TOPIC 2: LEXICAL PREDICATES AND LEXICAL

REQUEREMENTS
This topic introduces the notion of ‘lexicon’ as a linguistic component from which grammatical constructions are
derived.

• We'll focus on lexical entries and on the kind of lexical information that is most relevant for syntax: the lexico-
syntactic features:

→Argument structure: the number and type of arguments involved in an event.

→Subcategorization frame: the number and category of the selected complements.

Lexical predicates (typically verbs) determine the content of a sentence: s-selection and c-selection.

- S-selection: The semantic selection (requirement of the predicate) (e.g., I need a human being to express
this meaning) - Number of arguments.

- C-selection (categorial selection) (predicate will select the category of the complemented – Noun phrase:
“Someone eat pizza” – Number of complement and its category

We'll account for how some verbs can express their arguments in different syntactic positions: THEMATIC
ALTERNATIONS.

Give – He gave me flowers, or He gave flowers to me – Thematic alliteration.

Eat (transitive) – need one object (they don’t make distinction between direct and indirect); But also, the category
of the complement (Someone eat)

Subcategorization: “Someone eat pizza” – Noun phrase

• All sentences in English need a subject (general principal).

• We'll investigate the principles and constraints necessary to build grammatical sentences and to filter out ill-
formed sentences: Theta Criterion, Projection Principle, Subject Requirement, and Expletive insertion.

2.1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICON _______________________________________

The term "lexicon" is understood in several ways:

1. As another component of the grammar of a language, along with syntax, semantics, etc., where lexical items
are described: Linguistics.
2. As the native speaker’s mental lexicon: Psycholinguistics.
3. As a module for natural language processing (data sets): Computational Linguistics.
4. As a synonym of “dictionary”: Lexical Semantics.

The Lexicon is that part of the grammar of a language that includes the lexical entries for all the words in the language:
 “We postulate that speakers of a language are equipped with an internal ‘dictionary’, which we shall refer to as the
mental lexicon, or lexicon, which contains all the information they have internalized concerning the words of their
language” [Haegeman, 1991: 29]

A lexical entry is then that portion of the lexicon detailing the irregular and memorized properties of a single
particular lexical item. Each word is going to include its properties.

• Lexical entries should include, at least, the following information:

→ Phonological information

→ Semantic information

→ Categorial information: what category a word belongs to.

→ Subcategorization information: information about the range of complements a lexical item may have; the type
and number of objects it may subcategorize for: NPs, PPs, ...

→ Argument structure: information about the number of obligatory participants involved in an event and their
semantic type (semantic function): Agents (Do the action), Experiencers, etc. theme (lo que es comido) “Someone
eat pizza” (Alguien come algo)

OBJECT-DELETING VERBS – can omit their object; it doesn’t make them intransitive, implícito – damos por echo que
come comida; se puede omitir. Those verbs are still transitive.

• The last three, that is, categorial information, subcategorization information, and argument structure,
concern the lexico-syntactic components: information that has influence/an impact on syntax. (Only look for
things that make changes and are important in the sentence.

LEXICO – SYNTACTIC COMPONENTS IN LEXICAL ENTRIES

• The most important thing in a sentence is a predicate (is not always a verb)

E.g.:

The boy put the magazine on the table.

Obligatory participants: 3 arguments (participants) – Someone put something in some place.

Complements: 2 (we forget about the subject) – Something in some place

Sleep – One argument (subject); 0 complements

 • Two Types of Requirements:
- Semantic: s-selection = LEXICAL PREDICATE + ARGUMENT (requirement)
- Syntactic (or categorization): c-selection or subcategorization = V* (express the actions) + SUBJECT
AND/OR COMPLEMENT

S-selection a lexical predicate imposes a particular semantic property on the argument(s) it requires:

(2) Bill drank the juice/ !the shrimps (! – weird)

Predicate the shrimps – doesn’t make sense.

* →Is syntactically anomalous, ungrammatical ill-formed
! → Semantically anomalous ¡, semantically ill-formed.

