Chapter 4: network layer

Prof James Kurose

Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
❖ understand principles behind network layer
services:
▪ network layer service models
▪ forwarding versus routing
▪ how a router works
▪ routing (path selection)
▪ broadcast, multicast
❖ instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
application

❖ transport segment from transport

network
data link
sending to receiving host physical
network network
❖ on sending side network
data link
physical
data link
physical
data link
encapsulates segments physical network
data link
network
data link
into datagrams physical physical

❖ on receiving side, delivers network

data link
network
data link

segments to transport physical

network
data link
physical

layer physical
application
network transport
❖ network layer protocols data link
physical
network
network
data link
network data link
in every host, router data link
physical
physical
physical

❖ router examines header

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-4
 Two key network-layer functions
❖ forwarding: move analogy:
packets from router’s
input to appropriate ❖ routing: process of
router output planning trip from source
to dest
❖ routing: determine route
taken by packets from ❖ forwarding: process of
source to dest. getting through single
interchange
▪ routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
❖ 3rd important function in some network
architectures:
▪ ATM, frame relay, X.25
❖ before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual connection
▪ routers get involved
❖ network vs transport layer connection service:
▪ network: between two hosts (may also involve intervening
routers in case of VCs)
▪ transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
example services for example services for a
individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
❖ guaranteed delivery ❖ in-order datagram
❖ guaranteed delivery with delivery
less than 40 msec delay ❖ guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
❖ restrictions on changes in
inter-packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

 Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-10

Connection, connection-less service
❖ datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
❖ virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
❖ analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
▪ service: host-to-host
▪ no choice: network provides one or the other
▪ implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
▪ performance-wise
▪ network actions along source-to-dest path

❖ call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
❖ each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
❖ every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
❖ link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
Network Layer 4-12
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
❖ packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
❖ VC number can be changed on each link.
▪ new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-13

 VC forwarding table
12 22 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table number
in
northwest
Incoming interface
router: Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

VC routers maintain connection state

information! Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols
❖ used to setup, maintain teardown VC
❖ used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
❖ not used in today’s Internet

application application
5. data flow begins 6. receive data
transport transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
1. initiate call network
data link 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
❖ no call setup at network layer
❖ routers: no state about end-to-end connections
▪ no network-level concept of “connection”
❖ packets forwarded using destination host address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-16

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so
routing algorithm
rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
list range of addresses
dest address output link (aggregate table entries)
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-17

Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-18
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
matching
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
❖ data exchange among ❖ evolved from telephony
computers ❖ human conversation:
▪ “elastic” service, no strict ▪ strict timing, reliability
requirements
timing req.
▪ need for guaranteed service
❖ many link types ❖ “dumb” end systems
▪ different characteristics ▪ telephones
▪ uniform service difficult ▪ complexity inside network
❖ “smart” end systems
(computers)
▪ can adapt, perform control,
error recovery
▪ simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”

Network Layer 4-20

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-21

Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
❖ run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
❖ forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

switching
fabric

router input ports routing router output ports

processor

Network Layer 4-22

 Input port functions
link lookup,
layer forwarding
line protocol switch
termination (receive fabric
) queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet ❖ given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory
❖ goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
❖ queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-23
Switching fabrics
❖ transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
❖ switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
▪ often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
▪ N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
❖ three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-24

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
❖ traditional computers with switching under direct control
of CPU
❖ packet copied to system’s memory
❖ speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-25

Switching via a bus
❖ datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
❖ bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
❖ 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient bus
speed for access and enterprise
routers

Network Layer 4-26

Switching via interconnection network
❖ overcome bus bandwidth limitations
❖ banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
❖ advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
❖ Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-27

Output ports

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
(send)
queueing

❖ buffering required when datagrams arrive from

fabric faster than the transmission rate
❖ scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission

Network Layer 4-28

Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

❖ buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
❖ queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
Network Layer 4-29
How much buffering?
❖ RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal
to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times link
capacity C
▪ e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
❖ recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering
equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-30

