CHAPTER 7

States
. pa.tes. ,irt th_e primary subjects oi International Law, _T.hcy po~se~.s ~he
~ h~taley o! rights 4nc.1 qufies under International La~Iowev er, ;r i.:; cti!fkuH ~"
~f. J~•
~ ~efir!r;! t..l-i';? te:..-rn 'Stat~' ~i;·,(_;~.-. Hm"y hav' iffercnt me~---Jn,,~. c~r.sti:,\1Honnl !f .,,;,
tf -r•t. V /~m:;1)' n.1ean ~0m'.!_lJung q•~+~!? -1iff~rent :om wh~t ;t me~ s- in i:n~i::rr.:i.t,0P~1 . • ..,..,, .
e j,t-- (!) tO?) the !r!te:n.1dt1onal ~aw j..:(•·;i.t of v1ew, t.'1~ ten.:n (s ndev<~lt' bt:(a\;s~ tr;ose
.bl . ,i,.-- c;~mnn1&':itit!5 w J~ re not St;1tes, ·art? exc!~Jc<l from .h,t ;,.,? cap;ipiliths ;n .
Jpte;n!uon al Law, , o!) thc pµrpose of !nternat1~,1I Law, · S~te . . a.y, ~h~;·dcre,
(I) V>{ oe cu.?._~ d as a .soc.le~ of men occupy:mg a terr{t6;:Y., t!-,e members of w!~ch ~re
· 1;,Q, gefhcl' Py Uw tie •o~ mmon subject!on to ~ ~•omi:nt wd wh•,;h has
ca ~ . ty to enter into relati . ~ with other entities. A,oy entlty whi ~\ possesses
ev~n the smallest mea;;ure o! these attributt:s may l,e termed ::l Stat . ontevide.o ®
Convention on the Rights and Duties of States of l 933 did@]) define th~ te@l
'State' . Instead, it laid down Cf:!tain 'qualific::ations' of S.tatE,Ss which are more or
less identical with the definition given above. The Coovention LU~der Articltt 1,®
stipula!ed that . J
: 'The StatP. as a pei-~on of L,temational law should possess the following
. qualification s ~ (a}~ 1>:rmanent population; (Q) a defu1ed territory; (c) a
government ; ancf (d) ca£ acify_ to enter into refations with other Sfates'.
1

Attributes of statehood have been discussed with context to the above 1

provisions of the Montevideo Convention in view of tht: ~ssu.mption that the
Montevic.leo Con-,ention merely @ifled existin° l al n rms and is a rest~tement
.Qf customary internationa l !aw and ther~fore it 2does no apply merely to the
signatories but to all subjects oEinternational law.
- ---- .
(1) Popv lation : ~ · ·
By dw term 'J?"~ulation.. la meant ~le. T A~ le is nn agg~egate ol
indJviduaw who u..,~ c;~effier u a communlty thoui
tlw' may belong fo
ch:ferent races or creed, or c\ifium, or be of different coJourj A territory where
peopw have not settled d<JWn, that J1, whcr., thero exbts a haphazard aggregation
oi indJvid1.M1ls, that would not be regarded iu il S~~a. A wande•lng people is not
, State. Population mUit (Offll ltHlf lnto an organlBeci i~•~ety.' lontr.v.ldeo
f'Lv._~ fonv ention on the rug~ an.d Dutle.s_ of Slru.M Q( 1933 ,~ated .- N 'awiell
_g .1...-r ~ p<.1_2ulation'}nstead of popuJafton aa one of the quaUflci\tlON of a Sta e. t r,v~
r ,:o. . clear that·"hat ls m~t by 'a permane-nt popul~thm', ObvJo\lSl}', it does.not ~:
mean that there cannot be mlgnllon of PfOples atros.s territorial boundarJ~. ~.
1 The Convendon WM wape,d by the 7ab WemltioMl Ccnfen,r,&:e o f ~ Statet. Nmu-en
tatin Ame-rian SAl.e$ ~ the lln..Utd Su• were partJa tc> Jt. Por tJw ~t ol the Conventi<>n
~ AJIL No. 28 (19.34) Suw, P· '15. ,';{.
I • l The ! ~ Un_ion. in a pnncip&I mwmem o, its Badinlfl" Arbimadon Coaunitteo adhere, to .: .
'
I
the sarr:e prmciple. _ ...·.
1
J. Oppmheim's. 'lntematioNl ~ - Vol J, Ninth EdidoA. p. 12 • ;: :,

( 68) .
,.:.
-~T

... ~
 ;nu st b~ ~ome vopc!rlfo:,.1 iin.ked io ;,
Perh,11:,s, it se:'e!'ns ro ~ug~ g•:~t ,hac }h~re I ~
,a;:1 :> ~!;-,: ·:v,·.o '.:~n c,~
" ,
~r. t ""'•
l
" ~· ~n ~ ore or ,.es:. ;z~r; nnm
spe d!ic p.; :?~-~ oi ~t-~r ~~or ;i
--,r.,.._~
on of a Sb.i te incl n, !t•s t,n0 ~ ,vr,.J ,V'::!
reg.:.·: cied, in 3(;n~ra: ir:h abit anr, . ? opu fatf
ion::1 is permc1ner,i:.;y 1esid111g hi ·• St.ct::.J.
st~ying ii1 ot"'t-1r .3:1t,J:-~ as we l q~ .• Greigrt 11~t
·(Z; ·"i~ rrii prv : ,
tcri?.l ~•;.;·,~tb::,· th~ rc>:·:ri~{'f">' \Alh,;:n::
r\ Stat e ~us t .hcrve a ;erd torv . It inir.imrn1
·
rge. {!her~ i~ no !.:!*~rymi_~ :.1; ·~~~ ,s !~e ®
./....0- ~
~ ~lie peo ple ~,.iv~ sett !~J CiOWn 1s _;mall ~ll
e, ll'1S !e~s H,an W,vOO :.ri!·,m-,i~and. '&j . :
of a Stat e's ;iop ulat ion. N~t1111, For c.,a wpl (J
"!'here "re owr.y oth(,';" 9a~::'$ •\ :hich l1~v
0
e e.:-<ceptio.r.aUy smqH r,1c,2u1at;on,,-·,a..~d •.ff,! '
,. " c;:;. L 1ey . r,::-1:!· .
• 11
somctlmes ~-~- ~a 1)1J
' • . "
cr0•: ~t
·t!~ .
•• ,e.c,
elts ibl.? for rnt?.1~1h.?ts 11~? ~.: ~ ~f11Jte~ N,;1.
oi- mm • !- . bu t. iJ• 1ey 1re ..,;.a~
• Statcs,
~:on4 if they :,atisfy ~h~ ~·:o.r.d;~:.o~~.;.; ;.,:rid~: A·it 1
~JY CO:lSi>i, .:\$ ill th ..~ ·.:'.:1",t: ·p: .. ,;-t T-- -
1

ao,o \T. 1\nd er Art ick .,!. ~f d,u (U\ l, Ch, n ~~

d' rr.~ :
St~tes :)f 9n~ tcv{n c·nly. fu-. npt essen~i.~J t .1t the ~crr2~orv ,;h(.;uld !;;~ 'di->f!nc 1he ·.-
:1tj :.1n,:1 i1•,1t.:.e:.: of .St;'it(;.5.
:~id dcw n ~v ~he .Mc.:1tcvic..lc;,> C0nv~ntio:1 or,. .R> p•~te ::~~rtai nt , ~VC;r th~ exte nt ~ 4
~rm 4efJ.iE;'" . t:ll.lf-'!~ n0~ 1.~c:m th.ii rher
e mu~ t t~0 c;om
ave .,order J;se \!~t'S O,Ycr tl:e ·
:ito !i) Pv:: n ~t pn• sen t J num ber cl Stat es
Qf ,ter
J.Se line o; the fnm tier1 ~nt it doe s not 1.m~ an tha Uhe y cU"e 1,;!:·t 5ti.l~C:j ~c!·ae1 is~ ._
prec
df;!fin,ed territory. lfu D.e:: tsciz:.: Continental
G as ~
-l Stata put i~ doc::t uot hav e a
~tfu hoo d· dOEs not- (1bsolute1y
<;?-fiel$luzft v. Polh,h State, the Tribun~l held thqt . 2 How eve r, it is des irab le tha t
ndari~s
dep end on the exlstenc~ -0f rigidly &_e g bou
be fulJy dert:n~_ir.ed ~n Ojd t"r tc. avo id
as far as pos sibl e tel':itory of~ State sho uld ·*
complications.
It i~ tc be not ed tha t Internution~J Law alw
ay$ insists th~t a Sr;i!~ ~hou!i.;®
y. How eve r, .in excepti..ma-J cnscs, 1..t a .f,..·
,...,..._
hav e .o~session and c::mtrol over a territor
rt time, it will ~till be d~rrned to
. tate has lost c n ....oi eve r the err: on ;- r a sho h~s been ford bly qcc 11pic d . . ~ ~, ~
itor y or instan...:e, ii th~ terr itor y of a State
possess terr
nt is not enti tled to treat the oe~upicd te; rHory as lts 1 --·
·_ ~ fore ign Stat e, he occ upa
hoi ity
own crr1.(' ;, , ~ cvs!e~t !iOVeteJ gn stiU refa uts all the rE?sklue of J~r,.1l au::
3 osiUon, Pal_t!Stini: fprod:=tir:-:.i.•(I byt1
no, atfriRitP.·;t to the cccup~u1t. On this prop
PLO in 1988), who se terr :tor y has remafricd
under occup;,itior. of lsrae!, wou !d bt.! (J
was give ., to it by the U1~ited /
e -2£ sses seJ t~rd tory . The territor y
called to hav
on 181 by the G~~ra l Assembly ;n
Nations througn the ~do ption of a ~so luti
1