Drink → imposes second argument to be a liquid:

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS = BINARY FEATURES → [+LIQUID] this means that second argument must be a liquid.

(3) Bill poured the juice/the shrimps

Predicate Not required second argument, not obligatory.

(4) The dog / !The table drank the juice

[+ someone] Predicate

Drink → Imposes someone “alive” to do the action.

(5) !The dog poured the juice

[+ human] Predicate

C-selection a lexical predicate imposes the syntactic category of its complements:

(6) Bill drank *red/*in/*that he may go home

(7) Bill drank !the shrimps (grammatically correct – shrimps are noun) (Semantically bad)

(8) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Syntactically and grammatically perfect but semantically make no sense)
The well-formedness of a sentence depends on whether it obeys the selectional requirements of the lexical
predicate, both syntactic (C-selection) and semantic (S-selection).

2.2. S-SELECTION_______________________________________________
➔ achieved by means of the predicate’s selection restrictions: the semantic/pragmatic requirements that a
predicate (mostly a verb) imposes on its arguments.

2. 2.1 Selection restrictions

(9) a.You have convinced [my mother] [___ NP] (C. category)

b. You have convinced [my cat]

c. !You have convinced [my goldfish]

d. ! You have convinced [my computer]

e. !! You have convinced [my frying pan]

f. !!!You have convinced [my theory]

g. !!! You have convinced [my birth]

Selection restrictions: semantic/pragmatic restrictions on the choice of expressions within a given category which
can occupy a sentence position.

(10) a. My mother fainted (desmayarse)

b. My giraffe fainted

c. !My frying-pan fainted

d. !My theory fainted

Predicates impose selection restrictions on all their argument.

BASIC CONCEPTS:

LEXICAL PREDICATE

➔ Word denoting an event or state which must combine with specified participant roles or arguments to make
up the sentence.
➔ It is the lexical item in a sentence that decides which constitutes are semantically obligatory (arguments) and
the one that imposes the specific semantic nature of those argument (s-selcetion) and their category (c-
selection).
 ➔ Every sentence is formed by a lexical predicate. Predicates ascribe a property or a role in a relation, action,
event, etc. to what is represented by their argument or arguments.

ARGUMENT

➔ The constituent that plays a fundamental semantic role as participant involved in a event or state denoted
by the predicate as necessary for the complete understanding of its sense.
➔ And required for the grammatical well-formedness of the linguistic unit in which the predicate appears. It
bears a Theta role, one that is indispensable.
➔ According to Huddleston (1984:182), arguments represent people, animals, or inanimate entities of all sorts.

_____________________________________________________________________________

E.g. (11)

a. Chris gave the present to Pat at the party yesterday

agent theme goal adjunct*

Agent: Do the action

Theme: objeto afectado

Goal: Dictatory

*Adjunct: No obligatory requirement, I can be omitted

*You can omit an argument in syntax when you omit the “goal” that information in their present. The adjunct es
semantically and syntactically optional. That information is not implicit.

b. Chris gave the present to Pat at the party.

c. Chris gave the present to Pat.

d. Chris gave the present.

e. *Chris gave to Pat.

2.3. PREDICATE ________________________________________________

1. Linking verb: contentless copula B:

a. The meat is raw. a’. *The meat is a’’. *The meat raw

It is something like “atributo” in Spanish: The meat is raw – La carne está podrida. Sentences need to tense agreement
(porozumienie czasowe) express and have lexical predicate.
 2. Semi-linking verbs: contentful copulas (i.e., turn, go, get, etc.)

b. He became irritable. b'. *He became b’’. *He irritable

This is aspectual content not semantic. The predicate is an adjective not a verb because we need a inflection (that
attached to verbs).

3. Semantically - defective verbs (A. Ardid):

a. The soup tasted delicious a'. *The soup tasted a’. *The soup delicious

b. feel, sound, smell

Is needed another complement to express and explain the verb. “The soup taste* → taste what? Need to be
complemented. The predicate is both, predicate and the complement. ADVERBS never can be a lexical predicate.

*go – in the meaning of “became” e.g.: “He went crazy”.

