1 s2.0 S2214289422000849 Main

Food Packaging and Shelf Life 33 (2022) 100892
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food Packaging and Shelf Life

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fpsl
Novel biopolymer-based sustainable composites for food packaging

applications: A narrative review
Muhammad Yasir Khalid *, 1, Zia Ullah Arif *, 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Management & Technology Lahore, Sialkot Campus, 51041, Pakistan
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In the contemporary era of nutrition science, food industries are facing myriad challenges in assuring quality
Biopolymers food with extended shelf life and long-term preservation. Biopolymer-based sustainable and biodegradable food
Biodegradability packaging materials have helped the industries to meet these challenges. Additionally, these eco-friendly ma
Biopolymeric composites
terials are also alleviating the environmental concerns associated with plastic-related pollution due to their
Packaging
Sustainable materials
excellent biodegradability, renewability, bioavailability, and non-toxicity. Herein, biopolymer-based food
packaging materials and their composites, their biodegradation mechanisms, and the effect of nano-additives on
the food packaging properties are presented. This review also elucidates ongoing research investigations for
meeting current challenges by using these environmentally benign materials in food packaging applications. It is
anticipated that the implementation of green technology could help in improving food quality and safety while
reducing food loss and plastic waste, which will assist in achieving environmental sustainability goals.
1. Introduction food as well as increase the possibility of foodborne pathogens

(Haghighi et al., 2019; Jayakumar et al., 2021; M. K et al., 2019). Food
Food packaging plays a pivotal role in preserving food by creating a spoilage also accounted for economic losses, which is greater than 25 %
protective layer around the food. Food packaging not only helps in of the consumed food (Chawla et al., 2021). To overcome these issues,
preserving quality and maintaining safety, but also aids in expanding the valiant efforts have been made by the researchers to develop new food
product packaging life against any chemical, biological, environmental, preserving strategies (V. & Badwaik, 2022). Nowadays, the incorpora
or physical damages throughout transport and storage (Haghighi et al., tion of different food additives helps to prevent bacterial spoilage during
2020; Silveira et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2022). Microbial contaminations long-term food protection (Gasti et al., 2022, Hadidi et al., 2022; Hari
contribute to the spoilage of food products and reduce the shelf life of et al., 2018). Properly designed active agent carriers are released in a
Abbreviations: ALG, Alginic acid; ANCC, Nanocrystalline cellulose; APTMS, Aminopropyl trimethoxy silane; BC, Bacterial cellulose; BCA, Blackcurrant antho
cyanins; CA, Cellulose acetate; CBO, Cinnamon bark oil; CEO, Cinnamon essential oil; CNC, Cellulose nanocrystals; CNF, Cellulose nanofiber; ChNC, Chitin nano
crystal; CMC, Carboxymethyl cellulose; COVID-19, Global coronavirus disease of 2019; CQD, Carbon quantum dot; CSE, Coconut shell extract (CSE); DACP,
Dialdehyde cellophane; ECL, Ethyl cellulose; EWNS, Engineered water nanostructure; GBPF, Green banana peel filler; GG, Guar gum; GLY, Glycerol; GO, Graphene
oxide; HNT, Halloysite nanotubes; HPP, High pressure processing; HTCC, 2-N-Hydroxypropyl-3-trimethylammonium chloride chitosan; HPβCD, 2-hydroxypropyl-
β-cyclodextrin; KF, Kenaf Fiber; KGM, Konjac glucomannan; LBG, Locust bean gum; LBL, Layer-by-layer; LCA, Life-cycle analysis; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene;
LMP, Lignin microparticle; MOSF, Moringa Oleifera (Sahajana) seed filler; MMT, Montmorillonite; MSW, Mango seed wax; MWCNT, Multi-walled carbon nanotube;
NCF, Nanocellulose fiber; NF, Natural fiber; NLPs, Nanoliposomes; NP, Nano-particles; PAMAM, Polyamide amine; PBAT, Polybutylene adipate terephthalate; PBS,
Poly(butylene succinate); PBSA, Poly(butylene succinate adipate); PBH, Polyhydroxybutyrate; PCL, Polycaprolactone; PE, Polyethylene; PEO, Poly(ethylene oxide);
PET, Poly(ethylene terephthalate); PETG, Polyethylene terephthalate glycol; PGA, Poly(glycolic acid); PGHP, Pistachio green hull pectin; PHA, Poly(hydrox
yalkanoate); PHB, Poly(hydroxybutyrate); PHBV, Poly(hydroxybutyrate-valerate); PLA, Polylactic acid; PLGA, Poly(lactide-co-glycolide); POSS, Polyhedral oligo
meric silsesquioxane; PPC, Poly(propylene carbonate); PVA, Poly vinyl alcohol; PVP, Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone); RB, Rose Bengal; SA, Sodium alginate; SBB, Starch-
based bioplastics; SCSE, Syzygium cumini seeds extract; SEM, Scanning electron microscope; SP, Sepiolite clay; TA, Tannic acid; TPG, Thermoplastic gluten; TPS,
Thermoplastic starch; UV, Ultraviolet; WPI, Protein isolate; ZEO, Zataria multiflora essential oil.
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.Y. Khalid), [email protected] (Z.U. Arif).
1
Both authors have contributed equally to this manuscript.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100892
Received 24 December 2021; Received in revised form 25 April 2022; Accepted 10 June 2022
Available online 21 June 2022
2214-2894/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.Y. Khalid and Z.U. Arif Food Packaging and Shelf Life 33 (2022) 100892
controlled fashion upon food contact that protects foods for long periods
(Pinto et al., 2021; Sobhan et al., 2021; Tyuftin & Kerry, 2021). Addi
tionally, these carriers are suitable replacements for standard preser
vation procedures in which food incorporates active agents without
changing organoleptic properties including appearance, color, flavor,
aroma, and taste (Mugwagwa & Chimphango, 2022).
High pressure processing (HPP) food packaging uses flexible
petroleum-based plastics which are causing severe environmental
threats due to their low compostability and biodegradability (Bangar
et al., 2021; Kurczewska et al., 2021; Yong & Liu, 2020). Oceans contain
almost 85 % of plastic waste which is seriously harming the environment
and biodiversity (Arif et al., 2022a; Haghighi et al., 2021; Rojas et al.,
2021). Furthermore, the consumption of synthetic polymer is continu
ously growing with time. It was reported that the total cumulative
growth of non-biodegradable plastic waste will exceed 25 billion metric
tons by 2050. Furthermore, as per estimation, over 8 billion tons of
plastics have been produced till now from the last 70 years (Kartik et al.,
2021; Meereboer et al., 2020; Zoungranan et al., 2020). It is anticipated Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of different steps of biodegradation mechanism
that both natural- and synthetic-based plastics will grow at 13 % per (Haider et al., 2019) (Adapted with permission) .(Copyright 2019 Wiley-VCH
annum from 2020 to 2023. Furthermore, synthetic polymers possess a Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
serious threat to our environment due to their waste accumulation and
result in plastic fragments found everywhere in the biosphere, including (COVID-19) pandemic. However, petroleum-based plastic materials take
living organisms (Barati et al., 2019; Morales et al., 2021; Takeshita decades to decompose which will further worsen the environmental
et al., 2020). However, recycling of synthetic polymers is a viable and sustainability. Therefore, the replacement of these plastic materials is
sustainable solution but recovering polymers from recycling techniques crucial for conserving our environment (Karmanov et al., 2021; Luck
has limited applications and properties (Chan et al., 2018; Khalid et al., achan & Pillai, 2011; Taniguchi et al., 2019).
2021a; Thyavihalli Girijappa et al., 2019). Eventually, the fate of these In this contemporary world, there are plentiful opportunities for
recyclable materials ended up in landfills. According to European Union industrial sectors to advance toward a cleaner, sustainable and greener
(EU) Waste Management, the least consideration should be given to atmosphere. These long-term goals can be achieved by consuming
landfilling of waste. This motivates researchers to shift towards the different biopolymers which offer different advantages including
consumption of naturally available materials, which have no waste abundant availability in nature, reasonable mechanical properties, and
disposable problems (Khalid et al., 2022a; Sommer & Walther, 2021; easily biodegradable. At present, different biopolymers contribute
Závodská et al., 2014). It is estimated that approximately 45 % of worldwide to the rapidly growing markets. It is estimated that by 2025
non-biodegradable plastics are employed for food packaging (Tamba all the leading plastic packaging manufacturers will start producing
wala et al., 2022). packing materials, which are 100 % recyclable, biodegradable, and
Sustainability provides a balance between the “triple P” that includes completely reusable (Abdou et al., 2021; Kanmani et al., 2017; Yu et al.,
people, planet, and profit. Sustainable motive always keeps in the hunt 2016). Additionally, biopolymers and their composites have potential
for renewable and bioresources for researchers due to the different applications in different fields including drug delivery, packaging, tex
factors associated with “P” including limited petroleum-based products, tiles, agricultural, disposable materials, and automotive applications
and an ecofriendly environment (Hamed et al., 2022). (Arif et al., 2022b; Bátori et al., 2018; Sadasivuni et al., 2020). Growing
Biopolymer-based materials are best for developing novel sustainable through this rate the global market of biopolymers should reach a total
solutions (Agarwal et al., 2021; Kostag & Seoud, 2021; Usal et al., 2021). of $22.3 billion in 2022 which was $15.6 billion in 2016.
Due to this reason, the world is considering to substitute
petroleum-based plastics with biodegradable-based sustainable mate 1.1. Review methodology
rials, with or without the incorporation of natural fibers (NFs) (Khalid,
Arif, Sheikh, & Nasir, 2021b; Khalid, Al Rashid, Arif, Sheikh, Arshad, & Currently, there is a significant need for studies especially devoted to
Nasir, 2021a; Khalid, Al Rashid, Abbas, Akram, Arif, & Márquez, 2021b, the manufacturing of biodegradable materials. There can be influential
2021c). Therefore, environment-friendly biodegradable polymers pref ways to tackle the issue of the large consumption of plastics in food
erably bio-based polymers including polybutylene succinate (PBS), packaging applications. To our best knowledge, there are only a few
polylactic acid (PLA), and polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) studies that address the importance of biodegradable composites.
are employed for the packaging purposes (Gan & Chow, 2018; Peigh Therefore, in continuation of previous studies, this work presents the
ambardoust et al., 2019; Swapna Joseph et al., 2011; Wang et al., general overview of different biodegradable polymers along with their
2022a). comparison in terms of their utilization, the maximum percentage of
The impulsive forces for employing biopolymers as packaging ma biodegradability achieved in the number of days, and mechanical
terials are a sustainable environment, stringent laws regarding pollu properties. Thus, providing readers with an organized and comprehen
tion, and disposal of plastic waste (Göksen et al., 2021). Moreover, sive review of biodegradable polymers. Additionally, this review also
biopolymers help in reducing municipal solid waste, CO2 emissions, as highlights some novel approaches that improve food quality and shelf
well as reliance on petroleum-based resources (Ma et al., 2022). Pack life. Cost control and environmental issues can be addressed through the
aging materials require excellent tensile properties and permeability effective utilization of biodegradable composites in industrial sectors.
(Delamarche et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Najafi, 2013). Aliphatic poly The literature review was planned and conducted keeping the following
esters are one of the most propitious biodegradable polymers employed points:
for the development of bioplastics (Moeini et al., 2021). Among poly
esters, commercially available PBS has been vastly applied for devel • Analysis of biodegradable polymers and their composites based on
oping high-performance bioplastics (Ayu et al., 2020; George et al., previous investigations.
2020; Oliveira et al., 2018). The packaging of food by using plastic • Summarize and critically reviewing the important results on biode
plates has become essential after the global coronavirus disease of 2019 gradability of biopolymeric sustainable materials.
2
metabolites are produced due to the uptake of small molecules into