Input port queuing
❖ fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may
occur at input queues
▪ queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
❖ Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front
of queue prevents others in queue from moving forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time later:

only one red datagram can be green packet
transferred. experiences HOL
lower red packet is blocked blocking
Network Layer 4-31
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-32

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”

link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-33

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
(variable length, list of routers
❖ 20 bytes of TCP
typically a TCP to visit.
❖ 20 bytes of IP
or UDP segment)
❖ = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-34

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
❖ network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-level fragmentation:

…
frame in: one large datagram
▪ different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
❖ large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net reassembly
▪ one datagram becomes
several datagrams
▪ “reassembled” only at …
final destination
▪ IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-35
 IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
❖ 4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
❖ MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP addressing: introduction
❖ IP address: 32-bit 223.1.1.1
identifier for host, router 223.1.2.1
interface 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
❖ interface: connection
between host/router and 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3
physical link
▪ router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
▪ host typically has one 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
interface
▪ IP addresses associated
with each interface
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-38

Subnets
❖ IP address: 223.1.1.1
▪subnet part - high order
bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
▪host part - low order 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

bits 223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
❖ what’s a subnet ?
▪device interfaces with subnet
same subnet part of IP
address 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

▪can physically reach

each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.1.1
recipe
❖ to determine the 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach each 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

interface from its host 223.1.2.2

or router, creating 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

islands of isolated subnet

networks
223.1.3.2
❖ each isolated network 223.1.3.1

is called a subnet
223.1.3.0/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-40
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-41

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
▪ subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
▪ address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-42

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

❖ hard-coded by system admin in a file

▪ Windows:
control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip->propert
ies
▪ UNIX: /etc/rc.config
❖ DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
▪ “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-43

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
▪ can renew its lease on address in use
▪ allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
▪ support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
▪ host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
▪ DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
▪ host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
▪ DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-44

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9 client needs
address in this
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-46

DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
▪ address of first-hop router for client
▪ name and IP address of DNS sever
▪ network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)

Network Layer 4-47

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP ❖ connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth
first-hop router, addr of
Phy DNS server: use DHCP
DHCP
❖ DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP UDP Ethernet
DHCP IP
❖ Ethernet frame broadcast
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
Phy server built into (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
router received at router running
DHCP server
❖ Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed to
DHCP

Network Layer 4-48

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP ❖ DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
❖ encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into ❖ client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DSN server,
IP address of its first-hop
router

Network Layer 4-49

 DHCP: Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
Hardware type: Ethernet reply
output (home LAN) Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-50

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-51

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Network Layer 4-52

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

Network Layer 4-53

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
▪ allocates addresses
▪ manages DNS
▪ assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-54

 NAT: network address translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
138.76.29.7,different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
Network Layer 4-55
 NAT: network address translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far
as outside world is concerned:
▪ range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one
IP address for all devices
▪ can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
▪ can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
▪ devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus)

Network Layer 4-56

NAT: network address translation
implementation: NAT router must:
▪ outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every outgoing
datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new port
#) as destination addr

▪ remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #)

to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair

▪ incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest fields

of every incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port
#) stored in NAT table
▪ Unlike proxy server, no separate TCP connections established between
(client-NAT router) and (NAT router-outside Server). Hence outside
server IP address & portID are visible to clients behind NAT router

Network Layer 4-57

 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr sends datagram to
changes datagram
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-58

NAT: network address translation
❖ 16-bit port-number field:
▪ 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
❖ NAT is controversial:
▪ routers should only process up to layer 3
▪ violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, e.g., P2P applications
▪ address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

Network Layer 4-59

NAT traversal problem
❖ client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1
▪ server address 10.0.0.1 local to client
10.0.0.1
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr) ?
▪ only one externally visible NATed 10.0.0.4
address: 138.76.29.7
❖ solution1: statically configure 138.76.29.7 NAT
NAT to forward incoming router
connection requests at given
port to server
▪ e.g., (138.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1 port
25000

