Identification of human

remains
Shomvi,M.A
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session every participant should be able to:

• Explain elements of forensic anthropology and anthropometry

• Explain elements of forensic haematology
• Explain elements of Forensic Odontology
• Explain elements of DNA profiling
Forensic haematology
• Blood is a tissue, composed of several types of cells in a matrix called
plasma.
• Plasma consists of about 90% water and 10% of a long list of other
substances
• 7% protein
• 3% urea
• Amino acids
• Carbohydrates
• Organic acids
• Fats
• Steroid hormones, and other inorganic ions.
Forensic haematology
• Within the plasma are three types of cells:
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells),
• Leukocytes (white blood cells), and
• Platelets.
• Hemoglobin, the respiratory pigment of many animals, is a conjugated
protein consisting of four polypeptides, each of which contains a heme
group.
• Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow and have about a four-
month life span. They discard their nuclei as they mature and,
therefore, contain no DNA.
Forensic haematology
• White blood cells, or leukocytes, are active in the immune system but are
not as numerous as erythrocytes, about 10–15,000 per milliliter of blood.
• The two types of leukocytes differ in their specific functions but work in a
coordinated fashion
• Polymorphonuclear cells
• Lymphocytes
Macrophages support the immune response
• Finally, platelets are only fragments of cells and contain no nuclei; they
number around 15–300,000 per milliliter of blood.
• Platelets are involved in the clotting process
 Forensic haematology
Presumptive Tests for Blood
• If hemoglobin is present, one of two general results occurs, depending on the test.
• Either a colorless reactive substance changes to a colored form (from clear to pink, for
example) or light of a specific wavelength is emitted (fluorescence or
chemiluminescence) in the presence of hemoglobin
• Procedure the testing chemical is added to the suspected stain and then an oxidant is
added, usually 3% hydrogen peroxide.
• Reagents Phenolphthalein, benzidine, leucomalachite green, and
tetramethylbenzidine (TMB).
• The sensitivity of the phenolphthalein test can detect blood diluted down to 10-7 (1
part in 10 million) and even decades-old bloodstains can yield pink positive results.
 Forensic haematology
Confirmatory Tests for Blood
• Confirmatory tests for blood utilize the formation of crystals through the
application of heat and testing chemicals.
• Takayama test (also known as the hemochromogen test) is performed by
taking a small sample of the presumptive stain and placing it under a cover
slip.
• The sample is heated briefly and, while being observed through a
microscope, pyridine under alkaline conditions in the presence of a reducing
sugar is added with a pipette. If blood is present, salmon-colored crystals
form.
• The Takayama test is very sensitive, and even very old bloodstains may give
a positive reaction
 Forensic haematology
species Origin
• Tests that determine the species from which a blood sample originated fall
into two general categories:
• Diffusion reactions and
• Electrophoretic methods.
• The most common diffusion reaction test, the Ouchterlony test, is based
on an antibody-antigen reaction between human blood and human anti-
serum.
• Electrophoresis methods are based on the diffusion of antibodies and
antigens on an electrically charged gel-coated plate.
 Forensic haematology
Genetic Markers in Blood
• A blood group is a class of antigens produced by allelic genes at one or more loci
and inherited independently of other genes. About 20 human blood groups are
known to exist.
• The practical meaning of this is that a blood group is a permanent genetic trait—
one that is controlled by genes and unchanging throughout a person’s life.
• This makes blood potentially excellent evidence for classification and possible
inclusion or exclusion.
• Several systems are used to characterize and classify blood. The first and best
known is the ABO blood group, discovered in 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. The letters
A, B, and O refer to the antigens on the surface of the red blood cell
• Very few forensic laboratories currently perform blood group testing. If a stain is
tested and is presumptively positive for blood, it is sent on for DNA straight away.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
• One of the most explicit methods of forensic science that exemplifies
its reconstructive nature is the analysis and interpretation of
bloodstain patterns.
• Definition bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) as the analysis and
interpretation of the dispersion, shape characteristics, volume,
pattern, number, and relationship of bloodstains at a crime scene to
reconstruct a process of events.
• A combination of geometry, physiology, physics, and logic, bloodstain
pattern analysis requires extensive training coupled with a solid
scientific education to be properly applied.
 DNA Fingerprinting

