E-content for B.

A Third Year
(History Honours)
Paper VIII (C)

History of Russia(1855-1953)

TOPIC NO. 2- CZAR ALEXANDER II:

REFORMS

By
Dr. Divya Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of History
B.D College
Patliputra University
Patna
[email protected]

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 1

 Czar Alexander II : Reforms

LESSON PLAN

Introduction
Alexander II- A Brief Profile
Condition of Russia at the Time of His Accession
His Reforms
His Foreign Policy
An Assessment of His Reforms

INTRODUCTION

Czar Alexander II of Russia, the successor of Czar Nicholas I is known in

history for the numerous reforms he introduced in his country since the
days of Peter the Great. Interestingly, his reign from 1855 and 1881, that is,
till his death, can be divided into two phases. His progressive policies on
the domestic front found expression only in the first decade of his reign, the
reformist zeal unfortunately being cut short after an assassination bid on
him in 1866. Thereafter, following his father’s footsteps, Alexander II
reverted to suppression. Likewise, his foreign policy too showed a
combination of liberalism and conservatism, depending on the countries
and circumstances.

ALEXANDER II- A BRIEF PROFILE

Alexander II was born in Moscow on 29th of April, 1818. He was the eldest
son of Czar Nicholas I and Charlotte, the daughter of Frederick William III
of Prussia. His earlier name was Alexander Nikolaevich. Belonging to the

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 2

Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov House,he became the heir apparent from 1825
onwards. He was the Czar of Russia from 2nd of March, 1855 till 13th of
March, 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of
Finland.
Alexander II held a deep interest in European languages and mastered
many. In 1837, he earned the distinction of being the first Romanov heir to
visit Siberia. Like Peter the Great, he gained varied experience by touring
Europe between 1838 and 1839 which widened his mental horizons.

CONDITION OF RUSSIA AT THE TIME OF HIS ACCESSION

Russia under Czar Nicholas I (1824-55) remained a conservative country

because of the ruler’s fear regarding any kind of progress. Consequently,
the intellectual atmosphere disfavoured any kind of reform with strict
curtailment of freedom of thought and its expression. Thus, there was a
constant struggle between the liberal and conservative groups. The liberal
group drew inspiration from Western Europe.
Moreover, many royal families of Europe trusted neither Nicholas I nor his
dynasty.
Then, the passing away of Nicholas I when the Crimean War (1853-56) was
still in progress brought Alexander II on the Russian throne. His first year
was spent in prosecution of the war and negotiations of peace after the Fall
of Sebastopol (September 1855). Realizing the necessity of peace, he signed
the Treaty of Paris in 1856. Those were troubled times with loss of imperial
prestige.
Also, evils like bribery, theft and corruption were rampant in the humiliated
and exhausted Russia.
Czar Alexander II ‘s activities between 1856 and 1861-
Between 1856 and 1861, Russia had a glimpse of the reformist zeal of
Alexander II which otherwise had been unwitnessed earlier because till
then, he had always been an obedient son, supporting his father’s autocratic
rule. He was convinced that the restoration of imperial prestige coupled

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 3

with regeneration of Russian military and state power was the need of the
hour. Strongly believing in the fact that the reforms needed ‘to come from
above than from below’, he immediately took the following steps:-
● The survivors of the Decembrist movement (1925) were allowed to
return after twenty- five years of exile.
● Restrictions imposed on universities were relaxed.
● Foreign travel was allowed.
● Censorship of the press was relaxed.
People were not averse to monarchy. So ,his reforms got full support
even from intellectuals like Boris Chicherin. Russia seemed to have
awakened from a heavy slumber after the Crimean War.

HIS REFORMS

Encouraged by the positive response of the people, Alexander II introduced

large scale reforms between 1861 and 1865.
1. EMANCIPATION OF SERFS AND END OF SERFDOM (1861)​ -
This was the first and the most important reform of Alexander II. The
condition of the serfs who comprised nearly one half of the
population in 1860, was degrading, having drawn criticism from
even Nicholas I. While one-half was under royal families, the other
half was controlled by the nobility and Church. Intellectuals
particularly the literary men as Gogol in his ‘Dead Souls’ and
Turgenev in his work ‘Memoirs of a Huntsman’ made people aware of
the misery of serfs and peasants. During the Crimean War, soldiers
had to be sent on many occasions to quell their rebellions.
Certain reasons propelled the emancipation. It was both morally and
economically unjustified. On the moral front, it was a blot on
humanity as it curtailed human freedom. Economically, it favoured
an archaic agricultural system with both the landlords and the
peasants employing traditional means.