el Js based, ([!_le res(>!ution h,Hi .fcJi,Jc' rq

!2_47, on which th•! ~is fen re of the State of Israfo~J ~ ·
mentioned the.> Cl'_!:a~;on of .,n Ara b State und oub y, i.e., 1>,,1\·.sti:,e Stn!c. !tw as
an . ln,tiru don,\I fotm by the
onJy that reality of 19:J7 foaf has . bee n gfv«MCouncil by i.ldo tin, ~~~olution
dedarc:ition of statehood !;, 1988. The Sec urit
y
e Pafcstino aa ,, t"te. t urt 1cr,
1397 fn 2002 speci{ic.,Jly stated for die ff rJt tim
i~ cs u~utio1~ 67/l <; ;acc orded
~ nP.ra l Asscml>!y on November 29, 2012 by aa opt
remafncJ ilS an entity w!l hln thr
it a non•member c,bscr~er State whl eh hith erto
United Nation c;.

1. OppenMim';,~~•=-'-" ~..il IAw', VoL ~

Ninlh edit iol\ p. 1,1.
>Um c.r, {r·~•J, S.-ne, Q, No.. 9 (!92·'}, Also -:-:e
2. AD, 5 (1929-30), No. 5; Mon.4!?y ot S.int--N.M Co1-11t 1tat.ed that there I, no ni!e that lantl
!h~ ~a~th Sc.-a Cc,u!-i.n~t al Self c:ase -v.:·.l!.!"t th.c
Je-nne.:I ((CJ Repo:~ (19n9) p. J, .s: p. 31.
frontiers of a Stat~ mu.-.1 w fully <Mi~;~ and
J, 5'v Chapter 'lkJlige,ea,t O,.-.;y,1tion',
4
• Palesti!'° 1' : OC'ffi -"--cognked ill I State by
11 127 Sta.tea. Mot' \.'O\ ~, ~~ 5a.w ~ w;;~!l ~?.ve not
rccognL.,,_.1 •' 1\l"\.-et<fleless recogriise PLO 115
the representative of th<? Pafostanino pt'<lplc:.
 1~1~ F~0 ~le ~r:~ r!'-,1? i:criit.o;y :,!wuld be gover:tcd by 1 GlN~·:nrnc11t. :\· St~t~ ··
:1}u•
~ ., ..,\_r~
1 ·
;,.rt•··
.. ....
e&~ "cv.,s,., ...... ~-..·\ St-a te w 1.
, U.l ... r,,·.110 •r,~en" .
ocs 1l"'r. ~ ;,;"JP(l):,"l<•r:t (c.,r to . . !

~ay 21"~"1_...d--. i5ri<: •.:ont:r11mitr' is .ni)t n?r.r.Jrdc( l "s '1 StcJte. ~:: -~~~v,ific;1.ut-to r•l.\t~ th0t ·1i
~ . . ~ '

~r~'S.
·r.:JI•. t,,,. '~ 3,.·.•e'"':'lm~r.:.t •n certmn c.~.::.:?s shoukl ~ li~c·.... ·-:;;ir:•v :J.... •h cf'~.,···vt' · 1
AOVP.rmr.~n~.l Al~1cµg1'. ;n tr,~diti~nal Inte,·n"tic,nJI -L;~~~ ~-~~i~hl~ ~:-,j.~ff;~~~v~®
1f.CVCi11m~,, ,~as regarded . ;1s a~ essential·ele.mer.r l>t stat;-,~1opJ, a~ pre~ent il-tls. II
_ requh'cn~t:nt ~as b~-:ome obsolet~ 4YviAew of its rigidi~y. ·11.g! '2(•llc;cpt of effecHve(f) 1
aovcm.:-ner.t 1s Jgamst the principle or se.lf~e.tennin.,ticn/ l.1nd ·th~m:fore; it ha~ I

.rr
I ceaE~ · .:o ... ~ ~~ a u'1 . n e c~ s.a.~noo . ,
•·~• ••. •·n-.,
'!l--~"~ ·"',· 1.,. •·t·rer.!n•" .,·nes
...,~ · c_p .__ of
.
-~,l' · · ·
• · .. ·. J
.')
g()vernrnept :J.).¥. ·~ ~;,.. r<: o:tcve.L'l'ffif€.t~ :!,I l"
\.\'~1-.:.,;;-;~ r,ri3:n 0r exi'.,;te1 •ce i;,; in r-~ofo:rmi with the COH::.~lt~~-t~1..-r,=:.\ ~a·.•_,~ci th\!Stat-~
re~)H'Sc,:·;_~f.'•.:., anc -~~o~.~ ;>?3aiity !s lln(;Onte~tcd in inte.:--.,_1,;.,;0 .n! \'.I\'✓ ~ A a~ fa:C~o
· gove~n~_e1:t is a government wr~o&e origin an~~ ~x;s~cric~ :~ ;,:cnh·c:ny to
1