microbial cells (Nikolaivits et al., 2021). In the final step, mineralization
of these metabolites occurs which results in the formation of end
products including CH4, CO2, N2, and H2O and released into the atmo
sphere (Goel et al., 2021).
Depending upon the environment, biodegradation of biopolymers
occurs in two different ways: aerobic degradation and anaerobic
degradation (Wen et al., 2021a). In aerobic degradation,
micro-organisms disintegrate organic contaminants in the presence of
oxygen/air, whereas, anaerobic biodegradation occurs without the
presence of oxygen/air and CH4 is produced in place of CO2 gas (Alves
Lopes et al., 2020; Sarkar et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2021). Different mi
croorganisms present in both techniques accelerate the degradation
process, as shown in Fig. 2.
The reuse of recycled polymers does not eliminate hazardous sub
stances. The only remedy is to mitigate environmental concerns by using
biodegradable polymers (Athukoralalage et al., 2019; Kakadellis et al.,
2021; Xie et al., 2018). The biodegradation of polymer occurs via two
main routes: biotic and abiotic. Furthermore, the degradation is gener
ally influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors (Sohn et al., 2020).
Biotic factors incorporate naturally occurring micro-organisms
including fungi, algae, and bacteria, whereas abiotic include tempera
Fig. 2. Biodegradation process of biopolymers (Bátori et al., 2018) (Adapted ture, light, or mechanical stress parameters (Siracusa, 2019). Upon
with permission). exposure to weathering conditions, biopolymer transformation occurs
due to mechanical, chemical, thermal, or light action. Fig. 3 illustrates
• Provide a brief overview of recent studies on biopolymer-based food different degradation pathways which include mechanical degradation,
packaging materials. photodegradation, thermo-oxidative degradation, and hydrolytic
• Provide the future research directions for food packaging degradation occurs to perform the decomposition of the biopolymers
applications. (Chen et al., 2021; Jubinville et al., 2021; Luz et al., 2020, Oosterbeek
et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021). These mechanisms affect
2. Biodegradability the mechanical characteristics of biopolymers, for instance, biopolymers
exhibit brittle nature upon ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. The chemical
Biopolymers consist of a chain network of macromolecules, which degradation of biopolymers containing heteroatoms including amides,
are acquired from natural sources through enzymatic or chemical anhydrides, esters, or urethanes occurs through the hydrolysis process.
polymerization. These polymers have the ability to degrade through the This process proceeds either through a surface or bulk erosion mecha
action of enzymes or micro-organisms (Feig et al., 2018). The degra nism (Chamas, 2020).
dation of biopolymer is divided into four steps: biodeterioration, depo The understanding of the life cycle of biopolymer-based biodegrad
lymerization, bio-assimilation, and mineralization, as illustrated in able materials is imperative which ultimately urge their effective use in
Fig. 1. In biodeterioration, biopolymeric materials are converted into many food packaging consumer products including salad cups, drinking
small fragments due to the development of the microbial film. cups, disposable cutlery, plates as well as containers for the fast-food
Micro-organisms of biofilm secrete extracellular enzymes, which pro industry (Nitkiewicz et al., 2020). Life cycle analysis (LCA) of bio
mote the depolymerization of polymer networks into monomers, dimers, polymers determines their potential environmental impacts on devel
or oligomers. In bio-assimilation process, primary and secondary oped products throughout their stages including the selection of raw
Fig. 3. Different types of biodegradation process.
3
Fig. 4. Life cycle of biodegradable composite materials.
materials, production, distribution, functional use, and safe disposal further classified into vegetable proteins (wheat gluten, soybean, corn
(Hottle et al., 2017; Kabir et al., 2020; Khalid et al., 2021d; Moretti, zein) and animal-based proteins (collagen, whey, casein, gelatin)
2021). However, the LCA of biopolymers provides limited or no infor (Chavoshizadeh et al., 2020; Priyadarshi et al., 2021a; Rather et al.,
mation regarding their social, ethical, and economic aspects (Yates & 2022). Fig. 5 depicts the classification of the biodegradable polymers
Barlow, 2013). Fig. 4 depicts that biopolymers are derived from natural along with their general comparison.
resources. Polysaccharides, proteins, and their derivatives which are widely
Some extensive modifications are made for stabilizing the behavior applied for developing packages can be polymerized into rigid and
of biopolymers through some traditional manufacturing process or by brittle materials. Polysaccharides- and proteins-based films are manu
adding some synthetic or other natural materials and consumer items factured through a casting technique (Thomas et al., 2020). This tech
are developed (Khalid et al., 2021e). At the end-of-life stage, these items nique involves two main steps for manufacturing films (Chakraborty
are mostly disposed of in a soil environment, which evaluates their et al., 2022). The first step includes the dispersion or dissolution of
biodegradation in soil (RameshKumar et al., 2020). However, there are biodegradable polymers into suitable solvents and in the second step,
also other ways including photo-oxidative, thermal and catalytic to biopolymers evaporate in a controlled environment (Ortiz-Duarte et al.,
evaluate the biodegradation of biopolymers (Yang et al., 2019a). The 2021). Similarly, other traditional dry manufacturing routes including
soil environment incorporates a large variety of microorganisms injection molding, compression, and extrusion can be performed on the
including bacteria and fungi that can use biopolymers as their source of biopolymers.
energy and convert it to CO2, water, and new biomass which later Flexibility, extensibility, and moisture-response of food packaging
indirectly contributes to the synthesis of many biopolymers (Wróblew films can be improved by mixing plasticizers with lipids. This is due to
ska-Krepsztul et al., 2018). different forms of lipids (carnauba wax and beeswax) which improve
film barrier characteristics and are employed for manufacturing pro
3. Biopolymers tective emulsion coatings in packaging films (Zubair et al., 2021).
However, plasticizers modify the food aroma as well as increases the air
Different conditions including moisture content, temperature, and permeability of films (Monção et al., 2022). Polymers including poly
rancidity play an important role in maintaining the food quality (Kumar caprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoate)
et al., 2022a). Biopolymer-based materials, the subclass of bioplastics (PHA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(butylene succinate adipate)
and biodegradable plastics, have spellbound the food packaging in (PBSA), poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), xanthan, poly
dustry in recent years (Khalid et al., 2021f). HPP biopolymer-based (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), polypropylene carbonate (PPC), bacte
packaging materials are naturally extracted from lipids, proteins, rial cellulose, pullulan, gellan, and poly(hydroxybutyrate-valerate)
aliphatic polyesters, or polysaccharides and are considered possible re (PHBV) and other copolymers are developed through chemical hydro
placements for traditional plastics due to their biocompatibility, safety, lysis in the aqueous solution (Kamdem et al., 2019; Rosli et al., 2021;
and rate of biodegradation (Daria et al., 2020; Horue et al., 2021; Vinod Sharma et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2019b). The chemical structures of these
et al., 2020). These sustainable materials are obtained from cattle, biopolymers have been elaborated in Fig. 5.
agricultural, or fish farming. Natural micro-organisms rapidly degrade Biopolymer-based materials offer opportunities to be vastly
these polymers under appropriate temperature, moisture, and oxygen employed in the food packaging industry due to their renewable,
without any environmental problems (Garrido-Romero et al., 2022). biodegradable, environmentally benign, and non-toxic nature (Hazarika
Polysaccharides incorporate cellulose, alginate, starch, chitosan, pectin, et al., 2014). Furthermore, these polymers offer excellent heat resis
gum, carrageenan, pullulan, or their derivatives (Meindrawan et al., tance, and gas barrier properties, and can be easily processed into films,
2018). Lipids and protein films exhibit limited utilization in food coatings, and trays. However, high cost, high permeability, and low
packaging applications. According to the origin, the group of proteins is mechanical performance are hindering their utilization for the
4
Fig. 5. Classification of different biodegradable polymers and general comparison of their biodegradability.
packaging of foods (Jafarzadeh & Jafari, 2021). It is vital to overcome applications. Additionally, the infusion of bio-based particles such as
low-heat distortion temperature, brittleness, and high vapor and gas lignocellulosic fibers in these biopolymers significantly improves the
permeability of biopolymers for their food packaging applications (Lima mechanical characteristics (Khalid et al., 2021h; Zhang et al., 2022a;
et al., 2021; Omerović et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2022). Žiūkaitė et al., 2022). Sometimes, cellulose and its derivatives are mixed
Some natural biopolymers including starch, chitosan, gelatin, and with different anti-bacterial materials to form composite films, which
cellulose are widely applied in food packaging applications (Khalid are highly effective for food preservation in the packaging industry (Liu
et al., 2021g). For instance, cellulose is vastly employed for food pres et al., 2021). Similarly, chitosan exhibits excellent film-forming prop
ervation, packaging, healthcare, consumer goods, and automotive erties and antimicrobial activity, which makes them attractive green
5
Fig. 6. Compost burial behavior of PVA/TPS film at different time points; (a1) Visual appearance; (a2) SEM images depicting biodegradable mechanism (Pantelic
et al., 2021) (adapted with permission); (b) Visual appearance of multi-filament PLA/PHB fabrics under different days of degradation and different conditions
immersion time (Bao et al., 2022) (adapted with permission); (c) SEM images depicting the degradation behavior of PLA/CA-based film (Huang et al., 2022) (adapted
with permission) (Copyright 2021 Springer Nature).