Network Layer 4-60

NAT traversal problem
❖ solution 2: Universal Plug and Play
(UPnP) Internet Gateway Device
(IGD) Protocol. Allows NATed 10.0.0.1
host to: IGD
❖ learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
❖ add/remove port mappings
NAT
(with lease times) router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-61

 NAT traversal problem
❖ solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
▪ NATed client establishes connection to relay
▪ external client connects to relay
▪ relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to 10.0.0.1
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-62

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-63

ICMP: internet control message protocol

❖ used by hosts & routers

Type Code description
to communicate 0 0 echo reply (ping)
network-level information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
▪ error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
▪ echo request/reply (used by 3 6 dest network unknown
ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
❖ network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
▪ ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
❖ ICMP message: type, code
10 0 router discovery
plus first 8 bytes of IP 11 0 TTL expired
datagram causing error 12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-64

Traceroute and ICMP
❖ source sends series of ❖ when ICMP messages
UDP segments to dest arrives, source records
▪ first set has TTL =1 RTTs
▪ second set has TTL=2, etc.
▪ unlikely port number stopping criteria:
❖ when nth set of datagrams ❖ UDP segment eventually
arrives to nth router: arrives at destination host
▪ router discards datagrams ❖ destination returns ICMP
▪ and sends source ICMP “port unreachable”
messages (type 11, code 0) message (type 3, code 3)
▪ ICMP messages includes
❖ source stops
name of router & IP address

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer 4-65
 IPv6: motivation
❖ initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
❖ additional motivation:
▪ header format helps speed processing/forwarding
▪ header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

▪ fixed-length 40 byte header
▪ no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-66

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in
flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header:veridentify
pri
upper layer protocol
flow label
for
data payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-67
Other changes from IPv4
❖ checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
❖ options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field
❖ ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
▪ additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
▪ multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-68

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
❖ not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
▪ no “flag days”
▪ how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
❖ tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-69
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-70

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-71
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-72

Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
local forwarding at this router
dest address output link
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-73

Graph abstraction
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-74

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z

?
routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost
path Network Layer 4-75
Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information? static:
global: ❖ routes change slowly over
❖ all routers have complete time
topology, link cost info dynamic:
❖ “link state” algorithms ❖ routes change more
decentralized: quickly
❖ router knows ▪ periodic update
physically-connected ▪ in response to link
neighbors, link costs to cost changes
neighbors
❖ iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
❖ “distance vector” algorithms
Network Layer 4-76
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-77

A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm notation:
❖ net topology, link costs ❖ c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if not
▪ accomplished via “link state direct neighbors
broadcast” ❖ D(v): current value of
▪ all nodes have same info cost of path from source
❖ computes least cost paths to dest. v
from one node (‘source”) ❖ p(v): predecessor node
to all other nodes along path from source to
▪ gives forwarding table for v
that node ❖ N': set of nodes whose
❖ iterative: after k iterations, least cost path definitively
know least cost path to k known
dest.’s

Network Layer 4-78

Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-79

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5
4
7
❖ construct shortest path tree by
tracing predecessor nodes 8
❖ ties can exist (can be broken 3 w
u y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-80
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-81

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-82
 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
❖ each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
❖ n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
❖ more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
❖ e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried traffic:

1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
C 0 1 0
1 C C 1+e C
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-83
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-84

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
v

cost from neighbor v to destination y

cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of

x
Network Layer 4-85
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x y
1 c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-86
Distance vector algorithm
❖ Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
▪ x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
❖ node x:
▪ knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
▪ maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-87

 Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
❖ from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
❖ when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

❖ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate

Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-88

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, asynchronous: each
each local iteration node:
caused by:
wait for (change in local link
❖ local link cost change
cost or msg from neighbor)
❖ DV update message from
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
❖ each node notifies
neighbors only when its
if DV to any dest has
DV changes
▪ neighbors then notify their changed, notify neighbors
neighbors if necessary