~ th~ ,.
'9 ~
.
1

~~~~.t;.t,.,_~Jona.l 1~¥! of _th-:: State concernetl and ki, ~~ty - i,., ~~ngect \n
~ntcn~"~~o:1~1 LawJ1_t m?.y ~ of ~ local nMurQ. wh~n it ;:w1trc~:, qr.!y p~rt of the :
,;:~?;1.;,a~-:-~1 and t~:rr~tcry of ::". St~te ~'la aj a ger.1?1·::-J n~!:i!re W~l~~~ ~t h.l,f; !'.:~c~eJ ,
,ompl~:!: cor.tro}, cspecial!y '4t~r; revering tht;.> de j:!!'e g,~,v~~j'\i~ent~.11 rdro~~.:t, it -·· ~
can oc regarde~ aa an incerim gov~mment if it lo:- dcfoate.:I, and ~s 3 provisionqJ _;
government if it becomes the new dg jure government. (~ .91Hibry gQ_vernment 3)
·i$ th~ authorHy by which i;)ll QCcupying ·power exer&es. control ov~r a for.ei~ ,
Stat.~. (4\ ovemment-in~xile which h~ be~t• forced tQ.le~ve t;hio! territory of it$
-state ue to ·e~my occµpation or civil war afld wh;;;,:h dahns govemmental
powe,a with the consent of fhe State of testtlenc.c and po!isibly other States, as .
long_as there exist, a genuine chance to re.tum.
· l 1be above forms of the government show that on~ a Sta~ ls establish~
{1)£mporary interru~tio5)ot ~e effecttvene~ of its governn~et'.'t, as in a civil war or
as J result of bel,iger~t occupation 1s not ini:C'i1sJ~te-rit w;t.1 tbt wotin~ed
exisrence of th,:: Staie.I The existence of a d·,il war m,,y am~~t th-e continued
ffcct!ve existence oft government, the St.ite neverthele5;1 continues to exist. In
tE )t ! hanistan, Taliban re hne emer ed in 1994 -md in a_ ,ort sp~, of time it took sh.

\J c capita Kabu an ater contro cd 90 per cent of Afghamst:rt,. However,

Af~hanistan ls still recognized by ttw international comniunHy and is il nu:mber
of the United Nations.
What form ol government a State shall have is a question which ls
determined by the municipal low. It la entirely within the juri$Cllction of a·State to .
choo~ the form of a Government, and thoNfore, it is not necessary that the
Govemrnent should alway• be tho rcpresQntaUve11 of U,e people. t~ $tat~ may be
govemcJ either by the reprMntatlves of the pcop!e or by the monarchies or
dynas~;es.
(4) Capacily to enter lnto Relation, with Other S_tates :. .
A State mU5t have the cap1tdly to ~nterJuto re~ons with other~ tatP.s, m
J, Brownlie. 'Prlndple.s of Public lntuMtional t.ow', Sixth 2ditio.~ (~, P· 71.

:·ri~ W lem &hara ca,e the lrltemational C~ of Justices•.:~~ that 'no rule Qf in~Uonal
• n in . : view of the Ct-!~ ~ Lhe stl~re of a State to follow~-..'/ ?-1rticular patten,,
IA~, ·vid t f
Q$ as e . ~ ,vm
~ di~:V ., Qf the Corms of s~w found in the W<>rkl tod~y. (!Q Repo,ts
(19'/5) 43-+1.
 KIND$ OP StATE!i :
(f.)AJI thost ffltittc, whl-:h nni~ui tM above attribute~ nrc callc.:ci Stnte~. It mav
mean that lt it r.ot r.ea..~ o n c n cnt In 01dcr
in Internat!oiul w, s:.n,ce a e:w entltloe, ol r n n ,. ,.,, :31i'~c.ii, z, n, aJs.o
clothed with J·as 1ttrlbuta In 10,ne degrees, And ~bc,·ch'11·0, they m,,y bo
describer.J u Stotes ln dwt intemltioMI COfllmLm;iy. Por c;onv"nlon.:o, thcrcfol't',
~States may be rl!vld-J:f Into thn:e ,::,Jn:forlM. They 1,- firstly, ~uv1:rvl~n St,,t~ '.)
~ n d ly, not.fully ~!C~ SL,ti&, ihlrdly, llQHyplcal St.,t:,11,
q ~) · ~)

i
.I
 Sovereign States:
lnternation.\11,aw
· · an.d
· H•,,rr,ao
· alight~
. I
!.) ;Jy th~ tenn 's0ver~ignty' is m ~ant th
w.hkh on t~e international -2 lane m;ans no~-- ;:;eme au;bority wHhiu the Stat~~
I
bt;t rather,., 1e >al authori~,- \Vhich is nnt . la d.1 uthont ove 11 other Stam5 ~ -rL
v m w e enJ~nt on
an· o.. .h er <!art, y '{ ,-ru
..., •
a~L~10n . .--<i~
inus, sovereig:1 powf'r is per~ ti ~
~1man po er, ln as muc'1 thaf its arts1ec Vor C0Ql'1·ete y inder d " .
.,, . - ~ ·_
c~"~ t-b . t: • ,.,en _en.. ot oth~r
"h
\
ou er
implies ,1:;
th .
·
,ountr,~"., n d:3-i~:~eth
o
.
"'T
~!l its own Sov~reignty iu the t . t
5
_, ,o t: annulled by "'ny h
<l 4
· ~ uman w1_,. .;,,
nc an narrowest sense of the ter ~~,!IIF:-w--
en~e all round, within and without the border:; the :P
e erm sovereignty as the 'i'bSlllufe anJ er tu
of
authon , 0 a.-~ate', . Island of Palmas Arbitration, ~!a~ u .er·· atea at®
. ..~ven~lgn 1
~ ~
rel~tion3 between States signifies independenc~.
I
~
~n~epen - cnce. m reg~rd to aJ>ortion of the globe Ia the right to exercise
_, () ,nerE1~, to th~.cxcluslon 9f any othe~ State.....:,.r- (D - -
.( ~ Thus, ~c .e~,;ei;i.l~l element~ ~ vere1gnty are@r~tly, tha. t it is exerdsed
~ thin te.rrl\.or-1~1 hnuts] an<J, ls.ecv i ~y, sovereignty is c.onstit:!,IJ.¢ by the
1nd e~ n d ence or State power from any other power, i.e., ara a.uthority o\'er wh!d1
there LS no othe~r authority,~ ~vere!gn State i$ as a rule a s~gle State In whi~1l .
~e central pohtkal a,.1~ nty, the government, represents tt~t St~te · ernall _
~ ~d eXtc,n~.~ Sbvere1~ St.ate is therefore it1zdependent •_in two A ·s , t).
v mdependence iri mtemal affa!rs and independence in external or foreJ . af airs. ·
. . There ~ a r,-qnsiderable difference between these two as _ e o ate
(D.sovereiSf!ty.r~at.~ ~depend~~ in its internal af .airs p . pp~ ful..t------41~
· 1reedom 1n tkesoc:10-pobtical orgamsation of society, that is, in the est3bh..c,hment
of the State's social and poliHcaf system, and law and order. Intederence of one
State in the affairs of · another State in the internal matters ls unjustified. In
consequence of its internal independence and territorial supremacy, a State can
adopt any constitution it likes, arrange i.ts administl'ation in any way it thinks fit,
enact such Jaws as Jt pleases, organise its forces on land and sen, build and puU
down fortressef', adopt any commercial policy it likes, and so on'. A Sover('ign
State under its Constitution may create rights, status and c;om et e whi~
howsoever wide, operates subjects to e o n ema ona w, urth~r,. i is
reqwred to enact the appropriate laws to fulfil its ,...,..,..._,,. o • ns It
cann"t rely on its ow ' Iation to Umit the acope of its international obligatioll$.
®A sovereign State · ot free o do even in its internal affairs which is detrirr.ental
. to the freedom a "'""•rv• • Further, a State cannot pretena
· a so ute sovereignty without demonstrating a ~uty to p19J.ecLp~ple's right. A
. State has a auty to protect human ri ts and fun amental lreeJoms of its citizens.
. 1£ a government fai s protec uman .n , or o say, cr1~s when they
deliberately engage in poll.des leading to crime agahut humanity or where there
is a ma~s violation of human rights, the lntcmatfonal community may intervcr.c.
®Independence in extemaJ affairs ·means that a State is indP.pendcnt to exercise !ts
i
I

external functions, i.e., external affairs. Conteq~ntly, a Stan, b free to frame Jts
fote1gn policy; it can establish relations with other States and It may decide i_tr.elf
Orf all foreim Issues affecting rt No other State can prescribe the mies of conouct
1, Oppenheim'a. lntenl.ltiol"1 Law, Op. dt. p. 122.
t Oppcilhcim', Jnlefflittlol\al Law, Op. dt. p. 1.22. ·
-1.~ AJIL Vol 22 (1928) p. 875.
4. S~ Free Zones case (1932) PCIJ A/8 No. 46 p. 167; Adwory opinion on the Exchange of Creek
. and TurkJih Popul,Uon case (1925) POJ Series-B. No. 10 p. 20.
 J I ...
I

7)
States
fo im er d('('s
i.~ sh ou ld !o! lo·. -v in internation al ,~ff~iTs. U th(: ;ch i
, . wh ich ~ ~ wt te lgn
.5ta
int erf ere nc e in ~he ex ter nal ilf fai n . .::it tl)e l~i. '·.?~-. wh ~
i.t1 i t wo.:?d bt.~ regal'ded internal .md extcmill .in
dependence,
th~ ~
soh:te p •)w 1;1•, ~~
l'"t':
ju; ;tified . Bc ca of
I- · ag ah , _is not
¥ .
an d ab
Hobbc im pli ed '2 up rem i! ! 9 0
so ve re i~ ,ty a~ or di ng to trt•:ilie.::;. .