materials for food preservation and packaging applications (Kumar (Liu et al., 2020). Furthermore, different functional properties including
et al., 2020). These films are developed through coating, dipping, emulsifying tendency, foam- and film-forming property, and
spraying, or wrapping by films (Cui et al., 2020). Sometimes, chitosan is water-binding ability, make this material highly suitable for food
blended with other biopolymers including lipids, proteins, and poly packaging (Lu et al., 2022). Alginate-based films have also gained
saccharides for improving its functionality as packaging material (Wang considerable attention for extending the shelf life and improving the
et al., 2018). quality of meat, vegetable, seafood, poultry, cheese, and fruit by mini
Starch is another biopolymer, which has made a major stride in the mizing dehydration, improving mechanical characteristics, and con
preservation and packaging of food, due to its extraordinary properties trolling permeability (Gundewadi et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2018; Kumar
including abundancy, sustainability, and biodegradability (Niranjana et al., 2022b).
Prabhu & Prashantha, 2018). Additionally, it can be blended with
modifiers and other polymers for improving the barrier, thermal, and 3.1. Biopolymer-based nanocomposites
mechanical properties of films (Lauer & Smith, 2020). Thermoplastic
starch (TPS), a derivative of native starch is usually employed for the Traditional packaging technology uses non-degradable polymer
formulation of biodegradable packaging. Gelatin is extracted from composites, which causes severe environmental impacts on the human
collagen through partial or full hydrolysis and possesses excellent bar health and land fertility by impeding the flow rate of oxygen in the soil
rier and mechanical properties. Additionally, gelatin-based polymer (Huang & Wang, 2022). To overcome this issue, biopolymeric sustain
films exhibit excellent physical strength due to the triple helical struc able composites are employed in the food industry (As’ad Mahpuz et al.,
ture (Luo et al., 2022). The presence of amino groups helps in absorbing 2022). These composites are obtained by amalgaming two or more
UV radiations, which prevents oxidative damage to packed food items biopolymeric materials with or without the incorporation of
6
Table 1
Compilation of the recent work on the biodegradability of different NFs, polymers and their composites.
Biopolymers/ Fillers/Additives Types of degradation Degradation Key notes on biodegradability Ref.
Biocomposites time
Ramie-PLA HNT Microbiological 60 days HNT increased the biodegradability of ramie-PLA (Sharma et al., 2021)
composites environment composites
PVA/starch – Enzymatic environment 30-40 min The enzymatic degradation rates of the various PVA/ (Guo et al., 2021)
starch films had no effect on the Diels-Alder bonding.
PVA GBPF Microbiological 30 days The higher composition of GBPF in PVA/GBPF bio (Balavairavan &
environment films improves its biodegradability. Saravanakumar, 2021)
Starch-PLA – Compost environment 46 days The biodegradation of different samples was found as (Gürler et al., 2021)
9.30 %, 5.45 % and 5.08 %.
PVA MgO Microbiological 70 days MgO/PVA-based film exhibited better (Kalyani &
environment biodegradability than neat PVA. Muthupandeeswari,
2022)
KF/PLA-based MMT clay filler Microbiological 10, 30 and The biodegradability of KF/PLA hybrid (Ramesh et al., 2021)
biocomposites environment 90 days biocomposites decreased due to addition of MMT
clay.
Starch GO/Bi2WO6 Photocatalytic 240 min The strongest visible light degradation activity was (Xie et al., 2020)
environment achieved at 0.5 % addition of GO in GBW/starch
composite film
PLA/chitosan Chitosan Microbiological 120–145 days Biodegradability of different PLA/Chitosan (Kalita et al., 2021)
composite environment composites were found in the order of 80.5-97 %.
PLA/PCL-based Silk Hydrolytic degradation 7 days Hydrolytic degradation confirmed that silk NPs (Dadras Chomachayi
composite improved the thermos-mechanical properties of et al., 2021)
recycled PLA/PCL blend.
PLA/wood-based Wood Photocatalytic and – Biodegradation of composite increased when wood (Galyavetdinov et al.,
composite microbiological filler contents increased up to 60 % of mass. 2020)
environment
TPS Chitosan Microbiological 20 days The chitosan filler decreases the maximum water (Balla et al., 2021)
environment uptake of composites and reduces significantly the
water sorption rate
PLA/PHB composites Keratin/ Hydrolytic degradation 30 days 10,000 g/mol loss in molecular mass were noted after (Mosnáčková et al., 2020)
acetyltributyl citrate 1 month of hydrolytic degradation.
PHB/graphene Graphene Microbiological 30 days Almost 100 % degradation was achieved after 30 (Manikandan et al., 2020)
nanocomposites nanoplatelets environment days.
PVA MOSF Microbiological 90 days Biodegradation rate in MOSF/PVA film was higher (Mishra & Sinha, 2021)
environment than that of neat PVA film.
PVP/PVA SnO2 Photocatalytic – SnO2 addition made PVP/PVA-based nanocomposites (Sengwa & Dhatarwal,
environment film ideal for the advanced biodegradable 2021)
optoelectronic devices.
TPS Jute fiber Microbiological 60 days The addition of jute fiber increased biodegradability. (Behera et al., 2021)
environment
PHA-based NCF – – Composite containing 2 wt% of NCF possessed better (Nazaruddin & Jamari,
composite thermal stability. 2021)
PHBV Proteinaceous and Water environment 295 and 412 Proteinaceous fillers-based biocomposites possessed (Meereboer et al., 2021)
Miscanthus fillers days higher biodegradability than miscanthus filler-based
biocomposites.
PBS CNC Compost environment - Accelerated biodegradation was observed. (Kim et al., 2021)
PLA/PETG – Hydrolytic degradation 10 weeks Degradation process is more prominent in the PLA (Moreno Nieto et al.,
material due to its organic nature. 2021)
PCL/PLA Stichopus herrmanni Microbiological 90 days Stichopus herrmanni imparted antibacterial and (Darya et al., 2022)
environment antifouling activities in PCL/PLA and later used for
environmentally friendly antifouling proposes.
PHB Sugar cane bagasse Microbiological 7–18 weeks The prepared biocomposites showed complete (Sabapathy et al., 2021)
fiber environment degradation in microbial environment.
Chitosan Cu(II) Complexes Photocatalytic 90 min Maximum 87 % degradation were noted for novel (Manimohan et al., 2020)
environment Cu(II)-anchored biopolymer complexes.
TPG/PCL Chrome octanoate Compost conditions. 90 days The prepared films demonstrated complete (Gutiérrez et al., 2021)
biodegradability after 90 days under vegetable
compost conditions.
Starch/PLA bilayer APTMS Compost conditions 46 days Silane medication on prepared film decreased its (Gürler et al., 2021)
films overall biodegradability and the maximum
biodegradation of 9.30 % were observed.
additives/NFs. These composites have shown excellent biodegradation was observed within 10 days at 37 ◦ C, as depicted in Fig. 6(a). Similarly,
behavior (Altaee et al., 2016; Shockley & Muliana, 2020; Tachibana Bao et al. (2022) reported the degradation behavior of PLA/PHB fabrics
et al., 2021) and have been investigated by different researchers. The under different parallel conditions of seawater including static, aerobic
blending of biopolymers improves the mechanical and functional under sunlight, aerobic in the dark box, static under ultraviolet (UV)
properties, which are beneficial in certain applications like food pack light, and aerobic seawater under UV light. Among all these conditions,
aging. For instance, the biodegradable behavior of PVA/TPS was re the hydrolysis rate of PLA/PHB fabrics was quicker and more prominent
ported by Pantelic et al. (2021). PVA/TPS-based film exhibited strong under UV light and dissolved oxygen in the seawater condition, as
solubility in water which imparts its microbial degradation character depicted in Fig. 6(b).
istics. Additionally, the results of biodegradability testing under In another study, Huang et al. (2022) evaluated the biodegradation
different microbial strains exhibited that the more than 50 % mass loss behavior of PLA/cellulose acetate (CA) by blending it through
7
Fig. 7. (a1) Illustration of molecular enzymatic degradation process in soil burial test through schematic diagram; (a2) Illustration of molecular biodegradation of
nano-biocomposites (Rizal et al., 2021) (b) the compostable process of PLA and SBB spoons (Bandini et al., 2022) (adapted with permission) (c) the compostable
process of PBAT film (Chiloeches et al., 2022) (adapted with permission).
polyamide amine (PAMAM) dendrimer. Scanning electron microscope emerged as potential substitutes for traditional nanoparticle (NP) ap
(SEM) images shown in Fig. 6(c), depicted that the cracks were initiated plications in food packaging applications (Mahmud et al., 2022).
upon composting degradation of PLA/CA-based blend films. Addition Additionally, the incorporation of these NPs provides excellent moisture
ally, the PAMAM at 3 phr. improved the biodegradability of barrier characteristics, which helps in protecting the food quality during
PLA/CA-based film, thus, best suited for the food green packaging fields. storage and transportation (Souza & Fernando, 2016).
Table 1 highlights some important results of different studies of bio Polysaccharide-based NPs impart excellent features to biocomposites.
polymeric composites and nano-composites along with their degrada For example, starch-based nanocrystals as filling media into biopolymer
tion types and mechanisms. matrices significantly enhance the moisture barrier and mechanical
Food packaging applications usually use biopolymer in the form of characteristics of the biocomposites. Likewise, alginate-based NPs
coating or film and these films offer low barrier and mechanical prop exhibit excellent chemical and thermal stability. Similarly, both chitin-
erties (Mulla et al., 2021). To overcome this issue, biopolymer-based and chitosan-based NPs are inexpensive, biodegradable, and biocom
nanocomposites have recently gained significant attraction in food patible, and exhibit mucoadhesive nature (Thakur et al., 2021). Addi
packaging applications (Ruzi et al., 2022). Composite films for pack tionally, these nano-sized particles of chitin, chitosan, alginate, and
aging applications are developed through electrospinning, casting, starch are anti-microbial and non-toxic, thus, can be employed in food
coating, and micro- or nano-encapsulation techniques (Alias et al., packaging applications (Mayilswamy & Kandasubramanian, 2022).
2022). The infusion of different NPs/nanofillers is an ideal technique for Different influencing factors of nano-additives including dimensions,
improving tensile properties and permeability of biopolymer-based morphology, length, surface area as well as aspect ratio affect the
