disposal of electronic devices have led to

electronic waste (e-waste) concerns.

Magnetism

Objective 1: Differentiate between magnetic and non-magnetic materials

Magnetic materials:

Magnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized and strongly respond to

magnetic fields. When exposed to a magnetic field, magnetic materials can be attracted to

or repelled by magnets and can retain their magnetization even after the magnetic field

is removed.

Examples: iron, nickel, cobalt

Non-magnetic materials:

Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to magnets and do not retain

magnetization when exposed to magnetic fields. They have very weak or negligible

magnetic properties and show no significant response to magnetic fields.

Examples: wood, plastic, glass, rubber, aluminium, copper

Objective 2: Explain how a magnet can attract an unmagnetised object

When a magnet attracts an unmagnetized object, it happens because the magnet creates

an invisible magnetic field around it. The magnet's field aligns the tiny magnetic

properties within the object, causing them to point in the same direction as the magnet's

field. This alignment turns the object into a weak magnet itself, and the interaction

between the magnet and the magnetized object creates an attraction. This is why the

object is pulled towards the magnet.

Objective 3: Distinguish between materials used to make "permanent" and "temporary"

magnets

There are two types of magnets:

1. Hard magnets

2. Soft magnets

Hard Magnets

Definition:

Hard magnets, also referred to as permanent magnets, retain its magnetic properties in

the absence of an inducing field or current. Steel forms permanent magnets.

Permanent magnets are used in directional compasses and in loudspeakers.

Soft Magnets

Definition:

Soft magnets, also referred to as temporary magnets, retain their magnetism while near

a permanent magnetic field or electronic current. They become magnetized in the

presence of a magnetic field. Iron forms temporary magnets.

Temporary magnets are important components in electric bells, magnetic relays and

electromagnetic circuit breakers.

Objective 4: Identify the poles of a magnetic dipole

Consider the Earth’s magnetic pole compared with the geographical pole.

North Pole

South Pole
Objective 5: Investigate the forces between magnetic poles

When two magnetic poles interact, they can either attract or repel each other based on

their polarities.

Like Poles Repel:

When two magnetic poles of the same polarity are brought close together, they exert a

repulsive force on each other. The magnetic field lines around the like poles tend to push

away from each other, causing the poles to move apart.

Unlike Poles Attract:

When two magnetic poles of opposite polarity (one north pole and one south pole) are

brought close together, they exert an attractive force on each other. The magnetic field

lines between the unlike poles tend to pull towards each other, causing the poles to move

closer together.

Force Strength:

The strength of the magnetic force between two poles depends on the magnetic field

strength and the distance between the poles. The force of attraction or repulsion becomes

stronger as the magnetic field strength increases and weaker as the distance between the

poles increases.
Objective 6: Define a magnetic field

Definition:

A magnetic field is a vector quantity and can be represented by lines labelled with

arrows to indicate its direction. Important features of magnetic field lines are:

1. They never cross or touch.

2. There is a longitudinal tension within each line, causing it to behave as a

stretched elastic band.

3. There is a lateral repulsion between lines that are close ‘side by side’.

4. The field is uniform where the lines are parallel, in the same direction, and

evenly spaced.

5. The field is stronger where the lines are more concentrated.

6. They are directed from a N pole to a S pole.

Objective 7: Map magnetic fields

Diagram for Repulsion:

Consider the diagram below showing the forces of repulsion between similar poles due

to the lateral push between the field lines passing close to each other.

Diagram for Attraction:

Consider the diagram below showing the forces of attraction between dissimilar poles

due to the longitudinal tension within the field lines joining them.
Diagram for a uniform magnetic field:

Consider the diagram below showing a uniform magnetic field. A uniform magnetic field

exists in the central region between plane, facing magnetic poles, as shown below. The

field lines there are evenly spaced and parallel. Near the edges of the poles, the field

lines curve due to lateral repulsion from lines closer to the centre.
Electromagnetism

Objective 1: Conduct simple experiments to investigate the magnetic field pattern around

current-carrying conductors

According to the syllabus, this pertains to straight conductors, flat coils and solenoids.