Network Layer 4-89

 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-90
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node y cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-91
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 1
❖ node detects local link cost change y
4 1
❖ updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
❖ if DV changes, notify neighbors

“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-92

Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes: 60
❖ node detects local link cost change y
4 1
❖ bad news travels slow - “count to x z
infinity” problem! 50
❖ 44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text

poisoned reverse:
❖ If Z routes through Y to get to X :
▪ Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route
to X via Z)
❖ will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

Network Layer 4-93

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if
❖ LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) router malfunctions?
msgs sent LS:
❖ DV: exchange between neighbors ▪ node can advertise incorrect
only link cost
▪ convergence time varies ▪ each node computes only its
own table
speed of convergence
❖ LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
DV:
O(nE) msgs ▪ DV node can advertise
▪ may have oscillations incorrect path cost
▪ each node’s table used by
❖ DV: convergence time varies
others
▪ may be routing loops
• error propagate thru
▪ count-to-infinity problem network

Network Layer 4-94

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-95

Hierarchical routing
our routing study thus far - idealization
❖ all routers identical
❖ network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 600 million administrative autonomy

destinations: ❖ internet = network of
❖ can’t store all dest’s in networks
routing tables! ❖ each network admin may
❖ routing table exchange want to control routing in
would swamp links! its own network

Network Layer 4-96

Hierarchical routing
❖ aggregate routers into gateway router:
regions, “autonomous ❖ at “edge” of its own AS
systems” (AS) ❖ has link to router in
❖ routers in same AS another AS
run same routing
protocol
▪ “intra-AS” routing
protocol
▪ routers in different AS
can run different
intra-AS routing
protocol

Network Layer 4-97

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d ❖ forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS algorithm
Routing
algorithm algorithm ▪ intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table ▪ inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-98
 Inter-AS tasks
❖ suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of AS1: reachable through AS2,
▪ router should forward which through AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-99

 Example: setting forwarding table in router 1d
❖ suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x
reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not via AS2
▪ inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal
routers
❖ router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
▪ installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c … x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-100

Example: choosing among multiple ASes

❖ now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet

x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
❖ to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
which gateway it should forward packets towards for dest x
▪ this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c … x …
3b
3a …
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-101
 Example: choosing among multiple ASes
❖ now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet
x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
❖ to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x
▪ this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
❖ hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

use routing info determine from

learn from inter-AS hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-102

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-103

Intra-AS Routing
❖ also known as interior gateway protocols (IGP)
❖ most common intra-AS routing protocols:
▪ RIP: Routing Information Protocol
▪ OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
▪ IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-104

 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
❖ included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
❖ distance vector algorithm
▪ distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
▪ DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka
advertisement)
▪ each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing
sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-105
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-106
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-107
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
▪ routes via neighbor invalidated
▪ new advertisements sent to neighbors
▪ neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
▪ link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
▪ poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-108

RIP table processing
❖ RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
❖ advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
forwardin
network forwarding network
g
(IP) table (IP)
table
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-109

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
❖ “open”: publicly available
❖ uses link state algorithm
▪ LS packet dissemination
▪ topology map at each node
▪ route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
❖ OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
❖ advertisements flooded to entire AS
▪ carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than
TCP or UDP
❖ IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-110

OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
❖ security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
❖ multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
❖ for each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS
(e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort ToS;
high for real time ToS)
❖ integrated uni- and multicast support:
▪ Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
❖ hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-111

Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
area 1 routers

area 2

Network Layer 4-112

Hierarchical OSPF
❖ two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
▪ link-state advertisements only in area
▪ each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
❖ area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
❖ backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
❖ boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-113

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
❖ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
▪ “glue that holds the Internet together”
❖ BGP provides each AS a means to:
▪ eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
▪ iBGP: propagate reachability information to all
AS-internal routers.
▪ determine “good” routes to other networks based on
reachability information and policy.
❖ allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
Internet: “I am here”