• DNA fingerprinting is a technique that is capable of distinguishing every

individual, with the exception of identical twins and clones.
• It depends on the fact that no two people have exactly the same DNA
sequence and that although only limited segments of a person’s DNA are
scrutinized in the procedure, those segments will be statistically unique.
• Two methods of DNA analysis are in common use
i. RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism)
ii. PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
 DNA Fingerprinting
Restriction fragment length polymorphism
• In the human genome, in between the active base pairs which code for a
particular protein, there is large number of inactive base pairs forming 95% of
DNA which is considered as ‘junk DNA’ or ‘filler DNA’ or ‘nonsense DNA’.
• Technically, these ‘introns’ separate the ‘exons’ which serve as protein patterns.
• DNA fingerprinters overlook the DNA in genes, in favor of ‘junk DNA’ between
the genes.
• The ‘junk DNA’ short sequences of base repeat themselves over and over again
like a stutter repetitive DNA e.g. CGTA, CGTA, GACA, GACA, etc.
• The regions containing repetitive DNA demonstrating hypervariability from
person to person are called ‘satellite DNA’ .
 DNA Fingerprinting
• The ‘satellite DNA’ shows an extremely high degree of variability, and these
variants are called ‘variable number tandem repeats’ (VNTR) or ‘minisatellites’.
• Selected regions of VNTR are broken into fragments using special enzymes
(restriction endonucleases).
• The resulting fragments are called restriction fragments length polymorphisms
(RFLP).
• Gel electrophoresis can be used to separate and determine the size of the
RFLPs (fragments are of variable lengths).
• The exact number and size of fragments produced by a specific restriction
enzyme digestion varies from individual to individual, i.e. they are
individualistic in nature and establish 100% identity.
DNA Fingerprinting