5. Secondary predicates (two ideas in same sentence):

a. Peter ate his steak (alone)

Paraphrase: Peter was alone while he was eating his steak

There are 2 propositions; there must be 2 lexical predicates with their arguments.

b. Peter ate his steak (raw) → The stake was raw when Peter ate it.

The verb eat determines that the constituent in subject position must bear the Theta-role Agent: Peter performs the
action of eating. However, alone, the adjectival subject oriented predicate, characterizes Peter, too; so, with respect
to the secondary predicate, Peter does not represent an Agent, but an entity described: ‘subject matter of
description’ or “theme”.

In the case of raw in (14.2), we have again a predicate that is semantically optional (therefore syntactically optional
too and between parentheses). But in this case, it is object oriented: its predictand is the object of the verb: his steak.

Secondary predicate is subject or indeed. It also can de object oriented. Depends of how many ideas are
expressed.

→ DEPICTIVE secondary predicate gives a property of the predictand argument at the time of the situation under
consideration, without any factor of change:

15) a. He died young. (He died when he was young)

b. They departed contented.

→ RESULTATIVE secondary predicate typically occurs with verbs that denote a change of state. The secondary
predicate denotes the state of the predicand argument at the end of the process

c. The pond froze solid. (El lago se congeló) The pond became solid because of freezing.
 d. He painted the fence blue.

Theta-roles make explicit the semantic relation that holds between the lexical predicate and a given argument. We
say that a predicate assigns θ-roles to its arguments, that is, predicates have a thematic structure.

The θ-theory, however, is very sketchy; there is no agreement about how many θ-roles there are and what their
labels are.

Theme: constituent that represents the subject matter1 of the action/state described by the predicate [elaborated
by A. Ardid]. (TEMA; OBJETO DIRECTO)

➔ Affected theme (Patient): an entity which undergoes the effect of some action (a change is
involved).
➔ Unaffected theme:

• an entity described by the predicate.

• an entity that simply represents the subject matter of what is denoted by

the predicate.

Cause: causing factor [non-volitional]. Direct or immediate causation of an action or event. (CAUSA)

1. The avalanche destroyed several houses.

2. John broke the window (unintentionally)

Agent: causing factor [volitional]. The prototypical agent is animate and acts consciously. (AGENTE)

1. The IRA killed three spectators.

2. John broke the window (on purpose).

3. Peter gave Mary a puppy.

Goal: the participant that represents the destination towards which something (a theme) moves (literally or
figuratively). (DESTINATARIO)

1. He passed the book to Mary → Introduces by the preposition to

2. John went home at 6:00 p.m.

3. John received a prize.

Benefactive: the participant benefiting from some action. (BENEFICIARIO)

1. Susan made her son a picture.

2. John sang a song for Helen.

Source: the participant that represents the origin from which something (a theme) moves (Literally or figuratively).
(ORIGEN/LOCATIVO)

1. John returned from Paris.

2. Bill bought a book from a funny old man.

3. John left the room.

Locative: place in which something (a theme) is situated or takes place. (LOCATIVO)

1. John hid the letter under the bed.

2. The book stands on the shelf.

3. This hotel holds 500 people.

Experiencer: the participant that experiences some psychological state or perceptual or intellectual process.
(EXPERIMENTANTE)

1. The destruction of forests worries him. (Sujeto omitido: He)

2. That doctor thinks/knows he is very intelligent.

3. Thunderstorms frighten Bill.

4. John saw the scene.

Instrument: participant that represents how an agent performs an action. (INSTRUMENTO)

1. They broke the window with a hammer.

2. A hammer broke the window.

Time: participant that represents a time reference related to the action/state described by the predicate. (TIEMPO)

1. The conference lasted three hours.

2. We spent three weeks in Paris.

3. We haven't seen each other since October.

Manner: constituent that represents the way the action described by the predicate comes about. (MODO)

1. He dusted the furniture in a good mood.

2. His father dressed the baby with a lot of care.

 Reason: constituent that represents the reason for which the event/state described by the predicate comes about.
(CAUSA)

1. He was suffering due to his sensitiveness.

2. He didn't get the job because of his shyness.

The Theta Criterion (CRITERIO TEMATICO)

a) Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role.

b) Each theta role is assigned to one and only one argument.