Network Layer 4-114

 BGP basics
❖ BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP
messages:
▪ advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (“path vector”
protocol)
▪ exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections

❖ when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

▪ AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
▪ AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-115

BGP basics: distributing path information
❖ using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
▪ 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all routers
in AS1
▪ 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over
1b-to-2a eBGP session
❖ when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for
prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-116

Path attributes and BGP routes
❖ advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
▪ prefix + attributes = “route”
❖ two important attributes:
▪ AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
▪ NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS to
next-hop-AS)
❖ gateway router receiving route advertisement uses
import policy to accept/decline
▪ e.g., never route through AS x
▪ policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-117

BGP route selection
❖ router may learn about more than 1 route to
destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-118

BGP messages
❖ BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
❖ BGP messages:
▪ OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and authenticates
sender
▪ UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
▪ KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
▪ NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection

Network Layer 4-119

 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B networ
X k
W A
customer
C network
:
Y

❖ A,B,C are provider networks

❖ X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
❖ X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
▪ X does not want to route from B via X to C
▪ .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-120

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B networ
X k
W A
customer
C network
:
Y

❖ A advertises path AW to B
❖ B advertises path BAW to X
❖ Should B advertise path BAW to C?
▪ No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W nor
C are B’s customers
▪ B wants to force C to route to w via A
▪ B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-121

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
❖ inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
❖ intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
scale:
❖ hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
performance:
❖ intra-AS: can focus on performance
❖ inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-122

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router ▪ hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ datagram format ▪ RIP
▪ IPv4 addressing ▪ OSPF
▪ ICMP ▪ BGP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-123

Broadcast routing
❖ deliver packets from source to all other nodes
❖ source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

❖ source duplication: how does source determine

recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-124
In-network duplication
❖ flooding: when node receives broadcast packet,
sends copy to all neighbors
▪ problems: cycles & broadcast storm
❖ controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt if it
hasn’t broadcast same packet before
▪ node keeps track of packet ids already broadacsted
▪ or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward packet
if it arrived on shortest path between node and source
❖ spanning tree:
▪ no redundant packets received by any node

Network Layer 4-125

Spanning tree
❖ first construct a spanning tree
❖ nodes then forward/make copies only along
spanning tree

A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-126

Spanning tree: creation
❖ center node
❖ each node sends unicast join message to center
node
▪ message forwarded until it arrives at a node already
belonging to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) stepwise construction of (b) constructed spanning
spanning tree (center: E) tree
Network Layer 4-127
Multicast routing: problem statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers having
local mcast group members legend
❖ tree: not all paths between routers used group
❖ shared-tree: same tree used by all group members member
not group
❖ source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs member
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member

shared tree source-based trees

Network Layer 4-128
Approaches for building mcast trees
approaches:
❖ source-based tree: one tree per source
▪ shortest path trees
▪ reverse path forwarding
❖ group-shared tree: group uses one tree
▪ minimal spanning (Steiner)
▪ center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols

adopting these approaches

Network Layer 4-129

Shortest path tree
❖ mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path
routes from source to all receivers
▪ Dijkstra’s algorithm

s: source LEGEND
R1 2 router with attached
1 R4
group member
R2 5 router with no attached
3 4 group member
R5
i link used for forwarding,
R3 6
i indicates order link
R6 R7 added by algorithm

Network Layer 4-130

Reverse path forwarding

❖ rely on router’s knowledge of unicast shortest

path from it to sender
❖ each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on

shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram

Network Layer 4-131

Reverse path forwarding: example
s: source LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be forwarded
R6 R7
datagram will not be
forwarded

❖ result is a source-specific reverse SPT

▪ may be a bad choice with asymmetric links

Network Layer 4-132

Reverse path forwarding: pruning
❖ forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group
members
▪ no need to forward datagrams down subtree
▪ “prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
router with attached
group member
R2
P
router with no attached
R5 group member
P
R3 P prune message
R6 links with multicast
R7 forwarding