.
.!!.1...rc..~trictcJ by anr l4w 5 QC ,,_n ing of the tt:rno. •~ overeignL·l has-.!'} t-9~ ~ ·-
m~
nc-:ed t t at presen~ th~ re1~i1 State does r,ot p,;ssess •-'~uprem.'.? T
:, (t> It is toa·bedr as tic "har.~ ~- Ev en a .sc,ve i ··
1 md cr3 ,m e
t oi mi .in ici p~ l bw , ~ sov .e: rei gn Stri;lte may hl'.1ve
the cor.!ex !
ationc1l ·Law when~ all States· In ® ,
an a ::>o ~te pov:e.J·~ a e
th~ Sta te, b'- 't irt i11:·cm
a supr~m.e p9·,ver witfi in . rcmac
, the so ve rei gn ty no lcn •'?er convcvs the•ldea c! S\l nvt po; ~e:Js · I ·
equa l and so ve rei gn
!n tem ati on al La w and int
ern ati on al re at! on s,· a fiO V(' rei gn Sta te :;tQe.S.
I ·
~estri:teu nw ~ g. t~ k:1 _ t..JifAI! (o v ¼ ~
__
r~~ Ol' ~, ha ~ ~
'lh ve ~.
er~ , an d ~h~ it
supre~ e anct ~).)~lute pov:·er ~entuncs, fh ts th ~u q t~ • reterted t~ · (1--V ,
at ~t ha d the ea rli un tl bv rul e~ fra me µ- ,ay- (l ) ~
w~ a so ve rei gn State is · l:,o mselv~::; ;.n ' •
sovereignw' . ,,u s even d by the so ve rei gn Sta te! i the
Tiit~m atio;- w which ha ve be ~n creat? s, Sta tes thc.mselvi;:s by giving ·
ational int e:r cm .1r ~. T
' hu
e;rs, lf
the process of the ir intern tic ,ns on the ir su rcme arv.l ab$0.lute _ow
ed Hm ita d rule:. of
t}:ltir consent ha ve . lac ... tat es y ~ universally :recognize uld npply
<t.c cor t~ ,e
tl-.c limitations ed , sancUcns pr ov ide d un de r
th t sy;;tem wo
vio k.t arc
In tem ati on al La w ar e
y ca n rea ct on ly to ille ga l ac tic ns . Tnerefore, States
ag ain st them. Ho we ve r, the of action in !~reign policy gu.)ranteed to oth(.>rs by
·
bo wi d to respect th e freed
om policy
.,& . n fro m int erf eri ng in others States' foreign
International Law an d ~o ref rai
t co ntl '~r y to the rul es of International Lav.•, .It'
i f ~ ar e leg iti ma te an d
are no 'bsolute"
es en t, do es no t possess "sy 12reme" and "~ fact,
Implies th at a State , at pr ere.ign. In
tes ~v e ceased to remain sov aining its ow n
ifilrers. Bu t it do es no
me an ing of th e ter m sove
t me an tN >t Sta
reignty NS changed. A St ite
er Sta tes
in ma
.
int
. . · .
;e tho soverei gn ty of oth .
sovereignty ha s to recognia e the tru lsf or ma tio n of State ~ f ' / U . ~
1h e co mm on lntere:;bl
of St at ~ thus requir al rel ati ons mutually .so~ .
int em at on
f
unive1s a! rin d
sovereignty in to a ~n er aL onfin3l\o .e s .sovereignty, This obligation as
le of n · p '
~ ly
on a La w. tem att on al Ca w being a pr ~c t of large e
created by ln tem ati bl is he s .lh
t« ro eo ts. do es no. .t ne ga te or res trict sovcreign~ tn of otner
(EUoter-State ili ed om of ac tio n wi th du e r~ ~ t for the soverei ~weiesess enti:11
lim it:l of tale's fre ri·, e sovere gn ty provid ca ·
ry ~ r~
us, • eo
n~ of El ate s wi thi n tho int, mational community. ·
prerequisites for the c~ xi in inlemaHonal relalions m cW ffia r ,a StMe is
ste
Consequently, sovereignly s as o a s it ~~s wlthlo tbg the Ri ghts iU\d
l~
boun£ls of the
int ern ati on al aff air
I independent ln lntem.stfona l La w ra t dara tion on nduct
mutually bl nd ln ~nales of the duties of the Sta te to co
t every S\~t~.A , f ~ r(
reg arde d ifuit !t is of )
Dulles of States , rticle 14 of ttw Oe da r~t ton 1tl pu h1te1 tN
i relations wi th other Sta tesl'A r~Gtlon s with other ~~ tes _l!' !ccor'-!,ance wi th (l; }
I its
has the du!)! to cond uc 't lJog pnn£fitlt_7hit Die soy__ercilP)b' o[ eacn "S'tato Is
I
F .. : , t .
I
mtema7ional Caw .Jll\d wid :Otcrnattonal u w(t'he llnut.ttton IO la(ed lwruvin i: -A~ ~ -h"J\,\,
Ur"f'l..if(j
subj ed to the su pr em "~ ofty ir; termed .a t "au to,. m a .00 , UI O tate
~consent on tl'\e sovere g.n u hl i a(; i-eea" to ru ln re ,trlct.tng t~~ .
·
cept ln iO far tu
re tld un m of :
absolu~ f rm of tlCUon ex ~ erelgnty of a Sti.te lt me an t tho
: -A~U,;f-{
(1) freecto . tar hu te5m~ted that by - ~ lfrun the c o ~ la l~ O ff l' ~ m m : il
relgnty am! . . o-f
~ f- 1 P· S!@ e Un1( 6e tw ee n St ate so ye
E W· It implies th at there !$ a _d 0& w ~·
· · ~
%-➔;~r ition -,_'.j.,i, 'c - ~
~ ""
f ir,,,w.-... Jf~,?,T
~ ~~ Uj ~ -.
(1991

.(
P· ~' · _
u.J -iu,•4. J,..--.J.l ll •- 4
_· r--- "- f i
-(~ ~ •

j JL 1~ -1f~ , -- --
q ~ J j_ U O
 ~ :::; :~~ ~:~1 1 NelghOciulhK\'9 : . . . . . . ..
· · ~upr emc ,1~J i:ibsuh~~1 o,)V;.?:.·, of lh,;_aoy_pJ:£jgD ~t~JJs ~re 1
fi.& :;,~~r (~U-l ~ifl,:,·:,
·b}· th~· . odn,d ,i(: · t>f Q"•~~.~d. nei.-!:ii;:,ourlir.ess, J\.l+h~u6h,
i·~r,..l
heighbout:hr.E:s.; .i1:!.~ P.ct b~c-'~ ~Jcqu~t~.y:. ct.med, in OJl~ w~:: ~t Jnd.V Tf.~~n D:-,fx~ ·
t~1~·
~i."!•tr,1~:.l
..,£.OOPE-r.ition and ;)Voj;fapa• .-,f Pi;""P) t" cecb atb~!". h m~y., thi:rc
forl!, ! ~.~;:h ti.:!? ...
1
Stah:? is-net pe.mitt~d to \ISC Jt!i territory for purposes .irtjurious.to the
· other Stat~s. Ji ;;j1,1c;:h ac.M arc done by a Slate _wlich c,,uses mjcr,- to in~cres:s of_
_oth"r Sta.tes,
the f~rmcr sh~H NQ:1ah'i rr,spQnsjble fo? the injury caL1~J to the
1att~r
of thP- Charter (,f th~ United Nations 'lays dow-n t.~t St~tes ~hall 1iv~ . Prcmr:.p~t:?.
pe.:i.r.~ w5:Hr_one ~1noth~r -~s go_
to.~etii~:r-;.i:.-._
o<l neighbours'. Furfo£:i_ A,tid e ., 7·\ of th~ ;~~:i•,;•.;t,r
stat~~ tlut inc(n ~rs oi the Unit ej ~fotiot~ _also :'1gree li-m_: thclr p•~lic
'· · of the {non--~elf-goveming) cenituries,., ... musl b:.: b;~seJ en the :5er.1:> y in :~S.f:!•:t
ral pri:it:i;:•le d
good nc :s.nbourli(lef.S, Th~ princip!c of goou 'neighbo~r;h,es:;
ma7 be r::ppaed i-1 .
Jiffc:.!1tt si_n.mlion:;, i~or instm.1ce, a State L, und~r a dut}' to £!'tw
eut it~ te: ::-ito:y
frcm beiilg used for hostile expeditions against ~-,other 5tab,:. F~rth e:-, , Sta.t.: i.;
·under a d_vty- to prevent its territory frqm being J souri:c cf t1:orw
:f!ic; inl~lY tQ .
neig.1-tbourjn~ · tt;rrit0.ry, ~.g., by tht? e$cape oi noxious· fi.ame~.J
A Stf.lte i~ ~ -
responsible ii it cause$ damage to the·tmvironment of other S@tes,
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,;, Althougl1 sovereignty of'ct of ~e~
qualified by the. principle of good neighbo\lrliness, .the.re appe Stat~ is
a
controversy ~ to its exact application. ar, t_o bo
·
Sovereign Equality of ~tates : · . · · i

' Sovereigi, States are the subjects of Intematiom:l Law in the fq]lcs
. -1
I

Oppenheim ruis stated them 'real' intemational person w.,.ause they are t sense. '
the main '
legal actors !n International Law.• They ~$'?SS the totallty of intem~ti~n •1

and duties rec o~d by International !.aw. The p!'inclple <>i

al rigr.ts
the equality of
States means that every State is entitled to full res~ ct as ~ sover
other States. It is to be noted that all the sovereign Sta~ are eqml Sl~te by
~g;1
irrespective of their siz.e, populaU00t resources and other distinctive
l ha status
features. The
©w:inci2,lc of equal~ of Stateff has been ~ecognized under Article
Qlar ter of the U7Jtea Nations which sayi'that 'the Or
2 para 1 of the
rinci !e of the soverel e ualJ of all its members . ui-t er Art 3
• ~&:t:P,d on1'ne ~
Dra Decl.1 ration on ru ts an
· theU ) . ~
ties o tat<?s a so i:, ovldes that_eye~ State has
c r t to e ve , t follows that all State
ri ts .ar.d du.tk?s and are equal members of tho lntematJonol s ave equal
community
~ pectivo of their economic, social, political and other differences.
1 ~ l ity lncludn the following ~ !n particular,
: ,_(it} State, are ju:idlc"11v
7 ~~~ac n -s1ilte ent;s the rl~ts ln he r~ sov ty~ each State
has thP.- c l!ty «> r~s e rsona i ; -"1}-t:w territorial integrity