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 4

By March 1861, Alexander II had already made up his mind. He urged
the nobility to take the initiative towards emancipation and called for
proposals. Statesmen such as Herzen in London and Chernyshevski
in St.Petersburg had a deep impact on him. The Council of State and
various secret committees worked out plans.
Consequently, in 1861, a decree was promulgated and by the Edict of
Emancipation serfdom was abolished. The architects of the
emancipation manifesto were Alexander’s brother Konstantin and
two members of civil service namely Yakov Rostovtse and Nikolay
Milyutin.
Principles of the Edict-
1. It gave the Russian serf civil rights, conferring upon him the
status of a free peasant. Thus, he was freed from his master’s
bondage.
2. To prevent the growth of a landless proletariat, it divided the
ownership of soil between the nobles and the peasants.
3. The lord was to receive an amount of money as compensation.
Initially, the state would provide it. Later, it was to be paid by
the peasants in instalments over a period of forty-nine years.
4. Land was not to be given to the peasant in form of personal
ownership. Instead, there would exist communal ownership
upon the village group or ​mir to which the peasant would be
attached.
5. The ​mir ​held the land and was collectively responsible for the
payment made to the lord as compensation.
Despite these terms, the benefits of the emancipation could not fully
be reaped both by the peasants and lords.
For the peasants​, the disadvantages were-
● Land assigned to the peasants was generally small and of poor
quality insufficient for sustenance.
● This robbed the peasant of the incentive to improve the land’s
productivity. Shortage of food grains became frequent.

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 5

 ● Since the peasant had to pay for his redemption, his financial
burden increased. Viewing the dissatisfaction, outstanding
arrears had to be cancelled by 1905 to offset revolution.
● The mir ​exercised unlimited control on the peasant. Since it
paid for the redemption money, the peasant was not free to go
anywhere on his will.
For the lords​ too, the disadvantages were many.
● Thousands of lords lost their free labour supply.
● Being used to the earlier situation for generations, they faced
difficulty in adapting themselves to the new situation.
● The bonds they received as compensation money were not
converted in cash.
Thus, on evaluation, one finds that there were many shortcomings
and the emancipation failed to bring about a wind of change.
Nevertheless, the fame of Alexander II rests in history largely due to
this reform. Such a move had already been taken in Western Europe
way back in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In Eastern Europe,
it was Czar Alexander II who went ahead to grant freedom to serfs.
For this, he is known as ‘Czar Liberator’.
2. ​REFORMS IN THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM
The old judicial system of Russia contained at least twenty-five
defects. This had called for the attention of Czar Alexander II way
back in 1858 when he set up a commission headed by an officer of the
Ministry of Law. Based on its suggestions and drawing from the
judicial systems of England and France, he brought out far reaching
changes in 1862. Its main features were
● Separation of the judiciary from the executive
● Trial by jury
● Introduction of the new penal code
● Simplification of the civil and criminal procedure
● A provincial court was set up in each province to settle civil and
criminal matters

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 6

 ● The provincial courts were placed under ten high courts or
‘Chambers of Peace’
● The right to appoint the judges of the provincial and high courts
rested solely with the Czar
● Courts were given the sole right to dismiss the judges
● ‘Justice of Peace’ was given the right to deal with petty cases in
rural areas
With passage of time, Czar’s efforts bore fruit.

3. ​EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
In 1862, secondary education of girls was brought under the control
of the Ministry. In 1863, he went for nominal decontrol of the
University faculties.
In 1864, two reforms were introduced- that of local self- government
and judicial reforms.
4. ​LOCAL SELF- GOVERNMENT
The decree of January 1864 instituted a measure of regional or local
self-government through bodies called ​Zemstvos. I​ n them, three
bodies of property holders- the nobles, townsmen and peasants
respectively, elected district assembly and later, nominated delegates
to their provincial assemblies. It was gradually introduced in all the
provinces. Such assemblies dealt with communications, famine relief
and hospitals. They supervised local trade and agriculture and above
all, education. This was a kind of ‘social revolution’. Despite excessive
autocratic control, through such ​Zemstvos, a ​ definite step was taken
towards representative government.
In 1870, municipal councils were set up in towns.
A new rural and municipal police under Minister of the Interior was
set up.
5. ​MILITARY REFORMS
Viewing the Russian debacle in the Crimean War, Alexander II had
realized the need for introducing military reforms. He appointed
Dmitry Milyutin to supervise the changes. They included

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 7

 ● Conscription enforced on peasantry in 1861, was extended to
all classes in January 1874, thus becoming universal
conscription
● Reserve forces were extended
● Russian was divided into fifteen military districts
● For the military, railway lines were laid down at strategic places
● Corporal punishment in the military and branding of soldiers as
punishment were banned.