Network Layer 4-133

Shared-tree: steiner tree

❖ steiner tree: minimum cost tree connecting all

routers with attached group members
❖ problem is NP-complete
❖ excellent heuristics exists
❖ not used in practice:
▪ computational complexity
▪ information about entire network needed
▪ monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave

Network Layer 4-134

Center-based trees
❖ single delivery tree shared by all
❖ one router identified as “center” of tree
❖ to join:
▪ edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to
center router
▪ join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
▪ join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this center,
or arrives at center
▪ path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of tree
for this router

Network Layer 4-135

Center-based trees: example
suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6
R7

Network Layer 4-136

Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP

❖ DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing

protocol, RFC1075
❖ flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
▪ RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
▪ no assumptions about underlying unicast
▪ initial datagram to mcast group flooded everywhere
via RPF
▪ routers not wanting group: send upstream prune msgs

Network Layer 4-137

DVMRP: continued…
❖ soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
“forgets” branches are pruned:
▪ mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
▪ downstream router: reprune or else continue to receive
data
❖ routers can quickly regraft to tree
▪ following IGMP join at leaf
❖ odds and ends
▪ commonly implemented in commercial router

Network Layer 4-138

Tunneling
Q: how to connect “islands” of multicast routers in a
“sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

❖ mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal”

(non-multicast-addressed) datagram
❖ normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast
to receiving mcast router (recall IPv6 inside IPv4 tunneling)
❖ receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast
datagram
Network Layer 4-139
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
❖ not dependent on any specific underlying unicast
routing algorithm (works with all)
❖ two different multicast distribution scenarios :

dense: sparse:
❖ group members densely ❖ # networks with group
packed, in “close” members small wrt #
proximity. interconnected networks
❖ bandwidth more plentiful ❖ group members “widely
dispersed”
❖ bandwidth not plentiful

Network Layer 4-140

Consequences of sparse-dense dichotomy:
dense sparse:
❖ group membership by ❖ no membership until routers
routers assumed until explicitly join
routers explicitly prune ❖ receiver- driven construction
❖ data-driven construction on of mcast tree (e.g.,
mcast tree (e.g., RPF) center-based)
❖ bandwidth and ❖ bandwidth and
non-group-router non-group-router processing
processing profligate conservative

Network Layer 4-141

PIM- dense mode
flood-and-prune RPF: similar to DVMRP but…
❖ underlying unicast protocol provides RPF info
for incoming datagram
❖ less complicated (less efficient) downstream
flood than DVMRP reduces reliance on
underlying routing algorithm
❖ has protocol mechanism for router to detect it
is a leaf-node router

Network Layer 4-142

PIM - sparse mode
❖ center-based approach
❖ router sends join msg to R1
R4
rendezvous point (RP) join
▪ intermediate routers R2
update state and join
forward join R5
join
❖ after joining via RP, router R3
can switch to R6
source-specific tree R7
all data multicast
▪ increased from rendezvous
rendezvous
point
performance: less point
concentration, shorter
paths

Network Layer 4-143

PIM - sparse mode
sender(s):
R1
❖ unicast data to RP, R4
join
which distributes
R2
down RP-rooted tree join
❖ RP can extend mcast R5
join
tree upstream to R3
source R6
❖ RP can send stop msg all data multicast R7
rendezvous
if no attached from rendezvous point
point
receivers
▪ “no one is listening!”

Network Layer 4-144

Chapter 4: done!
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state, distance vector,
datagram networks hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a router 4.6 routing in the Internet
▪ RIP, OSPF, BGP
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
▪ datagram format, IPv4 4.7 broadcast and multicast
addressing, ICMP, IPv6 routing

❖ understand principles behind network layer services:

▪ network layer service models, forwarding versus routing
how a router works, routing (path selection), broadcast,
multicast
❖ instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-145