materials, which requires for food packaging applications (Nath et al., properties of the nano-biocomposites (Nor Adilah et al., 2021). Addi
2022; Risyon et al., 2020; Zhang & Rhim, 2022). This improvement in tionally, the permeability of these biodegradable composites depends
properties is due to the enhancement of the surface area of biopolymeric upon the orientation and dispersion of NPs, which results in excellent
materials upon NPs incorporation (Altaf et al., 2022). metallurgical bonding between the NPs and polymer matrix (Kumar
Considering nano-applications, bio-nano composites have recently et al., 2018). Nano-biocomposites-based films incorporate cellulose
8
Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Different techniques applied for developing food packaging films. Techniques Illustration Ref.
Techniques Illustration Ref.
process of gases, liquids, or solids.
Solution casting It is the most common technique (YousefniaPasha et al., In this technique, bio-active
which blends two or more 2021) compounds are encapsulated in a
polymers for attaining better capsule to ensure their protection
crosslinking networks. It can be in the extreme environment. This
used to mix different additives or approach is vaslty used to protect
plasticizers for producing different food ingredients.
composite packaging films. Spray drying This technique is applied to (Zhang et al., 2022b)
Electrospinning This approach permits the (Topuz & Uyar, 2020) transform biopolymers into dried
production of nano-fibrous powder by using elevated
packaging films with a large temperatures. Additionally, the
surface-to-volume ratio. Different moisture content and surface
natural- and synthetic-based morphologies of powder particles
biopolymers and their are maintained by regulating the
nanocomposites can be developed processing parameters of the
with this technique. It also helps spraying process.
in encapsulating active agents for Nano-emulsions Nano-emulsions are nano-sized (Sultan et al., 2022)
packaging purposes. To enhance dispersions developed through
barrier performance, electrospun emulsifiers. These dispersions are
fibers can be deposited on film fortified with peptides, vitamins,
surface by using this technology. minerals, fatty acids, proteins,
Extrusion Food extrusion involves the (Wang et al., 2022a) and antioxidants for increasing
combination of mechanical and health benefits. For instance,
thermal procedures by which cellulose-based nano-emulsions
protein-based biopolymers are are employed to carry
cooked by incorporating nutraceuticals and different
plasticizers to acquire predefined bioactive compounds.
geometry. The final product by Nano-micelles Nano-micelles have exhibited (Pushparaj et al.,
passing through a die hole at distinct features including nano- 2022)
controlled flow rate. This size, self-assembly nature, and
technique is usually preferred amphiphilic nature which are
over solution casting method. highly suitable for delivering oils,
Coatings Edible films/coatings are a (Díaz-Montes & polyphenols, vitamins, NPs, and
soluble thin layer of bioactive Castro-Muñoz, 2021) bioactive compounds.
compounds which is applied on Adsorption In adsorption technology, (Siemińska-Kuczer
the surface of food or between adsorbents including pads and et al., 2022)
different layers for preventing the sachets are used to adsorb
migration of oxygen, solute, or humidity and moisture from
moisture into the food. These packed fruits. It also provides an
coatings extend the shelf life of anti-bacterial environment to the
food. packed items. The combination of
Layer-by-layer LBL assembly technique is used to (Hu et al., 2018) different polymers including
(LBL) self- develop edible coatings/films by cellulose and adsorbents is used
assembly incremental deposition of for improving the properties of
different biopolymers with or packaging systems.
without the addition of active
agents. Thus, developing multi-
functional packaging film, which nanofiber (CNF) to improve the thermal, mechanical, and antioxidant
not only preserves food but also properties. For instance, Rizal et al. (2021) investigated the molecular
extend its shelf life.
enzymatic degradation of PLA/chitosan-based nanocomposites rein
Polymeric hydrogel Polymeric hydrogels are used to (Narayanan et al.,
encapsulate, entrap, and carry 2021) forced with CNF. The schematic diagram of the degradation process
bio-active compounds as well as through the soil burial method is illustrated in Fig. 7(a2). The addition of
ensure their sustained release, in CNF significantly improved the degradation properties of
the food industry. These PLA/chitosan/CNF-based biocomposites. Additionally, degradation of
hydrogels also control the
humidity and moisture of food
PLA occurred due to the phylogenetic Pseudonocardiaceae family.
items. Additionally, the addition Bandini et al. (2022) measured the degradability through bio
of NPs in these hydrogels methane potential (BMP) of PLA and starch-based bioplastics (SBB)
significantly improves anti- spoons under industrial conditions, as depicted in Fig. 7(b). Later, the
microbial features.
quality of composts was evaluated by phytotoxicity and ecotoxicity
Liposomes and Liposomes exhibit amphiphilic (Brandelli et al., 2017)
NLPs nature and encapsulate or trap tests. Phytotoxicity test results detected lowered compost pH and
unstable components to permit negatively affected the germination index for PLA. Similarly, Chiloeches
their better utilization in the food et al. (2022) studied the biodegradability of itaconic acid-based PBAT
packaging industry. Additionally, biopolymer under different compost conditions (referring to Fig. 7(c)).
the combination of biopolymer-
based edible films and liposomes
Biodegradability results demonstrated that the cationic polymers bio
which entrap anti-microbial degraded fast under compost conditions and exhibit a priming effect.
agents provide extra protection to Furthermore, thermally degradation of these copolymers occurs at a
food and extends its shelf life. relatively low temperature, and yet can be processed at temperatures up
Micro- and nano- Nano- or micro-encapsulation (Plati &
to ~ 150 ◦ C.
encapsulation uses synthetic or natural polymer- Paraskevopoulou,
based film-forming materials to 2022) PVA-based biodegradable materials and their nanocomposites can
develop dispersion in the coating also be used efficiently in food packaging applications due to their
water-soluble properties (Gautam et al., 2022). It is noted that PVA can
9
Fig. 8. (a) Important characteristics (commonly observed in different biopolymers) and potential applications of edible films based on fruits and vegetables; (b)
Schematic representation of biopolymer based coatings and films for food protection (Otoni et al., 2017) (adopted with permission)(Copyright 2017 Institute of
Food Technologists).
provide cost-effective products with excellent mechanical and microbial instance, Yu et al. (2018) developed PVA/chitosan-based biodegradable
properties when blended with other biopolymers including PLA, chito films using sodium metasilicate with excellent mechanical properties
san, and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO). Additionally, the reinforcement of and permeability for food packaging applications. The tensile strength of
nanofillers has added additional enhancement in properties, which are PVA/chitosan films was enhanced by 45 % when 0.6 wt% of SiO2 was
promising for food packaging applications (Abdullah et al., 2017). For induced on films. Additionally, the weight reduction of 60 % was
Fig. 9. Classification of biopolymers employed in food packaging (Figure drawn with the help of Moeini et al., 2021).
10
Fig. 10. Important characteristics of edible fruit coatings resulting from various modifications (Figure drawn with the help of Ghosh & Singh, 2022).
observed after the 30 days of soil testing. The incorporation of in-situ permeability.
SiO2 in PVA/Chitosan films reduced the permeability and moisture by
25.6 % and 10.2 %, respectively, which is beneficial for food packaging
and for long time preservation of the food due to the oxygen
Fig. 11. Silk fibroin composite-based edible coating results, (a1) For bananas; (a2) For apples; (a3) For zebrafish (Pratap Singh & Packirisamy, 2022). (adapted
with permission).
11
Fig. 12. (a) Visual appearance of uncoated oranges (control), BC/CMC/GLY-coated oranges (Film-0), BC/CMC/GLY/olive oil-coated oranges (Film-1), and BC/CMC/
GLY/Ginger oil-coated oranges (Film-2) stored at different temperatures and time intervals (Atta et al., 2022) (adapted with permission)(Copyright 2022 Springer
Nature) ; (b) Figure depicting the effectiveness of CMC-based films as coating of lemons and their effect on mold growth during storage (Riahi et al., 2022) (adapted
with permission); (c) Packaging of red grapes at 37o C for six days; (c1) Plastic wrap; (c2) Pure chitosan film; (c3) Chitosan/TiO2 film (Zhang et al., 2017b) (adapted
with permission); (d) Comparison of tests on coated and uncoated bananas; (1) Uncoated banana; (2) Coating done with CMC100 film; (3) HTCC40/CMC60 film; (4)
HTCC70/CMC30 film; (5) HTCC90/CMC10 film; (6) HTCC100 film (Hu et al., 2016) (adapted with permission).
4. Biopolymeric composites for food packaging applications novel elements (Bacakova et al., 2020; Marangoni Júnior et al., 2021;
Yang et al., 2020). These sustainable edible coatings are eco-friendlies
Packaging is the art, science, and technology to transport goods to and can be safely consumed along with food. These ecological films
end consumers at a reasonable price. Food packaging technology plays a and coatings also prevent the food from chemical, physical, or biological
crucial role in maintaining food freshness (Armentano et al., 2018). It degradation (Khan et al., 2021; Mantovan et al., 2018; Uranga et al.,
maintains the freshness of food by keeping it in the biosecure environ 2021). Fig. 8 depicts potential application of edible films applied on fruit
ment for days, weeks, or even months after initial harvest or manufac and vegetables.
ture (Priyadarshi & Rhim, 2020; Sharma et al., 2019; Zhang et al., Fig. 9 depicts different biopolymers which are used for the edible
2017a). Different techniques used for developing biopolymer-based coatings/films. Cellulose, chitosan, carrageenans, alginates, starch,
packaging are illustrated in Table 2. Biopolymer-based materials have chitin, and their derivatives are common polysaccharides that are
found their applications in the food packaging industry as edible coat applied for formulations of edible films. Proteins-based films are less
ings/films, antioxidative and antimicrobial films, and biodegradable common compared to polysaccharides-based films due to their hydro