- l. Ora:t !Rc!u aUon &>n JCJgh.11 Md Duliel p/ Stata
-
~ by &ht ln~ti onol t..iw
Co1Tlll\l$slon in 19'9 ..~ cJuat rmy State fiat I duty lo Nth1I
}
i

\ torin.fomer.~ing dvil ::trl,t. In. .

the wrltory of anoUw • -...:
~
z. Stt TraU Smelter Ari>itratbl eue decided in lMJ; Also S# Lab Lanow& CIN,
l. Set Prin::ples 21 and 22 ot Iha Slockh
f'
olm Oodlra&n on Human Environment Qf 1972. The
Principles ernuneraled in dw Slockhobn DedantJon were rnfflmed by NJ!tob
f
!982. l Dedorit!on of
4. Op. cit. p. 113.
 .. .,.

Union oi Starer. : . • •. . . ..
. Normally, S<.~v~relin: Sle,~%:~ ;r~
,a $ing~ int~mation:li . ;rson, 'tfu., _ir., they
have ona c~~t'l'rtl- poli- ·cal an;}u>i:ity ~.uch !:itngl? . ta~es may oe ~a!!ed 1·'s:Jtg!•?
inte~ti'-'n21 ~ sens. ., aL>c1t10n .~o them, tw(> OJ'.' more slngla State.:; m~w fornl 1
' Unk·n by a.a Jnt~r. 1ational.-~r<::ity, ·~e.cognized by , ,. p-6wer!1 ~'her¼:·~ ffiey
S\.lrreri~er tl:-.e_!:- ~ -"t::r~h~,nr; t1~ (~v-/~~'-' of the lJ\1jJi •nior. ·in such c~St;.~ l,ee;or11es .
. r 1 pc 1tic.a~ au wn!Jr ar.d the States (jl'Jllli'lg thtJ _UniO:i :-e~ain 4S .?, .
'.
i part o • ~ nion, Separately, they lose t'\eir international ~r$0nality, .It is vef)il!J ·
!'
i
in the Union. T.nus. States formL."'lg Union are revented ftom kin var a' ~inst
each other. They r,e1 . .J.\ ma ~WM.separate y against a foreign J>owe: nor ·can
War be ma3c against o,w cf tht?m separa??ly. On Febrµary I, 1958, Sv.ria. a.fin ·
EgyQi-the two scvereign Statf:S, merged themselves into a single St~t;'undc.r tl:-e
name of United Arab ·n"' , 1ic:. The 'single State', i.e,, the U.A.R. bcc~me il
democra c, L-1dependent and ·sovereign republic and continued as .a ~ingte·
member of the United Nations. The Provisional Constitution no whclil mentioned
the name of Syria and Egypt as St'\te,. Not evm a fraction of sovereign~· was foft l
with them. The President of tt,e Republic of the U.A.R. wa, the H~~d oi thi.!.Stdte.
Personalities of F.gypt ·and Syria were extinguished and were replacea by th~
U.A.R.1 Such UniOl"s :..:" called r~l Unions wherein ~ new international cnH!ex:
II
come:1 into existence, in cMtrasT"to a personal Union where the States forming tho
Onion reta!n the\r persoi,111 di!itinct pcraonallty. I
(2) NOT•PULLY SOVEREIGN STATES :
i
I
It is not necessary that a State should be sovereign 1n order· t~ ba •~
international person. If the ~ttributCA Qf statcho,od AIG p_o~ses~cd ~Y. th\:~ te~ i
..pther thqu ~y~relifi fillies, even of the. smallest dggxeo, they may ca~med
Jntcrnationa; ps:rson. N1., dc::.il;t, they c-.st'U\Ot be full, P!rf~t and normal ~u ect11
of Intematicn!!l Law. But lt ii tnoccurate to maint~ln \hnt ey m\o·c rw
I
,
I
inte.mational po$iti.on wt'Jttever.2 Once it l$ ippredated that lt is not so tn'.\C:h t\\-J .I
e_ossesslon_~ _sc,vcreig.nty _y.-l]iqi_dttlmnlnaJbc pojSClllon.:"r.~ infomahonal I

personality 1'ut ra~r the ~ l o n of right,, duties and powers in ln\e:nat!_~,\al

Law, it is apparant thnt il State which poaesaea eo~, but not an, of th~ rightt-,
duties and powers is ncvertht:1- ~.. lntemAtiQJJal__ penon,1 ln fact sue:, St.ltea
J,
-
\.ate;", Sy.ia b,oke from '-'le U.A.11.. c..n Sepleml)er 18, 1961 Mel MW\I Nllllnod Ill stllus Ill In
..
'f
~ependenl State, tHWllNi i11I ltpll'lle mcmbenhtp in IN Unhed Nat"8. U.1-R. en
September 2. 1971 ~p-d its name to dw An!> !Qpublic of Egypt. \
j
2. Oppenhelm. op. dl, p. 1'?3. '
l, Ibid.

L
 -·""""'I
.I
I

,nt~,n~tfoncal l.)w and H•u,1a~ c<ight• j

,,rh'n er,joy in many r?r'~ rii.:,!,ts, Md f-ul.fi! ln other points ou~1esf establi!~hed.
bf I~ternational L~w, ..,u~ Stat~s are ca!le.d noHully ·sovereign Stat~.2 .lhev ·
. rel}laJ.(1 subJe.c:t t~ ~;~ authonty of ont.1 or m~re other Sn2tes.-·TheY are ~ fol}~"'IWS
0

I
; ,.

.(f):EWhen
;o:ctorat1! §tates: ~ C A - 0 (f'V'3.Ylo.t). · · .·
on~ Sta•~ si1rrenders itself, an mreel!le::at
by a tre~ty, tht! ·embod!t:~ in 1
ilfilj.,9..n...ol certa~ ut1PPTt~t intematiopal afJ~r~, to the .pr=>tec!ion of !'
~othe; State k . .ht i established between th . two ~tatc~ kn<>wn ·.
Cf/:,_ rotectcra ,. ~eriwic · Jefip,es the term protectorate. ~s a State...which bt- formai, ·
µea . 1ac.e· l · c · r endP.rin to the
. ,

latter contrc ove.r its forel ; relat!orus while rctah ·· I· o contr~!

over its domestic .rovemment; rea y o · protection riec.,i ~ot i:>e be"~wee1! ~.he t~_.·0 1,
St.art ~. .. ·. rolectoratc ~ou oe created unde.- an International tr1.;?at,y') For instance, i
the Ionian · ~u~ w , . . . . p.ro ec ora e un er M mtemation;a . •.~aty l:,etwr.~11 '
Great B:.itain, RllSsia. Avstria cmd PrussJa.4 Ther~ may be differen~ sha,d.:.~ of .
. protcc.H9n depP.nding upon the extent of the powers .whJc..~ ar~i su~rend.ered m
favc,~ of protecting States mthe territo,y of protect'.:"J State. It all c!epeu4~ upon
the terms of the treacy. ln ,th~ case of Ionian Ships, the Cc-.::-t obsen:~·that,;. the .
treaty is the. sole guide; from this ·document must be derived aJ~ the r•ghts o,_the ·
contracting parties, . and all the rights !Uid obligations of the l<?~an S~tes.
Questions, -such as whether the protected State can ·-~d and receive.- diplomatic
envoys in foreign countries or whether protected.State can .conclude treaties are .
decided by the·treaties themselves. In Nationality Decrees Jssuec! in Tunis and
· Morocco, -the J>ennanent Court of International Jt.:srice · held that relationship
between the protectorate and protecting State as well as rela tions of these two
States with rest of the world depend upon the terms of treaty.5 ..
~ tected St.ates are ·not sovereign States. However, the are ima R.cie
independent and the ossessor of all rfghts which • . . have not surren er .
Tney are therefore in~ o . .s o ... ema ona Law e.ss
it is a colonial protectorate). They retaln for c:e-.rtain purposes, a posit.ion of their
own a, international pmons and as suco are ,u,_bject, c,f IutemationaJ Law• .The
International Court of JUltlce In Right. ol Nationals. of the United States in
MorOC'(O ,tated that even under the protectorate ~Morocco remained a soyerelgn
State' subject to the term, ol the Treaty of Fez of 1912, It ret~~ Its personality
as a State 1n lntdnational Law.6 Thus, when a sovereign State l0$es a part of its
sovereignty though eomfng under protect.Jon of another State, It d~ not lose its
personality altogether. In 1uch CUft, there occun a succession.of State in vJew of
the b'ansfer of a pa.rt of ,overelgnty In favour of another State. Such cases are
referred to partutl tuccetsJon." Protected States poasess in most caee,, a distinct
legal entity fron, the protecting State. The·Anaw-Turklsh Mixed Arbihal Tnuunol
Award 111 Parounak and Bedro, P,rounilklm, v. Turkil Gwtrnment' said that 'the
effP.\:ts- of a protectorate v&rlod, accordJng to the provla~ oi the treaty of
1, Ibid.
2. They have allo bNsl rctnnd by lOIM authotl II hilf.tovmlp o, iinpe..-tectly IOYfflign Staa...
J. 'lnternationll 11w' p. 136.
,. (1885) 2 Sp. 212. .
5. PO,J Serie, BNo. 4, p. 21.
6. [Q Rt-por1» (1952) p. JN,
7, Por de~ NI Ouipt« 'StMt Sucxabs(_
8. Annual Dtpt, lm30, CDI No. II.
 --T ..

t.>!i!:h~d -
.~_lhey · ·r:!.o~~torate, the re!.-.tion:; t'ctw~ o tllt! two £,t;.,_te~ 4Uld :..i,.e r ~it:("':· .::f pr,:.~rtt1~i
lll."'Ws': •· Sta_t~:- It is s~netall~ :.'~◊~ized ~ lntcm:lttoJ~! Law that thtr~ is 1,.:, ::-i:-.gic• ai·.d· ·
imiform type. of pro.:cctvrate, al;d .that ~ach m1.t'it b~ t~.k~n by·it~i:. b ,·Jt:i-~: C}1se_.
h_o.wever:.- the p:-otectorate b:wo.. ve.4 in general· a1 certi-bi ...:hange in thtt ~v-1reigr,