For a straight conductor:

Imagine gripping the wire with the right hand such that the thumb is in the direction of

the current; the fingers will then be in the direction of the magnetic field.

Diagram:
For a coil:

Imagine gripping the coil with the fingers of the right hand in the direction of the

current; the thumb will then indicate the direction of the magnetic field (the end of the

coil which acts as a north pole).

Diagram:
Objective 2: Apply suitable rules which relate the direction of current flow to the direction

of the magnetic field

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

The thumb represents the direction of the current.

The fingers represent the direction of the magnetic field.

Note that this rule applies specifically to a straight, current-carrying conductor.

Consider the diagram below:

Objective 3: Describe a commercial application of an electromagnet

Electric motors

• A commercial application of an electromagnet can be found in electric motors.

• Electric motors using electromagnets offer several advantages over other types of

motors.

• They can provide high torque and precise control over rotational speed and

direction.

• Additionally, they can be designed to be more efficient, compact, and reliable

compared to motors that rely on other principles.

• The use of electromagnets in electric motors enables the conversion of electrical

energy into mechanical energy, allowing for a wide range of commercial

applications across different industries.

Objective 4: Conduct an experiment which demonstrates the existence of a force on a

current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Objective 5: Sketch the resultant magnetic flux pattern when a current carrying wire is

placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field

The figure below shows a stiff wire hanging from a metal loop and immersed in a

magnetic field. The lower end of the wire just touches the surface of mercury contained

in a dish below. A force acts on the wire in accordance with Fleming’s left-hand rule

(described below), which pushes it out of the mercury and breaks the circuit. The current

then diminishes to zero, the wire falls back into the mercury, and the process repeats.
Objective 6: Apply Fleming’s left-hand (motor) rule

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule

If the first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the left-hand are placed mutually

at right angles to each other, with the first finger in the direction of the magnetic field

and the second in the direction of the current, then the thumb will be in the direction of

the thrust or motion.

Consider the diagram below:

Objective 7: Identify the factors that affect the force on a current-carrying conductor in a

magnetic field

Several factors can affect the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a

magnetic field such as:

1. Current: The greater the current, the stronger the force.

2. Magnetic field strength: A stronger magnetic field results in a greater force.

3. Length of the conductor: A longer conductor experiences a larger force

compared to a shorter one, assuming other factors remain constant.

4. Angle between the current and the magnetic field: The force is maximum when

the current and magnetic field are perpendicular (90 degrees) to each other and

becomes zero when they are parallel (0 degrees) or antiparallel (180 degrees) to

each other.

5. Type of conductor material: Different materials may have different resistance,

affecting the current and, consequently, the force experienced.

Objective 8: Explain the action of a D.C. motor

Consider the diagram below:

B
North

C
carbon
brushes
South

carbon D
brushes

split ring
commutator
−
+

• When the switch is closed the current flows through the carbon brushes and

commutator into the coil.

• The current flows from D to C and B to A.

• From Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, a downward force is exerted on DC while an

upward force is exerted on AB.

• This is due to the magnetic fields produced by the coil and the magnet.

• The momentum of the coil allows it to cross the vertical position.

 • The commutator reverses the direction of the current in the loop as the contact

changes from one brush to the other.

• At this point AB then moves down while DC moves up resulting in continuous

rotation in one direction.

For a motor, the strength of the thrust (force) is proportional to:

1. the magnitude of the current

2. the strength of the magnetic field

3. the number of turns of the coil (each turn of coil produces its own force).
Objective 9: Describe simple activities which demonstrate an induced e.m.f.

Objective 10: Conduct simple experiments to show the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.

Coil and Magnet Experiment:

• Take a copper wire and wrap it around a cylindrical object to create a coil.

• Connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer or a voltmeter.