films. The incorporation of different additives including nutrients, an philic nature which influences their relative humidity and temperature
tioxidants, antimicrobial agents, and colors in these sustainable mate (Zibaei et al., 2021). Soy protein, keratin, corn, wheat gluten, casein,
rials, improves the food quality and shelf life of food (Chausali et al., gelatin, whey, and collagen are commonly used proteins for edible
2022). This section incorporates food packaging applications of biode coatings (Wang et al., 2021). Lipid-based films exhibit hydrophobic
gradable polymer composites. nature; therefore, lipids are blended with cellulose- or protein-based
film-forming agents (Abdollahzadeh et al., 2021).
These coatings provide excellent antimicrobial, antioxidant, and
4.1. Edible films/coatings moisture barrier properties, thus, protecting food from light-induced
chemical changes, microbial growth on the surface, and oxidation
Biopolymer-based edible films and coatings are directly deposited on (Jayakody et al., 2022). Fig. 10 illustrates the distinct features of edible
the food surface through spraying, brushing, or dipping (Guazzotti et al., coatings that occur through physical and chemical modifications.
2015). These films mainly contain proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, or Silk fibroin, a structural protein, is an ideal candidate for developing
their blends, which wrap food without altering processing techniques or
12
Fig. 13. (a) Change in appearance of packed tomatoes in control and PVA/starch containing 10 wt% GLY, 45 wt% citric acid, and 1 wt% ZnO (in the image it is
written as A1B4C2) films during preservation test for 14 days (Ounkaew et al., 2022) (adapted with permission)(Copyright © 2021 Springer Nature); (b) Soybean oil
for storage test packaged in sachets made from PVA/corn starch films comprising different concentrations of CSE and SP (Tanwar et al., 2021) (adapted with
permission) (c) Visual appearance of breads and cakes; (c1) Cake wrapped in citrate/starch film; (c2) Cake wrapped in food wrapper for ten days; (c3) Bread wrapped
in citrate/starch film; (c4) Bread wrapped in food wrapper for forty days (Romainor et al., 2022) (adapted with permission).
edible films, which help in increasing the shelf life of food (Low et al., microbial growth (Basavegowda & Baek, 2021). Chitosan, starch, and
2022). For instance, Pratap Singh and Packirisamy (2022) developed an PBAT are the most commonly applied biodegradable polymers for active
edible coating using silk fibroin through the electrospinning technique. packaging of food to combat socio-environmental concerns.
These coatings were applied on zebrafish along with perishable fruits Chitosan-based biopolymers in packaging applications are applied due
including bananas (riped and unripe) and apples (including slices). The to their biodegradability, antimicrobial ability, biocompatibility, and
results showed that coated banana was in an eatable condition for 8–9 easy film-forming ability (Yu et al., 2018). To date, different
days, thus, demonstrating good texture and quality, while the uncoated chitosan-based films with the addition of different additives and NPs are
banana was in an eatable state for only preliminary 3–4 days, as depicted widely adopted in the field of food packaging. For instance, Zhang et al.
in Fig. 11(a1). The coated apple works for more than three weeks, while (2017b) studied the addition of TiO2 nano-powder in chitosan for
weight loss was negligible compared to the uncoated apple, as illus developing chitosan/TiO2-based composite film. The reported results
trated in Fig. 11(a2). Lastly, the dip-coating on zebrafish, remained confirmed that chitosan//TiO2 film packaging on red grapes had effi
stable for 48 h, as depicted in Fig. 11(a3). cient antimicrobial activity against different strains, as illustrated in
Riahi et al. (2022) prepared CMC-based functional films by incor Fig. 12(c). In another study, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-based films
porating different amounts of chitosan-based carbon quantum dots were developed containing quaternized chitosan derivative 2-N-Hydrox
(CQDs). The CQDs were uniformly mixed in the polymer matrix to ypropyl-3-trimethylammonium chloride chitosan (HTCC) for preserving
develop a highly transparent UV-blocking film. These films exhibited food (Hu et al., 2016). The results revealed that these films had
improved water barrier and mechanical properties, high transparency, increased oxygen permeability and decreased light transmittance and
excellent antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity, upon coating on lemon antibacterial activity against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus)
with these film solutions. Fig. 12(b) showed that the lemon coated with and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Bananas coated with the
CMC/CQD film exhibited an excellent look without mold growth even HTCC/CMC blend films had longer shelf life than uncoated bananas, as
after 21 days of storage. These films are effective for active food pack depicted in Fig. 12(d).
aging applications. Likewise, Atta et al. (2022) produced composite film Starch-based biopolymers have been vastly used to produce sus
containing 2 wt% bacterial cellulose (BC) slurry, 30 wt% carboxy tainable food packaging applications. These polymers can be blended
methylcellulose (CMC), and 30 wt% glycerol (GLY) was ex-situ and with additives to enhance their water resistance, mechanical charac
separately impregnated with 1–2 wt% olive oil and ginger oil. teristics, and processability. For instance, Ounkaew (2022). evaluated
BC/CMC/GLY/oil-based coatings on oranges and tomatoes stopped GLY, citric acid, and ZnO at four levels in PVA/starch films containing
spoilage and weight losses of food, as illustrated in Fig. 12(a). Addi extracted spent coffee ground. The authors observed that the addition of
tionally, this coating also improved their shelf-life at different storage GLY in PVA/starch films improved water resistance and biodegrad
temperatures for 9 weeks making them ideal materials for edible pack ability. The optimized mix proportion of additives in PVA/starch films
aging materials. was used as active packaging for fresh cherry tomatoes, as these films
potential to prevent the growth of bacteria and preserve the freshness of
4.2. Anti-microbial packaging materials the packaged cherry tomatoes, as depicted in Fig. 13(a).
Likewise, Tanwar et al. (2021) produced an active antioxidant film
Anti-microbial packaging is another technique to restrict, reduce, by using PVA and corn starch and by incorporating coconut shell extract
inhibit, or kill the spoilage/pathogenic micro-organisms in food (Casa (CSE) and sepiolite clay (SP) in different percentages. These PVA/starch
lini & Baschetti, 2022). This technique has spellbound the food industry film-based sachets depicted improved the oxidative stability of packaged
due to various advantages including food safety, quality, and shelf life soybean oil, as illustrated in Fig. 13(b). Thus, these films are excellent
extension. Anti-microbial activity is usually attained by amalgamating for the food processing industry. Similarly, Romainor et al. (2022)
anti-microbial agents into the polymer matrix which suppresses developed starch/citrate film by incorporating an optimized ratio of
13
Fig. 14. (a) Visual appearance of bananas, strawberries, and mushrooms stored in air and in different types of plastic bags for 11 days. The right side photograph
depicts the cross-sections of the bananas stored in the different plastic bags (Qiu et al., 2021) (adapted with permission); (b) PBAT films with and without PLA
capsules performance as active packaging for the preservation of strawberries for thirty days. This image is only representative since the tests were performed in
triplicate (de Souza et al., 2022) (adapted with permission)(Copyright © 2022 Springer Nature); (c) Visual appearance of ground meat wrapped in WPI-based films
with varying concentration of LMPs (Gomide et al., 2022) (adapted with permission)(Copyright 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.); (d) Visual appearance of fungal
growth on pieces of bread after 5, 9, and 21 days (Lim et al., 2022). (adapted with permission); (e) Visual appearance of bread slice stored in without and with
antimicrobial plates (Petchwattana et al., 2021). (Adapted with permission)(Copyright 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group); (f) Visual
appearance of inoculated tomato after four days in different packaging (Shen, 2022) (adapted with permission).
14
(caption on next page)
15
Fig. 15. (a) Images of preservation study of all the films including normal plastic pouch (0–7th day). Figure d shows the appearance of the black grapes after removal
from respective films (after 7th day) (Goudar et al., 2021) (adapted with permission)(Copyright 2021 Springer Nature); (b) Effect of different films on vegetable
rate of water loss: control, PVA, and MWCNTs/ZnO/PVA (Wen et al., 2021b) (adapted with permission)(Copyright 2021 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, Springer
Nature ); (c) Visual appearance of strawberries packaged in DACP, PE, and cellophane after storage for 0,1,3, and 5 days (Gao, 2022) (adapted with permission);
(d) Fabrication of PVA/CNF-based packaging film; (d1) Neat PVA film; (d2) CNF/PVA film; (d3) CNF/PVA/oil film (Arun et al., 2022) (adapted with permission);
(e) Visual appearance of fungal growth on sliced avocado after different times of storage coated with PVA and PVA/LE-based films and stored at room temperature
(Luzi et al., 2022). (adapted with permission); (f1) pH-sensitive of BCA; (f2) Developed films by using different composition; (f3) Realtime monitoring of the
freshness of fish through colorimetric film (KGM/CMC film is written as KC in above figures) (You et al., 2022) (adapted with permission).
citric acid as an antimicrobial agent. The results demonstrated that chitosan/PCL-based films through the solution blow spinning technique.
98–99 % of foodborne bacteria growth and 87–99 % of fungal growth The results showed that the proposed nano-fibrous films demonstrated
were suppressed by starch/citrate-based film which helped to enhance good antifungal activity both in in-vitro and in-vivo studies, as illus
the shelf-life of cake and bread samples (ten days for cake and forty days trated in Fig. 14(f). Thus, the developed nanofibrous films including
for bread), as illustrated in Fig. 13(c). HPβCD/thymol are promising films in fruit packaging and preservation.
PBAT biopolymer has exhibited the excellent potential to be applied Goudar et al. (2021) investigated the influence of ZnO-based NPs on
as a replacement material for polyolefin-based packaging materials. the physicochemical properties of the PVA/Spathodea campanulata bud