28)

a. Sarah bought a new book for Anna. b. *Sarah bought (AGRAMATICAL)

buy → lexical predicate (3 arguments); buy → lexical predicate (3 arguments);

Sara → argument (Agent); Sara → argument (Agent);

a new book → argument (Theme); ∅ ? → (Theme);

for Anna → argument (Benefactive) ∅ ? → (Benefactive)

c. *Sarah bought a new book an old DVD for Anna

buy → lexical predicate (3 arguments);

Sara →argument (Agent);

a new book → (Theme);

an old DVD → ∅ ?;

for Anna → (Benefactive)

Predicates – S-selection

Predicates can be classified according to the number of arguments they are associated with or their valency: the
number of arguments that the predicate need to be grammatical (monovalent, bivalent, trivalent)

Every argument required by a predicate is assigned a variable (x, y or z) and each variable is identified with a theta-
role in the thematic structure or grid. This information makes up the argument structure of a predicate.

➔ In linguistics, every argument required by a predicate is assigned a variable (x, y or z) and each variable is
identified with a theta-role in the thematic structure. This information makes up the argument structure of a
predicate.
(32)

a. imitates (x, y) Bivalent

x = Agent, y = Theme

b. stumble (x) Monovalent

x = Theme

(33)

smile (x) Bivalent (semantically it needs two arguments but the second one can be omitted.

x = Agent

(34)

understand (x, <y>* → This mean that the argument is optional and in can be omitted

x = Experiencer, y = Theme

(35)

put (x, y, z)

x = Agent, y = Theme, z = Locative

2.4 C-selection: Subcategorization frame _________________________

(36)

1. Roger will imitate John

2. Charles will abandon the race

(37)

1. *Roger will imitate

2. *Charles will abandon

The subcategorization frame encodes information about the range of complements (= internal arguments) a predicate
requires. We say that a verb [imitate] subcategorizes for or selects an NP. The structure called ‘subcategorization
frame formalizes the c-selection of a predicate, that is, the number and category of the complements selected by a
predicate.

In more recent terminology, we say that an item (= predicate) subcategorizes for a particular range of complements.
The information about the number of complements (= internal arguments) a verb subcategorizes for, plus the
categorial nature of these complements, is known as its subcategorization frame.

(38)

a. imitate [ ____ NP] b. abandon [ ____ NP]

Here we are going to see the difference between D. object and I. Object. Imitate – someone imitate something (one
complement, two arguments). The complement must be a noun phrase and we express it like: [ ____ NP]. Complement
is a syntactic notion but it need to perfectly match between semantics and syntax. Complements = internal arguments.

Any verb phrase consists in a verb and its complements → the complement must appear next to the verb (is needed
by it) They must surface in the structure right next to the verb.

Adjuncts provide extra information, they are never including in subcategorization frame (Subject nether). Adjuncts
are external arguments, so every sentence need a Subject, they apply to all English sentences.

Argument structure vs. Subcategorization frame

a. put (x, y, z) a’. put [_____NP PP/AdvP]

b. send (x, y, <z>) b’. send [_____NP <PPto>]

c. drink (x, <y>) c’. drink [_____<NP>]

d. fear (x, y) d’. fear [_____ NP]

e. snore (x) e’. snore [_____]

f. alone (x) f’. alone [_____]

g. angry (x, <y>) g’. angry [_____<PPat/about>]

h. on (x, <y>) h’. on [_____<NP>]

We leave out of subcategorization frames:

➔ Subject: it is not idiosyncratic of a particular verb whether one of its arguments is external or not: when a verb
forms a sentence, one of its arguments will eventually occupy the position of subject necessarily. This is not a
property that distinguishes verbs from each other. It’d be redundant, given that every sentence needs a
subject.
➔ Adjuncts: they combine with most predicates; they don’t perform a fundamental role as participants because
they are semantically and syntactically optional. They are not idiosyncratic. They can always be added.