·
:! t)',the v~'t ••f 1.1..te
0
· n er~=- v
"'"'"'............. .. ! S'-~te
'-' . !"' ....... '""~'- - ~...
·
· masmu-=h a, ..;...,_cor..t:r~ '..fPO.Jl t.he prc,terta,.b ::,tcltd
· .ao~ ·
tion of orJy ihe co~Jut .t i:-i th~ 4'tt~ma:C;'1?J ":l:-!tiO{~&;but;..a;;o~ v1.lf. dg})r.l CQ!JC~V.~i;;
l<:oQwn tlle re~"1l.aijon O~- dorncsttc· ?,fa1r.s N the protected: · Staws, s,,i(h . i.-; - mWt~._:y
funn.ii . com}l'ari~ admir.>~triiticn of ju..c::tic~. levying of ~xes, ~tc. -- · ·
:jp ~he Bhuta n: . I

contr-1 .... i
~
_Bhuta!l became Protectorate. ,~nu oug h. ·a _Treaty d frie11Jsrui:!
;i I
conc!'4clerl On Aug1.ts t ar 1~49.i U11;;!.e:r ~ of ~he Treaty, the: (;Qycrc~:nt;nl·· or-
h i.? l~;•(' i
I
stance,
~dia undn~c...'t.""'i< to·· ~x.crci;;e no interferP.nce· in the · u.1ter:;,,:~ f1drn:inistTa.ti~l& d
~I
~twf'~J\
d.:.~ of ~hutau. Howev er. the G.;;Y~~.m&\r: (,~ 7 j ~ee4 to be guideC: ~, the ·•'H,lvke
·red in of Ule Gvv~mu1,~l of t.,dia in re~p.r·! \v its external reliltiQ~. India a~o agrf..-ed in
accordance with Artlcle 6 of t.'1e Tr~..ty tnat 'Bfiutan ·sii.aH b:e ·tree 10· impotL :...-1to
• i
; upon
at 'the Bhutan , whatev er ar.ns, amu1wutloo, ma01m~ry, w?.i-~Jlke·mr.terial er stcrt!s r.i:,ay
oithe
be required Q? desired fo1: th~ strength and ·welfare of BhuLan'. Dh\J,tan also a?;Teed.'
that 't;.'lefe $hall be J"IO export of SUC..'1 ilm"'.S, iUIUll\U'JUOt\ etc., QQ.'QSS th~ fronae}:' Q[
.. i
States. Bhutan either by the Government of ·ab1Jtan or by private indivlduals', :India.
I
I

>mane I
provkies an annual subsidy of five 1akhs to Bhutan. Article 10 of t:.1,.e Treat-; laid. I

down.that.' ~ treaty shall ~ontlnue in torcc 1n perpetuity ·~s.1 terminated or ·

I
es are
s and
modified by mutt.Jal consent'. Bhutar~ therefore became a protectorat~ of India
n.'ihip since 1949. In 1971 Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations witi~ Ule full
e two support of India. However, Bhutan continues to be a protectorate:! of 1',dia .ls clear ·
from the statem mt of the Kir.g of Bhutan, Jigme Dorjt during hls vi,li: to India, in
April tm, ~ho e~lldt ly aaid that he ,tood by the 1949 Treaty and ru!e.d o\Xt ;U\y ·
~ revlsJon of it. Tom, the admission · of Bhutan In the United Natior.s ·diti no~
inless improve Us legal st,lu.. · .
their lt ls to bo noteJ that despite the continuan~ of the Traaty of FN~·Jship of
. The 1949, Phutan on ~sslo ns has acted _contrary to India's posit101~ c:\ na,my
es in International Issues, For ins~ , in 1985, it became a signatory to fue Nucleii l
reJgn Non-Prollferatton Treaty (NPI') which lndJa oppoeel vehementiy. in· the UnitP.d
1aUty Nations, it has gone along with Paklatan in declaring South Aala i2 nudem ~
:>f Jts . '
i zone. further, lt tw had flv• roundt of border talk, with Cha-la, The latest Ir. :he
>(! its !
1e1ia wu held 1n May 1988 at Beijing, where fpur prindplea were agt~d up~u
w ot i u the bula for :a Ntt'Athent of the problem of lncurslons by Tibetan hardsmen ln
; are Us 0,umb l Valley on the di,puled northern border, It la obvious that in All ~
tinct ij instances Dhuta., wu not guided by lhe advice of India. and consc<1uentlj', they
'Un4/ are not coo,pati.ble wJth the provtsloN of the Treaty of 1949, U Bhuta&\ ccntim:cs
'the to administer extemal a/fairs ln U• own way, relationship between Ir.d!il an~
, Of
V
Bhutan ts likeJy to become strenuout.
Sikkim · - . ·
~~
tatt-,.
. a protectorate ol ~la gypwth_a. ~tt_ conclude<:l ~n

l. For the text ol lhe~ ,ee RO. Aplwll. 'Stall S..C; atdcr... A Study ol lndlm\ C-', P· ;O'].
The T:nry WU c:utdl•,ded at ~ JI WIii l'lli8od b7 the C.om nor~ of lnd!.a 0.\
September 22., ·1,a9, "bf m, Hlghw l 1111 On&k 0ylJpo w ~ on Septen\ber 15, 1~9.
2. POi the 1C!xt of 1ht Treaty $ee H.O. Apwll, op. cU.. p. 111.
 ~
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 International law and Hum..1n Right'i
ry,ent ',~, r.~,e. natio naJ
ftilly-YugosJ;,v Committee was created to ~upervise the lr~:.lt
soJuti?n amo unte d to
grou ps in cad, zone. for all practical purposes, aforesaid
the partition of -~he Free Territory, ·
Treaty w,1s
It is tu t.>e uoted that the sovereignty of Italy h1 the Pea,~ through the
reno\Jnced. 1he prov ision s of the Treaty c:annot oo ~Itered
sav~
in~iepcndent Stata. Jt
agreement of ~11 parties. The Free City tn actual f~ct Js an
m~.a metn~r of
could not become a member of the United Natioll$, but it lwc.a
. some of the ~pe.cta.Jized agencie.~.
RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF STATES use they
States a.ra the primary subjects of International Law. It ls so becanal LMw.
have been endov1ed to h>taUty of right, and duties unde.forc r !nterna~o
their m;1pc,rtmce
· Nature and chara1.-ier of thP.~ rights are different, and t:!:ere
also vari~..Some. of the rights and duties are inherent in them. '!hey therefore
~ implies that rights
hav(! been termed as 'fundamental' or 'basic.' rightc;. Th~ abov Such a disililction
of th~ States may be either 'fundi.lmental or non..fundainental'
,
the States, whether .
d~, not appe.a.. to-be SQuncl in the senS@ that all the rights of
by ir.ternational
they are fundamental or otherwise, have been recognized
com.munity and are required to be respected. . .
·The basis o~ the rights and duties ol the ·State$, ~c.cor.cUng to the nteenth
naturalist
the seve
school, is the natural law. This theory was don:iinant throughoutof t.he view that
and eighteenth <=enturies. The write.rs ol the above period were ts and du.tie~
International Law derives from the natural law, and therefore, Inter righ
national Law
of the States whic h have been conferred to them. by the rules
of
the present C.enturJ
are also ba~ on the law of nature, However, the writera of
rights and duties
do not agree with the above view, They Me of the opirJon that
have beet\ conferred to the States through custom and t:reat
ie~. Any act may be
ttgarded,. by the conclusion of a treaty aa a right of a S~ate. s.
It follows tha.t States
themselves have decideJ as to what are their rights Md dutie
States do possess certain rights and duties; but the.if exac
t enumeration
cannot be possibly given. In the past, a few attem
pt,, hctve been made to codify
nce, Institute of
these rights and duties by the international conferences. For insta the Rights and
International Law ln 1916, the Montevideo Convention of 1933 on
s and d~ties of
Dudes of Sta ~ have attempted to enumerate _the various right in this regard
St.tea but their attempts have failed to produce any precise rule s,
mainly becautt •~ were net acceptablo- to all the participating State
Whon the llnJwd ,NaUoa was atabllshed1 the_G$ncral
Assembly on
Jntemalioral
November 211 194~ adopled • r~lulloo, 11.)' which It lnltructed the dutles of the
ana
.., Liw 0$~l&$1on; to prepare a rolt declar tlon onn tho ri ts
:rtf,, toking u • balls of dl.lcwiaJon rAft ec)ar on on
and~te s,:r ~lf d by Panama, and takJng Into conafderatlon
an u es
o er documents
Dt da ~on ta subject/' In conlorrnlty with the above reso ared by· the
lution, the Draft
on the RJgh11 411d Outie, of the State, wu prep
Commission, The Preamble ofbth, Decl aration Inter 11ll11 1tated that it is' the i
tie f S . . re ore
desJrable to lormuJate certain
,__developmi:,
..........
lernalional law". FoUowlng rlgh~ ~
'Draft ~~~ ~ la': ~ ~h~~ ~':!s new
~
-~~

L 5c!r CieneBJ Alleml>Jy Ranlution 178 (ll), Oiled Novar1be, .21, 1947,
 8:1

R ig ht s of th e St at es ! :he Dr~ft ·.Ped,Y~~;•ion bys. fn• down