However, the processability of this biopolymer is difficult due to its low fluid matrix. The results showed that the thermal stability of nano
tensile strength and crystallization rate, and high melt viscosity. The composite films was remarkably improved at 50 ◦ C and these films
blending of PBAT with other biopolymers improves its packaging efficiently increased the shelf life of the black grapes up to 1 week, as
properties. For instance, Qiu et al. (2021) also developed using depicted in Fig. 15(a). These nano-filler reinforced biocomposites
PBAT/PLA-based films by adding polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane exhibited good preservation capacity and excellent antibacterial activ
(POSS). The results suggested that the addition of POSS during PBAT/ ity, thus, these films have the potential to substitute nonbiodegradable
PLA film improved the storage capacity of biodegradable plastic pack packaging material.
aging films. Fig. 14(a) depicts that the significant weight loss occurred in PVA nanocomposite films were prepared with varying amounts of
low-density polyethylene (LDPE)-packed specimens, while, good con ZnO-doped multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (Wen et al.,
dition was maintained by the specimens in PBAT/PLA-based bags. This 2021b). The findings of this research revealed that
is due to the excellent permeability of PBAT-based polymers which ZnO/PVA/MWCNTs-based nanocomposite films possessed good trans
created a low moisture environment, and consequently, suppressed the parency. Furthermore, water loss in vegetables at room temperature
fungi growth. revealed that the vegetable wrapped in packaging films could keep more
Antimicrobial characteristics are essential for active packaging ap water for more than 4 days, as depicted in Fig. 15(b). Similarly, Gao
plications and these characteristics of biopolymers can be enhanced by et al. (2022) synthesized an antimicrobial dialdehyde cellophane
adding different natural compounds including organic acids, curcumin, (DACP)-based packaging film. The packaging effect of this film was
pectin, nano-clays, and essential oils (Vianna et al., 2021). These natural evaluated for strawberry and tofu with high water content, as illustrated
compounds possess the ability to perform inhibitory activity against in Fig. 15(c). The results showed that these DACP-based films possessed
lipophilic and functional properties by penetrating the cell membranes an excellent antimicrobial effect and extended the shelf life of food
(Varghese et al., 2020). For instance, de Souza et al. (2022) developed remarkably in comparison with the polyethylene (PE) film and
PBAT/PLA-based biodegradable film by incorporating cinnamon cellophane.
essential oil (CEO). The results revealed that the developed films Biodegradable plasticizers including linseed oil, lemon oil, and soy
demonstrated extended the shelf life of strawberries without affecting bean oil decrease the viscosity and enhance the flexibility of polymer
the food quality. Fig. 14(b) depicts packed strawberries which remained melt, which help in improving the mechanical properties and biode
preserved even after 30 days. Similarly, antifungal-based packaging was gradability of polymer composites. For instance, Arun et al. (2022)
developed by adding alginic acid (ALG) and CEO into PCL-based poly formed highly effective films by incorporating CNF into the PVA poly
mer (Lim et al., 2022). Later, pieces of bread were wrapped in these mer matrix along with the addition of the linseed oil and lemon oil for
packaging, as illustrated in Fig. 14(d). The reported results confirmed improved the shelf life of packed food products. Fig. 15(d) depicts that
that the PCL/ALG/CEO film was more effective and achieved the com these composite films showed a higher biodegradability rate (87.34 %),
plete inhibition of fungal growth compared to LDPE. Thus, PCL/ALG/ and are a successful alternative to non-biodegradable plastic pollution.
CEO film can serve as ideal and green packaging materials. In another study, Luzi et al. (2022) developed PLA-based active films by
Gomide et al. (2022) created protein isolate (WPI) films containing incorporating an aqueous extract of Lemna minor (LE). Fig. 15(e) de
lignin microparticle (LMP) at various concentrations. The antioxidant picts the antibacterial and antifungal performance of films wrapped on
activity was elaborated along with the effect of the active films on the avocado. The authors observed that the extract of LE in PVA films
prevention of oxidation in ground meat. The reported results showed brought some alterations, although, its existence determined positive
that 0.50 % w/w of LMP in WPI-based films has the potential to provide radical scavenging and antimicrobial activity.
antioxidant properties and control the lipid oxidation in ground meat, as Other polysaccharides-based biopolymers including tara gum and
depicted in Fig. 14(c). Petchwattana et al., (2021) evaluated a suitable konjac glucomannan are also effectively utilized in food packaging ap
geraniol concentration in PBS/geraniol composition to develop solid plications. For instance, You et al. (2022) developed an intelligent
and porous antimicrobial plates. Results from the migration test showed pH-based sensing film by using konjac glucomannan (KGM)/CMC-based
that geraniol was released from both solid and porous plates by more composite. Additionally, blackcurrant anthocyanins (BCA) are added for
than 30 days for 8 wt% geraniol concentration. Furthermore, shelf-life improving the structural properties of KGM/CMC films. From visual
was monitored by counting the microorganisms indicating that using inspection, different colors in different buffers of composites film can be
antimicrobial plates in bread packages was found to extend by around 5 observed, as depicted in Fig. 15(f2). This technique can be applied for
and 10 days with solid and porous antimicrobial plates, respectively, as monitoring the meat product quality as smart food packaging, as illus
depicted in Fig. 14(e). These antimicrobial plates are best applied for trated in Fig. 15(f3).
bread shelf-life extension which are easily inserted inside any food Besides biodegradability, the modification of biopolymer-based
container. composite films through different additives including NPs, and essen
Shen et al. (2022) fabricated the thymol/2-hydrox tial oils have significantly improved the thermal, barrier, mechanical,
ypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) inclusion complexes-loaded antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties which makes these sustainable
16
Table 3
Summary of recent works on different biopolymer-based materials used for food packaging applications.
Biopolymers/ Fillers/Additives Method Antimicrobial activity against Highlights for food packaging Ref.
composites/Films pathogenic bacteria applications
BC Gelatin/cinnamaldehyde Solution casting Staphylococcus aureus and The prepared films exhibited non- (Thongsrikhem
Escherichia coli toxicity against L929 cells and strong et al., 2022)
antibacterial activity.
PLA PEO Solvent-cast 3D – Potential application in frozen food (Chaiya et al.,
printing packaging material with ability to 2022)
detect humidity in the packaging.
Chitosan Cenostigma nordestinum Solution casting Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria The films containing cenostigma (Soares et al.,
monocytogenes, Pseudomonas nordestinum extracts were opaquer, 2022)
aeruginosa, S. aureus, Bacillus possessed high resistant to tension, and
cereus, and E. coli low permeable to water vapor as
compared to chitosan-control films.
PVA/Chitosan κ-carrageenan and locust Solution casting – The developed film successfully (Yao et al., 2022)
bean gum indicated the freshness of shrimp when
shrimp was stored at different
temperatures.
SA/Maltodextrin Azolla pinnata leaves fern Solution casting S. aureus, Bacillus cereus, and E. coli The high concentration addition of (Eltabakh et al.,
Azolla pinnata leaves fern inside the 2022)
films produced opaque films which
have potential to use in wrapping of
light sensitive food.
PVA/Chitosan SP/natural anthocyanin Solution casting – PVA/CS -based pH-sensitive films (Raji et al., 2022)
displayed band gaps under visible light
which could be useful for monitoring
milk spoilage.
PVA/PLA Carvacrol or ferulic acid – E. coli PLA/PVA multilayers films has (Andrade et al.,
significant advantages as compared to 2022a)
monolayers such as improved the
barrier capacity of films and also
effective at controlling microbial
growth in beef meat during cold
storage.
CA GLY Solution casting – The addition of GLY in CA-based films (Gomes et al.,
improved the pH sensing effectiveness 2022)
and have potential to be used in fresh
food monitoring applications
CA/zein GLY/CEO/tributyrin/ Kneading Listeria innocua and S. aureus CA/zein blends with GEO maintained (Marques et al.,
β-cyclodextrin method good microbiological quality which is 2022)
essential for food preservation.
PBAT/PLA CNC Extrusion – The mechanical properties and visual (Andrade et al.,
appearance of PBAT/PLA/CNC films 2022b)
were comparable to values of
commercial plastic materials that are
widely utilized in food packaging.
Persian gum/whey Betanin NLPs Hydration- E. coli and S. aureus NLPs improves high level antibacterial (Ghasempour
protein sonication activity against S. aureus in proposed et al., 2022)
nanocomposites film.
PCL Clitoria ternatea Linn Electrospinning – PCL/PCL-based film have potential to (Liu et al., 2022)
anthocyanin be used as a reusable freshness sensor
tool in food packaging.
PGHP/PVA Curcumin Solution casting E. coli and S. aurous The developed films showed significant (Fathi et al., 2022)
color variations with the quality change
of fish.
Dextrin/PVA TiO2 Solution casting Enterococcus faecalis The addition of TiO2 NPs (5 wt%) into (Islamipour et al.,
dextrin/PVA films improved biofilms 2022)
tensile strength for food packaging
applications.
Alginate/ ZnO and SiO2 Solvent E. coli The inactivation of both contamination (Carmo et al.,
polyethylene GLY evaporation bioindicators can be noted in prepared 2022)
films which is effective for food
packaging applications.
PGA/PBAT Extrusion – The biodegradable plastic films (Sun et al., 2022)
containing (80 % PGA/20 %PBAT) are
highly conducive to strawberry
preservation.
Starch/PBAT Ag/ZnO Extrusion S. aureus and E. coli The combine addition of Ag NPs and (Zhai et al., 2022)
ZnO NPs in starch/PBAT-based films
showed a synergistic antimicrobial
effect which improves the shelf life
comparable to the commercial LDPE
packaging films.
PLA/PPC Curcumin Extrusion – The prepared PLA/PPC/curcumin film (Cvek et al., 2022)
act as a sticker indicator to observe the
(continued on next page)
17
Table 3 (continued )
spoilage of shrimps over time, also as a