Inflection + Position of the subject

 ➔ Intransitive verb no complements (e.g., run); verbs that need one complement (e.g., imitate) C

English Clauses can have 1, 2, or 3 central participants:

• Intransitive verb (1 participant)

•

Monotransitive verbs: one complement is subcategorized for.

1. John fears the teacher on Mondays

2. John fears the teacher

3. *John fears

4. fear [ ____NP]

Optional complements can be left unspecified – if so, they are implicit arguments, that is, understood arguments
(either recoverable from the linguistic/extralinguistic context or generic). (e.g., eat → He eat.: we understand that he
is eating food)

1. John won't help/understand Mary

2. John won't help/understand

3.

a. help [ ____ <NP>] b. understands [ ____<NP>]

Ditransitive verbs: two complements are subcategorized for.

1. John gave the letter to the police

2. John blamed the incident on Mary

3. Television can distract you from your work

4. John's friends dissuaded him from his plan

5.

a. give [ ____ NP <PPto>]

b. blame [ ____ NP <PPon>]

c. distract [ ____ NP <PPfrom>]

d. dissuade [ ____ NP <PPfrom>]

Idiosyncratic information: the verb already expresses the argument that they need.
(43) Sara will imitate Roger with enthusiasm at home every morning from 9 to 10 because...

2.5 AMBIGUITY __________________________________________________

I met Mary drunk.

2 predicates – One is the main and other is the secondary, impose arguments.

1- I met Mary when I was drunk.

2- Mary was drunk when I met her.

I met Mary drunk

Agent Main predicate Theme Secondary Predicate

Explication:

This sentence is ambiguity because secondary Predicate “drunk” can be subject or object oriented. It can take Mary
(object) as reference Mary was drunk when I met her.

In the second interpretation drunk take the reference of subject “I” meaning I met Mary when I was drunk.

The Key is the selective restriction, “drunk” imposes that the argument has to me human [+human] or [+animate]

Summary

Two layer of analysis and their terminology:

Semantic layer: lexical predicate + arguments (external and internal) + adjuncts

Syntactic layer: verb (or A, N, P) + Subject + Complements + adjunct

2.6 The Projection Principle ______________________________________

→ Lexical information is syntactically represented: Lexicon → Grammar.

(46) imitate: (x,y) where: x: Agent and y: Theme (Argument structure)

[ ____ NP] (Subcategorization frame)

(47) put: (x,y,z) where x: Agent; y:Theme; z: Locative

[_____ NP (y) PP (z) / AdvP]

(48) run: (x) where x: Theme

(49) rain: [_____]

2.7. Verb alternation

→ A verb that enters an alternation expresses its arguments in different syntactic positions. In other words, there
exists an option in the syntactic expression of the arguments of a predicate.

Alternations involving arguments within the VP (internal arguments – y,x)

Alteration involving the transitivity of the verb (transitivity x)

The behavior of a verb, particularly with respect to the expression and interpretation of its arguments, is to a large
extent determined by its meaning.

2.7.1 Alternations involving arguments within the VP.

• Dative alternation: There is an option in the syntactic expression of the Theme and Goal internal arguments:
Verbs: act of giving; verbs id sending, verbs of instrument of communication; verbs of transfer of a message.

The alternation in between the double abject frame:

Double object frame: Jim gave Ann a bike

Prepositional frame: Jim gave a bike to Ann.

Ex:

Give (x, y, z) → Someone(x) give something (y) to someone (z)

X: Agent

Y: Theme

Z: goal

[________ <NP> NP] → NP as a Goal and Theme

[_______ NP <PP to>] → NP as a Theme and PP as a Goal where <PP> is not obligatory and we can omit it (syntactically
we don need it)

2.7.2 Alternations involving arguments within the VP: Benefactive

• Benefactive alternation: Alternation in the syntactic expression of the Theme and the Benefactive internal
arguments.
Verbs: build verbs, prepare verbs, verbs of performance, get verbs
Exercises
3b. All of the following sentences are violations of the Theta Criterion. Identify what NP (or lack thereof) is creating
the problem and how it creates a violation of the Theta Criterion.

a) *Calvin Bought Andrew a stature a painting

b) *Calvin rains
c) *Louis loves

*Louis Loves (experience) A phycological state, then Louis is an experience. The predicate need two arguments
(experiencer and theme)

Love: (X,Y) where X: EXPERINCER SUBJECT “louis” and Y: Theme [---- ]; The Theta Criterion → Violation II.

d) !!The spinach ice-cream despised jalapeño – flavoured hard candy.