en ~e nc _e·: -A tti d~ I ct ,
. · (l) Ri gh t to t1-l~~ r~'it to i,nd.cpe:nden':-'e. an d he nc e to ·""ll;i-,·•:!.$e eJyc.)f
th ~t ev er ~ St at e nM r
e ok e
ue r St at~ , all it$ leg n! po we rs , includint< L.,~ ·ch
~1thou~ di ct at i~ l) by ~ln y ot ·
its ow n fo rm ot G ov er nment. v Sta~e
rritc rl~ l hi rl§ dl ,:H co ; -A rticle 2 providr.s th~t ever :t and
(:!) Ri~ht to T!,_ ?~ie.-,, its ter rit or y ar.d over all
perS(ln:

I
ris d ict io ~
ha_s th~ rigl~t to ~X C.i·cise ju
th e im m\ Ul .Jh ~s re co gn ize d by In tem ali or Law ,
Jtl
laration provtdes that ev~ry
th in g$ th~reu1, su bj ec t to
lity : .,,.. Ar tic le 5 of the ~c
(3) Right to Eq\la in. hw .- wi th ev eq St'-lte, · ·
rig ht ~ i t y rig ht
State ha $ ~e
e :-- Ar ticlQ ti sta tes th at every State h'ai; thu
. (~>. Rlg.'lt ot,;;o~e lf~'-1efe
,n.v~ se
nc
H~ d~ fet 1c e agi :&b
a !a ng ua ge
lS.t an ne d attack. Th~ ;.ibov N~tlons.
?f md1v1dual or .Ie ~w plo y~ d .lll -:\ ,:t tc!~ 51 of th1.1 Cha.rter of
the United
1S ba se d up on thar
D ut ie s of St at es : . tlQ i,. -.\
5tate
rtl de 3 prC.>vides that i!V~r/ an y
jn fro m ln te rv en
(1) Duty to Refra l or external affair~ of
m in te rv en tio n ir. th e in ter na
ha s th e du ty to re fra in fro .
that
vil Strife.-Article ·4 says y of
ot he r St ate .
in fro m Fo m en ting Ci
. (2 ) D ut y to Refra m fo m en fln g civil strife
in th e territor
ft'a ln fto
every St ate has th e du ty to re
e organisation within lts territory of .,1ctivities
Sta tQ, an d to pr ev en t th
another dv il strife. . . .
cakulated to foment such fo r H um an }li gh ts and . f\l_ndam
ental
ed
(3) Duty to Resp n that every S ta te ~ the duty to tre at all persons
dow s, .
fr ee do m a. -A rti cl e 6 lays r@pect for human right$ an d fundamental freedomat
un de r its ju ris di cti on w
ith noted th
e, or religion. It is to be am en tal
as to rac e, ~x , lan gu ag
;,
without di sti nc tio n St ate to respect for hu m an rig
hts an d fu nd
re fe re nc e to the du ty of a
1(3 ), Ar tic le 13 (l) (b ), Article 55(c;) and Article
by Ar tid e ion of
& ee do m w as ln $p ire d ite d Na tio ns an d by th e Universal Declarat
e Un
76(c) of th e Charter of th
Human Rights. aU on ~I Pe ac e,- -A rti cle 7 ,;>f th~ Oe<:laration lays
(4 ) D ut y to em ur e In
tes ilin.g in its
tw the du ty to en su re that conditions pteva
do w n th at ev er y St ate ace an d other.
ter rit or y do no t m en a" ' in ter na tio na l pe 8 of the
ea ns .-A rtt cl e
D ut y to Se ttl e D bp ut ea ..2L. Peaceful ~l its di sp ut es wi th ot he r
tlfs
every State ha s tlv du ty to aet
(S)
y,
De cla ra tio n pr ov id es th at su ch a m an ne r th at lntematlonal peace an d securit )
States by peaceful m ea ns In closely Artic le 2(3
ar e no t en da ng er ed . Th e ftbove b>nguage ·1onows
an d Justice,
of the Ch ar te r of th e Un
ited Natio n,. le 9 lays down that every
.R ao rtlng to W ar. - 1\r tic
(6) Duty to refral.nlm.m fro m ,a or tin g to war u an instrument integrity
of national
re fra in tho territorial
State hu th e du ty to e th re at o: uae of force ap !N t
policy, an d to re fra in &o m th
Ot he r St& ta, or ln an y ot her m aM ur inconsistent
of IJl of
or political tndepmdenQJ d order. It II to t,o noted tl\Jt while tho flnt phrase on
wi th lntemattonal La w
&n the Renu nd atl
fu hi on ed up on I pr ov ision ln the Tr ea ty of Paris for of Article 2(4) of
Artide.9 ls phrase follow• ctoeo ly tho provulan
of War of 1928, the second tio m .
Na
the O wt e. r of th e Un ite d m gi vi ng A.salatAnce.- Arttcle 10 p10vldet th at ev
ery
(7) Du ty to re fra ln fm y State whlch ls ac tin g in
m giving l1561'taf'Ce to 1n
State has the du ty lo re
fra in fro
 CJI,)
lnternatiQn~I Law and Human Rights
v:olation of Artic:e 3~. Li!., violati
\ on of
or again&t which th-'o united Nation the duty to refrain from resorting to wa r, ·
Th e sccon4 ph r~e foilows ·closely
s ls t;;ucing preventiva or enforceir,ent
the lang14age employed ln the latt ac~ion.

I
Article '2(5) of the Chart~r of the
Un ited Nations. er p~rt d
(8) Du ty to refrain from re_COgt!izi · ·
lays do\'m that every St~i;· n Territorial Ac uis i\~ on, -A rtlc lc
. e \l . 11 :
acquisition by another State a~ting to re ram om rec o~ nE ; \he t.enitor
in vlolati~n of Article 9 which lays lal.
State acquires territory of another Sta down if any ·
~~~~~
te by resorting to war, that acl1uis.ition
sh~U
. · (9) Duty to· c;arry out_o).,li .
atlons in o Fa.lth.~Articl.c 13 lay
that every State has the duty .o car s down _
ry out in good faith its obligat!ons m:l$.iJ;g
treaties·and other ·sources of Internatio from '
in its constitution or its laws as an nal Law, and i.t m~y not invoke provision - ·_
phl'ase 'Treaties and othe, Sources ofexc use for failure to pedorm ,this. duty,
International Law' has Tne
the Preamble of . the Charter. of the been borrowed from
· reinstatement of . the furi4amental Un ited Na tiop s. Th e fust phrase is a
prlnde_ le Qf lntQ rnation itl Law
sercumda. Tile concluding phrase
reproduces the substiUlce of the prono\pnc,t.a sunt '
by the Pe rm ~n t Court of lnJem
ational Justice in tho advit,Qry opinion\J\cement
the Treatment of Polish Nationala and given in
other Persons of. Poll$h Origin.'
(10) Duty to conduct relations
that every State h1is the duty to con with 0th.er States.-Arti.cle 14 lays dow
duc n
accordance with International Law and t its rela tio ns wi th .oth er Sta tes
each State ls_1Ubject to the supremacy with the prlnc.lple that the sovereignty in
of International Law, of
The above rights and dutjes were
taking into aceo\U\t certain guidhlg con laid down in the Draft Declaration after
be in ~ y with the provisions of the sider.atlons, such as the Oed.'!fatlon sho
uld
Ch
be applicable only to sovereign States; it sho arte r of the Un ited Na tions; \t shou\d
of the World and not only the me uld env isa ge all the sov ereign States
mbers of the United Nations and it sho
embrace certaJn baste rights and duties uld ·i
rights and duties of the States prepar of States. It is ~o be noted that the l\st of l
exhaustive. In fact, the Comm~lon neved by the Commission ls by no means
dudes of .the States. The Preamble er intended to include all the rights and
of the Declaration expressly laid do
"0erta.in right, and duties• are being wn that
formulated. The lnclualon of the expteSS\o
'ce.rta1n' lmplld tbat the Declaration dld n
duties of the State,, for lnltanct, the not inc lud e eve n all the bask right& and
mo1t lmportant dut\e1 of • State
measures f'or the malnbmanct of internatio to take
on the UN ol nuclear weapona and the gen nal pea ce and aec url ty, the pto hlbltion
forces are mJulng. The right to oxllt and era l rtd uct lon of arm am ent and armed
Included ln tho Declaration, Howevor, pm crv • lta n\a ten ce hu allO not been
dutJes let forth ln the DedmUon wm lt ma y be con clu ded that the tlghta and
fon
mentioning thl rab1ctkn and e"°pt1on nulated In genml ttnna. without
duties. The Artlcles of the Draft Dect. ,, 11 boflta a Peclantlon of rights and
International Llw, the e(lenl nl tho mo ritton enunciate general prlnclplet of
be determined by more predle Ni n, daU\lel of the application of which are to
It is to be noted that the Commlaslon sub .
General Assembly, through the Secretar mitted the Draft Decwation to the
y-Genem, but the Aaaemb\y'haa not yet
adopted the Dedmdon. Although, adop
tion of the Declaration through a
J, PCIJ, Sena A1B. No. 4'- pap 2t
 il •