smart indicator for NH3 gas monitoring
in industrial and environmental
applications.
CNF/starch GLY Solution casting S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Incorporation of hibiscus crude extracts (Otenda et al.,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli and improved the antimicrobial activity and 2022)
Candida albicans UV resistance of the CNF/starch-based
edible films.
SA/gum arabic Syzygium cumini seeds Solution casting – The presence of SCSE maintained (Abdin et al.,
extract (SCSE) moisture around wrapped products. 2022)
Thus, prepared films preserve oils from
oxidation.
Silk fibroin/PVA Ag Solution casting E. coli and Clavibacter The prepared bio-nanocomposite films (Wang et al.,
michiganensis Nebraskensis possessed excellent antibacterial 2022b)
activities and UV shielding, and low
silver leakage properties particularly
for seed storage.
PVA/Starch/GLY CuO/ZnO Solution casting Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus The nanocomposites films showed (Francis et al.,
calidoustus, and Penicillium fungicidal and bactericidal activity, 2022)
chrysogenum thus promising material in extending
the shelf life of packaged food.
SA/citric acid/cold GLY Solution casting - Addition of GLY along with plasma (Sharmin et al.,
plasma activated activated water and citric acid in SA- 2021)
water based films outstandingly improved its
functional properties (mechanical,
rheological and barrier properties).
Dimethyl-(alkyl)- – spray/EWNS E. coli and L. innocua Both wet (spray) and EWNS technique (Cohen et al.,
ammonium lowered the microbial load on spinach 2022)
chitosan leaves.
PHB ChNCs Extrusion – The addition of ChNCs impart (Zaccone et al.,
toughening behavior in PHB. 2022)
CA/PCL Cu Solution casting E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. The prepared films containing CuNPs (El-Naggar et al.,
aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Candid. (80 and 120 µg/mL) are efficient for 2022)
albicans, Aspergillus niger, A. antimicrobial activities and have
terreus, Penicillium expansum and potential to be used in food packaging
Fusarium oxysporum applications.
PLA MSW Solution casting – The presence of antioxidant property (Thomas et al.,
for MSW extend the lifetime of the food 2022)
material, particularly for fatty food.
Zein/gelatin coated Zein/Gelatin Coating Zymobacter, Gluconobacter and Zein/gelatin coated PE-based films was (Cai et al., 2022)
PE Pantoea used as active packaging material for
preservation of aromatic fruits.
PLA/ Cloisite®30Bnanoclay Extrusion – The active PLA foams offered a higher (Rojas et al., 2022)
Cinnamaldehyde (C30B)/supercritical potential of migration and faster release
carbondioxide (scCO2) in comparison to PLA film.
SA/LBG Daphnetin Adsorption Shewanella putrefaciens and The addition of daphnetin in SA/LBG (Cheng et al.,
Pseudomonas fluorescens film improved antioxidant and 2022)
antibacterial properties.
Starch Caffeine and vitamin C Solution casting – The starch-based composites modified (Bajer &
with dialdehyde starch, vitamin C and Burkowska-But,
caffeine demonstrated good stiffness, 2022)
antioxidant property and less
stretchability of films.
ECL/PCL/gelatin/ ZnO Electrospinning Penicillium notatum and Aspergillus The ECL/PCL/gelatin containing 50 % (Beikzadeh et al.,
ZEO niger ZEO and 3 % ZnO exhibited the highest 2021)
antioxidant activity and antifungal
properties.
Nanocellulose Pullulan/graphene Spray Coating S. aureus and E. coli Pullulan coating with graphene NPs has (Shanmugam
improved opacity surface and et al., 2022)
antibacterial properties.
Pullulan/PVA Thymol/porphyrin Electrospinning E. coli and S. aureus The developed nanofibers exhibited (Min et al., 2021)
synergistic antibacterial properties
against microorganism under light
irradiation.
CMC/CNC Silver Coating E.coli and S.aureus CNC coating containing 7 % Ag NPs on (He et al., 2021)
fruit strawberries extended the shelf-
life of to 7 days.
PVA/GG Silver Solvent casting S. aureus and E. coli PVA/GG/Ag nanocomposite films (Gasti et al., 2021)
revealed a lower soil burial degradation
rate than pure PVA/GG film and have
good antibacterial properties
Alginate Aloe vera and garlic oil Solution casting S. aureus and E. coli The addition of both garlic oil and aloe (Abdel Aziz and
vera to alginate films developed Salama, 2021)
excellent active edible coating systems
for food protection.
(continued on next page)
18
Table 3 (continued )
Alginate Sulfur Solution casting E. coli and L. monocytogenes Alginate/SNPs composite film have (Priyadarshi et al.,
potential to be used in the packaging of 2021b)
frozen foods such as meat products.
Starch/chitosan BC nanofiber – Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus The incorporation of BC nanofibers in (Abral et al., 2021)
subtilis, E. coli and Pseudomonas starch/chitosan-based edible coatings
aeruginosa improved their moisture resistance and
water barrier properties.
Cellulose ANCC/RB Solution casting Listeria monocytogenes and RB/ANCC conjugate processed via (Koshani et al.,
Salmonella enterica green chemistry considered as a 2021)
promising photo bactericidal nanofiller
and have potential to use in food
packaging.
PGA PBAT Extrusion – The compatibilized PGA/PBAT blends (Ellingford et al.,
possessed high thermal stability 2022)
(3000C) and have potential to use in
high temperature or hot food
packaging.
PVA/chitosan CNC/TA Solution casting S. aureus and E. coli TA extraordinarily improves the (Tan et al., 2021)
antiultraviolet and antioxidant
properties of PVA films.
Cellulose ZnO Solution casting B. cereus, S. aureus, and L. Prepared film has significant potential (Saedi et al., 2021)
monocytogenes, E. coli, S. to use in packaging of meat products
typhimurium, and V. due to excellent antibacterial activity.
parahaemolyticus
TPS Nanocellulose-stabilized Solution casting – Good thermal stability of film was (Souza et al.,
pickering emulsions observed at temp. 50 ◦ C and can be 2021)
used as potential food packaging
material.
Agar/PVA CBO Solution casting L. monocytogenes and E. coli CBO incorporated agar/PVA-based (Lee et al., 2021)
biocomposite film have high
antimicrobial activity for food
PLA Nano-Ag-graphene/TiO2 Sol–gel method E. coli, L. monocytogenes and Nano-Ag-graphene-TiO2-PLA film are (Peter et al., 2021)
Pseudomonas fluorescens best suited for the storage of curd
cheese for PLA have mass percentage in
between (0.5–3) %.
Gelatin/β‑glucan ZnO Solution casting E. coli and S. aureus The addition of ZnO in the film (Sherafatkhah
improved antibacterial activity against Azari et al., 2021)
foodborne pathogenic bacteria.
PLA/chitosan Rosemary essential oil Solution casting – PLA films coated with rosemary (Fiore et al., 2021)
essential oils are effective delivery
method for offering antioxidant effects
in packaging for fresh meat products.
PVA Clove oil/citric acid Electrospinning E. coli and S. aureus PVA/citric acid electrospun microfiber (Yu et al., 2021)
mats are excellent material to absorb
moisture and provide bioactive
substances to diversify the active food
Starch/PVA ZnO/GLY Solvent casting – PVA and GLY showed a synergistic (Yari et al., 2022)
effect on the water vapor permeability
amount.
PVA TiO2/MMT Solution castings – Transparency of PVA-based thin films (Zamanian et al.,
reduced with the addition of TiO2/ 2021)
MMT loading
PVA Epoxidized soybean oil Extrusion – The developed films appropriate for (Zych et al., 2021)
methyl ester packaging of dry foods like potato chips
or oxygen-sensitive foods like meat and
cheese
PVA/chitosan Betalains-rich red pitaya Solution casting E. coli, Salmonella, S. The PVA/chitosan film containing (Qin et al., 2020)
(Hylocereus polyrhizus) peel aureus, and L.monocytogenes 1.00 wt% of the extract considered as
extract an active and intelligent food
packaging.
materials highly effective for food packaging applications. Table 3 Sometimes, carcinogenic compounds are blended with wax (Nishimo
summarizes recent studies from the literature which use biopolymeric to-Sauceda et al., 2022). In the food industry, plastic remains the biggest
composites for food preservation and packaging applications. feedstock, as more than 30 % of overall plastic is consumed by this in
dustry. Additionally, food packaging has been substituting plastics with
5. Market trends of biopolymers in food packaging glass and metals in numerous applications which further increases
plastics (Kay et al., 2022). In plastics, the macromolecular network is
Each year, fifty percent of vegetables and fruits are wasted globally, connected with different molecular configurations, thus, permitting
according to a united nations report. This post-harvest loss can be polymers to exhibit enticing and versatile properties that promote ap
mitigated through coatings (Mellinas et al., 2020). For instance, wax plications (Bueno et al., 2021).
coatings are most commonly applied for the preservation of edibles. Additionally, half of the packaging plastic bags are employed only
19
Fig. 16. Commenrcially avaialble different biopolymer-based food packing materials (a) PBAT ecoflex® and renewable raw materials-based biopolymer ecovio® for
certified compostable bags in Portugal and Spain (adapted from Current press photos) (b) McDonald’s trials cups made from used cooking oil (adapted from Bev
erages, bioplastics & biopolymers) (c) Biodegradable Food Packaging Bag used in India (adapted from Printed biodegradable food packaging bag) (d) Fox Packaging’s
Eco Pouch contains potato resin to make it reusable and recyclable (adapted from New concepts in food packaging – Produce processing) (e) PLA/wood-based cups
were manufactured from JELUPLAST® (adapted from Biopolymer from wood and PLA as food packaging-JELUPLAST) (f) Biopolymer-based packaging which is
completely biodegraded in 3 months (adapted from SP Group) (g) Lignocellulosic-based biopolymers for food packaging (adapted from Developing biodegradable
coating materials using biopolymers) (h) Spanish firms Nurel Biopolymers and SP Group developed compostable food packaging (adapted from Bioplastics &
Biopolymers) (i) Poly-3-hydroxybutyrateco-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) -based biopolymer in food packaging (adapted from Developing ‘green plastics’ for use in
food packaging).
once prior to disposal. By realizing these concerns, industrial sectors are requirements of food packaging including food protection and preser
also shifting towards sustainable materials, especially biopolymers (Das vation. Furthermore, newly developed biocomposites also helped in
& Chaudhary, 2021). According to a survey conducted by Unilever® in improving barrier, antioxidant, mechanical, and antimicrobial charac
2016, almost 85 % of customers satisfaction when buying food products teristics (Mallakpour et al., 2021). Consumers also express concern
in biodegradable bags. According to estimation, the expected growth of about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food packages as the
the biopolymer packaging market is 12.6 % compound annual growth virus exhibit ability to stay on the plastic surface which also increases
rate (CAGR) between 2021 to 2026 (Werner et al., 2017). The scope of the demand for producing antibacterial and antiviral food packages
biopolymers in active food packaging applications is ever-growing. (Byrd et al., 2021). Fig. 18 depicts the major concerns caused by
Nowadays, different commercially available products are successfully non-biodegradable food packaging among the consumers in the
utilized in wrapped in biopolymer-based sustainable materials, as post-pandemic era.
elaborated in Figs. 16–17. Considering the COVID-19 pandemic, different antiviral and anti
Recently, the development of novel sustainable materials through bacterial biopolymers have been investigated by incorporating low toxic
innovative formulations of biopolymers is fulfilling different and highly efficient active drug materials (Khalid et al., 2022b). The
20
Fig. 17. Commenrcially avaialble different biopolymer -based food packing materials (a) starch/polyaniline biopolymer-based packaging materiall with intelligent
colorimetric ammonia sensors (adapted from Intelligent food packaging with a starch/polyaniline biopolymer) (b) PHBV/cellulose-based packign material
completely degradable in 90 days (adapted from YPACK develops innovative biodegradable food packaging extending food shelf life - YPACK) (c) Wada Farms’ Tater
Made bag using 20–25 % starch-based biopolymer and 75–80 % PE (adapted from Biopolymer potato bags are ‘Tater Made’ | Packaging World) (d) Starch-based
biodegradable cup (adapted from The Rise of Compostable Plastics in 2019) (e) Completely edible food packaging introduced by Evoware (adapted from Edible
food packaging: Eat your food and the wrapping too) (f) Pullulan-based biopolymer for edible food packaging (adapted from How safe is the biodegradable food
packaging market?).
demand for these biopolymeric sustainable materials will be improved composites in one way or the other, rather than subjecting them to
significantly in the post-pandemic era (Kitz et al., 2022). Thus, modern biodegradation after their specified use which often takes a lot of time
trends toward promoting green packaging technology augur well for the for degradation.
biopolymer market. Devoted studies are required to improve the mechanical properties
and smart mechanisms for their degradability in the complex natural
6. Future challenges and opportunities environment. Furthermore, the degradability of biopolymers will be
considered beneficial if there is not a single stage at which ecotoxico
This section incorporates a few challenges on biopolymeric sustain logical effect is created by these biopolymers and their degradation
able packaging materials that are needed to be explored: products. To our best knowledge, we did not find any study which is
The biodegradability process is difficult to comprehend and more devoted to the toxic and harmful effects of the biodegradable bio
importantly, it becomes a complex phenomenon under different envi polymers. Furthermore, several weaknesses in some biopolymers,
ronments, degradation conditions, and through the addition of different including poor processability, solubility in water, or common organic
fillers/additives. Future researchers are required to explore these areas solvents had been observed (Agarwal, 2020). There is a need to inves
further for a better comprehension of the biopolymer’s degradation tigate and address these weaknesses to make these materials useable in
process. It is worth mentioning that the degradation of biocomposites packaging applications.
can release some toxic substances into the environment and thus future Despite many advantages associated with biopolymers, their demand
studies on recycling of biopolymeric materials can promising way to is still not up to the mark (Mtibe et al., 2021). We instigate the re
overcome this. It is imperative to reuse these recycled biopolymeric searchers to promote equally their economic and environmental
21
Fig. 18. Major concerns areas in non-biodegradable food packaging as a result of COVID-19 pandemic (Figure drawn with the help of de Oliveira et al., 2021).
advantages in the scientific community as well as with the consumers.