• Move a magnet quickly in and out of the coil.

• You should observe a deflection in the galvanometer or a voltage reading on the

voltmeter, indicating the presence of an induced emf due to the changing magnetic

field.

• Explanation: The magnitude of the induced emf depends on factors such as the

strength of the magnetic field, the speed of the magnetic field change, and the

number of turns in the coil. By varying the speed of magnet movement, you can

observe how the induced emf changes. Faster movement generally leads to a

larger induced emf, resulting in a higher deflection or voltage reading on the

galvanometer or voltmeter.
Objective 11: Predict the direction of induced current given the direction of motion of the

conductor and that of the magnetic field

• The direction of the induced current in a conductor can be determined using

Fleming's right-hand rule for generators.

• The thumb represents the direction of motion of the conductor or the magnetic

field.

• The fingers represent the direction of the induced current.

• By applying this rule, you can predict the direction of the induced current based

on the given direction of motion of the conductor and the magnetic field.
Objective 12: Explain the action of the A.C. generator

Consider the diagram below:

• An AC (alternating current) generator, also known as an alternator, is a device that

converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form of an alternating

current. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

• The basic components of an AC generator include a rotating shaft, a coil of wire

called the rotor or armature, and a set of stationary magnets called the stator. The

rotor is connected to the shaft and is free to rotate, while the stator remains

stationary.

• By continuously rotating the rotor, the AC generator can generate a continuous

supply of alternating current. The frequency and voltage of the generated AC can
be controlled by adjusting the speed of the rotor rotation and the design of the

generator.
Objective 13: Explain the principle of operation of a transformer

• The principle of operation of a transformer is based on the phenomenon of

electromagnetic induction and the properties of alternating current (AC). A

transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another

by electromagnetic induction.

• The basic components of a transformer include two coils of wire called the

primary coil and the secondary coil, which are wound around a common iron core.

The primary coil is connected to the power source, and the secondary coil is

connected to the load or the device that requires electrical energy.

• The ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil (N1) to the number of turns

in the secondary coil (N2) determines the voltage transformation ratio of the

transformer. According to the turns ratio, the voltage induced in the secondary

coil is proportional to the voltage applied to the primary coil.

• By adjusting the turns ratio, transformers can step up or step down the voltage

levels in an electrical system. Step-up transformers increase the voltage from the

primary to the secondary coil, while step-down transformers decrease the voltage.
The efficiency of a transformer can be increased by reducing the loss of energy in the

transformer. The table below shows ways to reduce the loss of energy in a transformer.

Causes of energy loss Ways to reduce energy loss in a transformer

Resistance of coils Use thicker copper wire so that the resistance of the coil

is smaller.

Eddy currents Use a laminated iron core that consists of thin iron sheets

glued together with insulation glue.

Hysteresis Use soft iron as the core. Soft iron requires a small amount

of energy to be magnetised.

Leakage of magnetic flux The secondary coil is wound on the primary coil so that

all the magnetic flux produced by the primary current will

pass through the secondary coil.

Objective 14: State the advantages of using a.c. for transferring electrical energy

Here are some key advantages:

1. Easy Voltage Transformation: Transformers can step up the voltage for efficient

long-distance transmission, minimizing energy losses, and then step it down for

safe distribution and use in homes and industries.

2. Efficient Transmission: AC experiences lower power losses during transmission

due to the ability to increase the voltage and decrease the current using

transformers.

3. Reduced Cost and Size of Components: AC systems require smaller and more cost-

effective components for voltage regulation, such as transformers and capacitors.

AC transformers are readily available, highly efficient, and compact.

Objective 15: Apply the ideal transformer formula 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Formula:

𝑽𝒔 𝑵 𝑰𝒑
= 𝑵𝒔 =
𝑽𝒑 𝒑 𝑰𝒔

where

𝑉 = potential difference (𝑉)

𝑁 = number of turns

𝐼 = current (𝐼)