Despise (x,y) Experiencer [+human] [+animal] and theme

Selection restrictions.

There is no violation of the theta criteria because argument get ant hetaa role. But there is something that must be
obeyed: The selection restrictions______ Despise need an experincer therefore needs to be [+Human] [+animated]

4. C-selection and subcategorization frames. In terms of c-selection restrictions, explain why the following sentences
are ungrammatical. Provide the subcategorization frame of each predicate, too.

a) *The man located (finding)

b) *Jesus wept the apostles

c) *Robert is hopeful of his children

d) *Robert is fond that his children love animals

e) *The children laughed the man

➔ Projection Principle: Argument must be syntactically expressed.

Located: The second argument that is missing which is the one that must occupy the complement position. There is no
second argument syntactically expressed. Argument that the “located” impose. The NP complement is not syntactically
expressed (what located needs)

Locate: (x,y) x= Agent y= Theme [___NP]

THE AGENT IS THE SUBJECT “THE MAN” tthereIS A VIOLATION OF. BECAUSE THERE IS NO SECOND ARGUMENT
SINTACTIVALLY EXPRESSED AS THE AS THE ARGUMENT
Argument in distinctive syntactic position

There are several, but we are going to focus on two:

1. Alternation Involving Alternations [verbs than can express the Y and the Z argument]

• Dative shift: Verbs of sending, verbs of transfer, verbs that imply that you possess something, and you want
to give it to someone.

The second type involver the tractability of the verb, because the X argument can be omitted.

Gift [Y and Z]

The sun melted the Snowman, or the Snowman melted

If in one construction what we find is two NP. This syntactic form is called ‘double object Frame’.

Gift [can express the Y and Z that is theme and goal in two constructions]

e) John rolled the ball down the hill (transitive structure) = CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTION
f) The ball rolled down the hill (intransitive structure) = ANTICAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTION
(60) a. roll

(61) roll

(x, y)
x = agent y = theme [ ____ NP]
g

y
(<x>, y)
x = agent y = theme
[ ____ NP]
g

b. roll (x)
x = theme
[ ____ ]
4. C-selection and subcategorization frames. In terms of c-selection restrictions, explain why the following
sentences are ungrammatical. Provide the subcategorization frame of each predicate, too.
a) *The man located
b) *Jesus wept the apostles. INTRANSITIVE VERB
Weep (x) x = agent
Weep in his first verb is intransitive, the projection principle has not been followed.

c) *Robert is hopeful of his children Copula B cannot function as the lexical predicate because it does not have meaning.
Hopeful needs two arguments. X: experiencer y: Theme
<y> hopeful: (x, <y>). To include the lexical entry [___ <PPabout>] Projection principle
Acord de syntactic analysis, Robert is the experiencer; hopeful is a monotranstitive verb (someone is hopefub about
something) and accord to Copula B “is” cannot function as the lexical predicate because it does not have meaning. Also
the proyection principle has no been followed because the lexical information must be syntactically protected. In this
case is not the *[_______PP to] but [______ PP about].
Idiosyncratic behaviour of Hopeful

d) *Robert is fond that his children love animals

The project has not been followed because the subcategorization frame of Fond specifies that requieres the preopistion
of as we can see in the subcategorization frame.
According to the projecting principle Fond need to be followed
Syntactic requirement

e) *The children laughed the man

Lexical entry: laugh (x, <y>) x= Agent;y=theme

[___ <PPat >]
/
Y
As the subcategorization frame or the lexical entry shows

Netherlands

Countries

Cities

Animals

Food