For this purpose, low-cost products using biopolymers need to be
developed with superior properties and their comparison should be
made with the existing products so that consumers can make a choice.
Simple dip-coating is a cost-effective food preservation method and
usually does not require any special skill or expertize (Pratap Singh &
Packirisamy, 2022). However, these coating techniques including dip
coating are proved to be costly and out of the reach of local vendors.
Hence, more work is required in this field to make these techniques
cost-effective.
The effect of storage temperature and relative humidity of sur
rounding biopolymer-based packing is needed to be explored. More
importantly, the effect of migration and permeability to ambient gases,
the role of additives/fillers, and water vapor inside the food being
packed remain an obstacle for food packaging. It would be worth
considering all of these factors in food items or possibly inside the food
container for future research. Furthermore, devoted studies on the
fabrication of multi-functional antimicrobial engineered coatings/films Fig. 19. Trade mark of food quality and food packaging are achievable through
with anti-viral efficacy for evaluating its effectiveness against novel biopolymer-based packaging materials.
coronavirus or related pathogens are required.
In nano-biocomposites, there is a need to evaluate the cytotoxic ef high implementation costs. Green food packaging can be achieved by
fect of anti-microbial nanofillers in packaging films. Currently, the supporting and creating awareness among the masses about the
bibliography indicates that the toxicity of nanofillers depends upon importance of a green environment which will accelerate its adoption in
surface-to-volume ratio, size, shape, and doping. Furthermore, there is a the food industry. Additionally, there should be a close collaboration
need to achieve gradual release of anti-bacterial agents for producing between industrial and academia for filling the gap between research
durable and efficient food packaging. Future research on nano- and commercial applications. Fig. 19 depicts food quality and food
biocomposites will permit sustained release as well as reduce the NPs packaging trademarks which are often labeled on food packaging items.
contact with eatables. In the future, the development of sustainable These trademarks are still limited in practice or only quite a few of them
green packaging depends upon the safety evaluation of nanomaterials. are achievable. The use of biopolymer-based materials for developing
Smart packaging technology is another immature research arena that these trademarks can be an interesting area for future research.
needed to be explored in the future. Bio-sensors are considered effective
tools for this innovative and advanced technology (Park et al., 2020). 7. Conclusions
This technology is robust, reliable, and accurate (Pirsa et al., 2022);
however, its advancement is hindered by some limitations including Biodegradable polymers derived from natural biopolymers or syn
sensitivity, microstructure, specificity, and detection limit of thetic bio-based polymers are gaining extensive attention in active food
bio-sensors. These limitations must be overcome before its packaging applications which ultimately lowers the consumption of
commercialization. plastic materials-based packaging and helps in keeping pace with the
Major challenges in the commercialization of food packaging tech demand for delivering healthy and fresh food. In the contemporary era,
nologies are complex legislative and regulatory provisions as well as goals including zero or minimum plastic waste and the desire for an eco-
22
friendly sustainable environment are top priorities of today’s re Andrade, J., González-Martínez, C., & Chiralt, A. (2022). Antimicrobial PLA-PVA
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sustainable and eco-friendly environment. Arif, Z. U., Khalid, M. Y., Ahmed, W., & Arshad, H. (2022). A review on four-dimensional
Besides environmental concerns, all food especially fruits and veg bioprinting in pursuit of advanced tissue engineering applications. Bioprinting. ,
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Results of this review study on food packaging applications revealed that glass/carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites: A step towards the circular
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Armentano, I., Puglia, D., Luzi, F., Arciola, C. R., Morena, F., Martino, S., & Torre, L.
searches were on biodegradable polymers including starch-, chitosan-, (2018). Nanocomposites based on biodegradable polymers. Materials, 11(5). https://
and alginate-based edible food coatings. Sometimes, these films are doi.org/10.3390/ma11050795
chemical and physical modified by adding different NPs for improving Arun, R., Shruthy, R., Preetha, R., & Sreejit, V. (2022). Biodegradable nano composite
reinforced with cellulose nano fiber from coconut industry waste for replacing
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https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.21859
mostly through PVA by incorporating NPs including ZnO, MgO, gra Athukoralalage, S. S., Balu, R., Dutta, N. K., & Roy Choudhury, N. (2019). 3D bioprinted
phene, Ag, TiO2, and carbon dots. These nano-biocomposites increase nanocellulose-based hydrogels for tissue engineering applications: A brief review.
the shelf life of food and the marketability of novel packaging materials. Polymers, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11050898
Atta, O. M., Manan, S., Ul-Islam, M., Ahmed, A. A. Q., Ullah, M. W., & Yang, G. (2022).
These durable packings have excellent antimicrobial activities especially Development and characterization of plant oil-incorporated carboxymethyl
against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria along with good mechanical cellulose/bacterial cellulose/glycerol-based antimicrobial edible films for food
properties and antioxidant activities. Finally, it is concluded that the packaging applications. Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials. https://doi.org/
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role of sustainable biopolymeric materials is pivotal in managing plastic Ayu, R. S., et al. (2020). Characterization study of empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibers
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Conflict of interest statement on biotechnology and medicine. Nanomaterials, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/
nano10020196
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Bajer, D., & Burkowska-But, A. (2022). Innovative and environmentally safe composites
based on starch modified with dialdehyde starch, caffeine, or ascorbic acid for
applications in the food packaging industry. Food Chemistry, 374, Article 131639.
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Food Packaging and Shelf Life 33 (2022) 100892

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Packaging and Shelf Life

Novel biopolymer-based sustainable composites for food packaging

1. Introduction food as well as increase the possibility of foodborne pathogens

metabolites are produced due to the uptake of small molecules into

Fig. 3. Different types of biodegradation process.

Fig. 4. Life cycle of biodegradable composite materials.

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

(caption on next page)

spoilage of shrimps over time, also as a

advantages in the scientific community as well as with the consumers.

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