resolution wou~d have not given any legal iorce _to tho~ ris~t:1 and d:ttics, the_ .
\
\U)animous adoption (.)f adop~on by. overwhelming yotes of Uli?- .met?~rs and
·_their stipula~on in the :subse~u~nt resol~~<ms of the _ As~Olbly -nuS::t _'i_ave
changed the 1mport~ce of the ~ght,s ~nd_ duties ~t f~rth ln the !;raft Declar~ tion.
It is submitted that m or<l:er"to give legal xorce. to the rights an'.J dutle$ of the Stu~e,
a mulrilaterc1l convention is .r~quircd ·to ba concluded,·Such a convention sh,;ni1~
contain ilil exhall§tive l~st of the rights ·and di:.tie~ of the State, ~ccepl~b!~ to ~n so · '
I •

that the coniusion whlch ~r!$e.S at times:may b,e removed. '

ECONOMIC RIGHTS AND DUTIES OP STATES: ·

The 1970s co\.\ld be ·called the decade of international ecooomic dlplom~c-;. . i
It was a period 1r. whkh ec,;mom:c is.sue.:, wer~ given top pr!ority at the highest i
levels of government '4id a~ the Ur.it~d Nations. 1he demand for th.: '
establishment of New Intemattonal Economic Order (N1EO) w.u made by tho
States officially at ~e United Niltfons Conference on Trade ·m1d Development
(UNCT~O) Ill Conference held at Santi~go (Chile) in 1972 by a group of
developing countries of Africa, Asia Md l-aUn America. On their insistence, Sixth
Sped.al Session of the General As$embly was convened In 1974 for the
consideration of matter, relating to international economic co-operation, The
Special Ses$ion adopted the Declaration on the Establishment of .the NIEO1 on
May 1, 1974 which stated the prindple, on which the NIEO should be founded.
The Session also adopted a resolution entitled Progrimlme of Action on the
establiJhment of the NIE0.2 It is to be noted that the Declaration and the
Programme of Action lV• adopted without vote. Later, on December 12, 1974, the

I
General Auembly at Jta 29th Se~ion @dopted a resolution which is known as the
Cwter of Economic Rights and Dutta.;3 The Preamble of the Charter stressed the
purpoee of the Charter, I.e., the Charter $hall constitute a.n effective instrument
towards the estab&hment of a new syitem of international economic relations
baaed on equity, sovereign equality, and independence of the interests ol
developed and developing countries. The Charter under Chapter ll laid down the
econpmic right, and dutiet of States some ol which are as follow•:
Economic IUghtl of • State :
1. IUgbt to chooM tu ~ J c Sptcm :-Article 1 of the Charter say,
that every State hu a right tu ltl economJc ,ystem u well u lb politkaL
IOdal and cultural •Yttml ltl accordmce with ttw ..wUI ol Ill people without
o u t . d e ~ COffdon or th.rat In any form whataoev•r.
2. Permannt Scwlfflpty over N,Jtuql llacuucee :-Artie» 2 of tht
Owtei- lay, down that flVety SC.le hu and w U txomae full permanent
IIOVereSgnty w:Juding pout11lon. ua and dJlpoaJ over 1U It• wealtl\ naturol
re&oUl'(a and ea,nornk acdvlda. The Artk-le alto dal, with permanent
IOVtmgnty ol a Stato <Wll lon:lgn lnvntment, n1tlonllJt1don and traNN&nal
corporaticn

--
3. Right IO ..... la lnwrmdOMl Trad• :-Ankle' provtd4II that every
J. S. 0ener11 A.111.W,, ._.,,_ 5201 (S-VJ) Mty " 19'1• (Po, dlt f\11 • ol lhe Dldlnb
Set U.N. Monlhty OlroNdl VQI )CJ (Mtr lf1') p. 66.
a. SOIC
. ..W ~ ._.,Cb\ m, ($-VI)., W., l, IV/• (Jo, Ow W • ol IN,..__
ol Adm,_ U.N. Monthly Chronic» VQI. XI~ Jf'/4) p. ...
.1. s. CentnJ AaNmMr 1tato1».• ,z ooax> ~ ll. ,m cnw .,,• ...,,. .._ ..,_.,,
aloll-caUwttolUO ln gw,u,to, . . . . ~ so••• dans}
 lnternatkmal Law and aurnao Right,
. hat' toe right to engage in intermtional trade d ·
:;;;enition irr~spective of any differences ul POr 0
·c otller form~ °,f .::conomie;
. ystem, and that no State shall be subjected to disc . . al, , economic (l..-,d s~ii11
5
solely on suc.h differences. nnunation of ru1y kind based
-· ·~· .Ri&flt to Assodate with Produc;;er OrganisµHon ._ . - .
the right of all States to ~soc.fate in organisati si _ Artkl~ 5 deals Wlth
ow O; primary corllmodity
· · ~ · · ·· so
Produrers · ·· · th
· · that , eco
·· ey may .d-evelop· ·their national
. _5. Right to Participate . in lnh:f!1ational r,;,~~::~Jn
Arn~•~ 10 lays d~wn that all States, bemg juridically equal hawl'r p igl t tu
··
rocess.....
participate fully and effectively in the international dedsion~making ';rC:Ce~ m
the _solution of world economic, financial and monetary pro.ble~, and to share
equ.1tably in the benefits resulting therefrom, · · ··
6. ,Tran.sfer of..Iemnolo.sr· :-Artkle l~ r~"Ogr.tlses the right of every State
1
to benefi~ from .the advan~es and i...e.~elopments in sclence and tedmology for the
accelerahon of lt$ econo~c and SQCJa.J development.
Economic Duties of States :
l. Duty of Promotion, _E . ~sion · and Libe1c1.Usation of World
Trade.-Article 14 provt es ..at every tate as the · u o co-opera e m -
promoting a steady and increasing expansion and liberalizatton of world trade
and an improvement .i n the wellare and living standard. of all peoples, in
particular of developing countries. . .. . . ·
2. Duty of .Utilization of Reaources released by Disarmamen.t .- Article
is of the Owter says that every State has a duty fo promote the acluevement e>f
general and complete disarmament und~ effective internattonal control and
utilizo the resources freed by effective disarmament measures for the economic
and $Odal development of, countrle$, all001ting a substantial position of sqch
resource. .. additional mean,. for the developme.n.t needs of developing
cow,triet.
3. Duty of Most--favoured Nation Treatment.-Article 26 of the Charter
provides that all stales have the duty to co-exist to tolerance and Uve together in
peace, irrespeding of dlfiertn'el in politica~ economic, social and cultural
system, and to ladlitat. trade between States having different economic and
sodaJsyst.em,.
4. Duty of)Jl4cuHM-41,._-Artidt 28 of the Charter recognises that
all Statea shall co-operate In aduevlng adjustments In the prlcea of exports of .
developing countru,, In relation to prket of their Import, so a, to promote just

I
and equJtable term, of trade tor tfwm, In manner whJch 11 rtm\Uletative (or
produce, and equJtabJ. tor produam and conaumm.
5, Duty of Wortcl-wtdt CommodJty AIJ!Cmenu.- Artkle 6 ol the Charter
Jm)Vida that It li Ifie duty of Stifii fo contributf to tho development ol
inlffllldonal trade ol good,, pa,tkularly by meana of amngementa and by the
condusion ol l0ttg-tt'rm multtlatenl commodity as,eoment,. .
The above Ult of ~ rightl arw1 dutlee of Stalel t, not exhaultivt,
However, tf"7 are lundamentaJ for tht econoinic development ol the·States.