6. ​ECONOMIC REFORMS
Alexander II tried to stimulate trade and industry. For this, he took the
following measures-
● In 1861, Bank of Russia was created
● By the law of 1862, the autocracy was asked to shed some of its
privileges
● Textile industry was mechanized
● Communication was improved by a great network of railways. They
served the dual purpose of developing the natural resources and
defence of the country
Such measures ensured freedom which boosted up trade and industry
considerably in the 1860s and 1870s. Many limited liability
companies were also created.
The Czar’s reformist zeal continued till his assassination bid in 1866.
Thereafter, he unleashed a strong reactionary policy which continued
till his death.
He began to replace liberal ministers with conservatives. Liberal
university courses and subjects encouraging critical thinking had to
make way for more traditional curriculum. From 1871 onwards, only
students from ​gimnaziya s​ chools could progress to university. In
1879, governors- general were appointed for prosecuting soldiers in
military courts and to send the political offenders to exile. Trials were
generally held with the purpose of cautioning against revolutionary
activity.

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 8

HIS FOREIGN POLICY

It was a combination of reform and suppression.

Policy towards Finland

As the Grand Duke of Finland, he favoured reforms with the belief that
compared to Russia, reforms in Finland had a better chance to succeed
because it was an underpopulated and homogeneous country. Also, its
people had shown loyalty towards Russia in the Crimean War and during
Polish uprising. In 1863, Alexander II re- convened the Diet of Finland and
initiated several reforms which increased Finland’s autonomy within the
Russian empire. These were as follows-
1. He helped Finland establish her own currency, the Finnish markka.
2. Finland got its first railways with entirely her own administration
3. The Finnish language got the status of a national language
4. Liberation of business gave impetus to foreign investment and
industrial development.

Policy towards Poland

Poland had undergone great turmoil since the unsuccessful revolution of
1831. Deputies of Polish nobility inhabited Congress Poland, Western
Ukraine, Lithuania, Levonia and Belarus. Alexander II advised them
against having aspirations. From 1855 to 1861, Poland advanced rapidly
and took up the question of the serfs by setting up an Agricultural Society.
Its ruthless suppression by Alexander in 1861 led to violence which was
crushed down heavily. Hurriedly, the Czar sent the liberal-minded Grand-
Duke Constantine as the Viceroy but to no avail. In 1863-64, Poland was
once again in chaos. Alexander then, stripped Poland of its separate
constitution and incorporated it directly in Russia. A policy of complete

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 9

‘Russification’ was unleashed. Russian language was declared the national
language and its instruction was made compulsory. Russian officers
replaced the Polish ones. The Roman Catholics were divested of their
religious rights and prerogatives. Martial law was introduced in Lithuania
in 1863 and it lasted for the next forty years. There was a ban on native
languages such as Lithuanian, Ukranian and Belarussian from the printed
texts. Except in Congress Poland, Polish language was banned. Due to the
sympathies of the French ruler Napoleon III with Poland, the Czar came
closer to Prussia.
So, the Czar followed a repressive policy in Poland.

Policy towards Bulgaria

Czar Alexander II was able to secure the independence of Bulgaria
following the treaties of San Stefano and Berlin in1878 after defeating the
Ottoman Turks in the Russo- Turkish War of 1877-78. For the first time
since 1396 the Bulgarian parliamentarians elected their ruler. The Czar’s
nephew Prince Alexander of Battenberg became the first ruler of Bulgaria.
For his social reforms in Russia and his role in the liberation of Bulgaria,
Alexander II came to be known as the ‘Czar Liberator of the Russians and
Bulgarians’.

AN ASSESSMENT OF HIS REFORMS

Czar Alexander II’s reforms met with stiff resistance from the Nihilists who
believed in absolute freedom and desisted control by any authority,
parliamentary form of government and jury. They believed in bringing
about a new order by destroying the previous one by force. After 1866, in
wake of the Czar’s severe repression, they became all the more active. Many
other groups began to do the same and more attempts to assassinate him
ensued between 1879 and 1881. Finally, he was killed on 13th March,1881.
It is said that Alexander II’s reforms failed to achieve much and he
remained a liberal for only a decade of his reign. His reforms failed to

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 10

achieve much: he was not really a liberal in his thoughts but brought forth
the reforms because they were imperative at that time. Simultaneously, he
kept the royal prerogatives unscathed. However, undeniably he loved
Russia and tried his best to keep intact its prestige. His series of reforms
brought his country to the forefront in the line of Western nations and with
all certainty, he can be compared to Peter the Great in many ways.

PROBABLE QUESTION

1. Discuss the reforms of Czar Alexander the Second.

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 11