RFLP- Limitations
• It takes few weeks to perform
• The procedure is cumbersome
• It is not useful where DNA is degraded—limited value in testing
cadaveric tissue for identification of human remains, unless fresh
 DNA Fingerprinting
• PCR is a technique used for amplifying sample of DNA fragments in vitro
• In this process, a particular DNA segment from a mixture of DNA chains is
rapidly replicated, producing a large, readily analyzable sample of a piece of
DNA(DNA amplification)
• PCR itself does not accomplish DNA typing, but increases the amount of DNA
available for typing.
• It is used to produce multiple copies of segments from a very limited amount
of DNA. Once a sufficient sample has been produced, the pattern of the
alleles from a limited number of genes is compared with the pattern from the
reference sample.
• A nonmatch conclusively excludes a suspect, but the technique provides less
certainty when a match occurs.
 DNA Fingerprinting
• Applications: PCR technique has virtually limitless applications. It
enables researchers to amplify and analyze tiny DNA samples from
variety of sources— ranging from crimes scenes to archeological
remains.
• Limitation: It is too sensitive; a tiny amount of contaminant DNA in a
sample may become amplified if it includes a DNA sequence
complimentary to the primers, leading to an erroneous conclusion.
Sample for DNA analysis
Samples Encountered in Forensic Practice
• Blood (EDTA/heparinized/clotted/stain on cloth, newspaper, wood or
tiles)
• Semen (stain on cloth/paper/floor)
• Hair (head/body/pubic)
• Tissue (bone marrow/muscle/spleen/fingernail scrapings)
• Mouth swabs and saliva stain on cigarette buds/ licked envelope
 Forensic Odontology
• Definition:Is the application of dentistry to assist administration of
justice through the professional handling, examination, and expert
interpretation and documentation of dental evidence findings
• The work of a forensic odontologist includes:
i. Identification of unknown bodies through dental records
ii. Identification of bite marks on the victims of attack
iii. Comparison of bite marks with the teeth of a suspect and
presentation of this evidence in court as an expert witness
iv. Identification of bite marks in other substances such as wood, leather
and foodstuffs
v. Age estimation of skeletal remains
 Forensic Odontology
Identification of Human Remains
• Once the postmortem record is complete, a comparison between this and
dental records can be carried out.
• A range of conclusions can be reached when reporting a dental identification.
Even if only a few teeth are available, still offer an
age estimation,
smoking habit,
state of oral hygiene and identification of individual features which may match with
antemortem records.
• Where the subject has no teeth, useful information can still be obtained from
the study of any dentures and by X-ray of mouth and skull.
Eruption of deciduous teeth (in months)
Eruption of deciduous teeth
Eruption of permanent teeth (in years)
Forensic Odontology
• Bite Marks
i. Bites are commonly seen in cases of:
ii. Sexual assault: Marks are usually seen on breasts, neck, shoulders,
thighs, abdomen, pubis or vulva.
iii. Child abuse: Marks are seen anywhere on the body, such as arms, hands,
shoulders, cheeks, buttocks and trunk.
iv. Bite marks on foodstuffs (apples, cheese, chocolate), leather (key rings
and belts) and wood (pencils) in cases where a perpetrator might have
taken a bite out of something in the victim's home and left it behind.
v. Police officers may be bitten by the resisting offenders. v. In sporting
events, like football, rugby or wrestling.
vi. In assaults, where marks may be found anywhere on the body.
 Forensic Odontology
Dental Profiling
• When dental records are unavailable and other methods of identification are not
possible, the forensic dentist often produces a 'picture' of the general features of
the individual known as dental profiling
• It will typically provide information of the deceased's age, ancestral background,
sex and socio-economic status
• In some instances, it is possible to provide additional information regarding
occupation, dietary habits, habitual behaviors and occasionally, on dental or
systemic diseases
• Microscopic examination of teeth can confirm sex by the presence or absence of Y-
chromatin and DNA analysis can also reveal sex
• Because of the resistant nature of dental tissues to environmental assaults, such as
incineration, immersion, trauma, mutilation and decomposition, teeth represent an
excellent source of DNA material
 Forensic Odontology
• Charting of Teeth
• On the charts following peculiarities are recorded:
• Any extractions, recent or old
• Any fillings, number, position and composition
• Artificial teeth, whether of gold, porcelain or stainless steel
• Prosthetic work in mouth, such as bridge work or braces
• Any crowned teeth
• Any broken teeth
 Forensic Odontology
• On the charts following peculiarities are recorded:
• Pathological conditions in teeth, jaws or gums
• Congenital defects, such as enamel pearls, Carabelli's cusps or ectopic
teeth
• Malpositioned teeth that are rotated or tilted
• General state of hygiene, like caries, plaque, tobacco staining and gingivitis
• Racial pointers, such as shovel shaped upper central incisors and multi-
cusped molars.
 Most widely used systems are
i. Universal (Cunningham) system: Follows the plan advocated by American
and International Society of Forensic Odontology.
• The permanent teeth are numbered from 1 to 32 and lettering the deciduous teeth A
to T, starting at the posterior upper right and continuing in a clockwise direction.
ii. Palmer's notation: Palmer numbered the permanent teeth with
Arabic numerals 1 to 8 from midline backwards
iii. Haderup system: It is similar to Palmer notation, except it uses a
plus sign (+) to designate upper teeth and a minus sign (-) for lower.
For the deciduous teeth, a zero was additionally placed in front of
the number. This notation was adopted by the Scandinavian
countries.
• FDI (Federation Dentaire Internationale) - two-digit system: A two-
digit notation capable of indicating tooth and quadrant was
developed. Thus, lower right canine will be numbered 43. This was
adopted as the International Standard.
 Medico-legal Application Forensic Odontology
i. Identification: Dental identification is the most sophisticated method
of comparative identification after dactylography. It is of not much
use in developing countries, as dentists often do not keep records.
ii. Age estimation of an individual.
iii. Grievous hurt: Fracture/dislocation of tooth amounts to grievous
hurt according to
iv. Cause of death: The teeth resist putrefaction and deposition of
metals can be detected after considerable time after death, e.g.
poisoning.
v. Dentures (partial or complete) are useful in identification, if they
have the patient's name or code number in them.
vi. Criminals can be identified through bite marks left either in human
tissues or foodstuffs
Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• Forensic anthropology is that branch of physical anthropology which
for forensic purposes deals with identification of skeletonized remains
known to be or suspected to be being human.
• The first scientific method of criminal identification, called
anthropometry, is attributable to Alphonse Bertillon (1853- 1914).
• He developed this system based on the principle that the
measurements of various parts of the human body do not alter after
adult age (21 years).
 Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• As a scientific method for personal identification. It includes:
• Descriptive data: Color of hair, eyes, complexion, shape of nose, ears and
chin.
• Body measurement: Height, AP diameter of head and trunk, span of
outstretched arms, length of middle finger, left little finger, left forearm,
left foot, length and breadth of right ear and color of left iris. (11 such
measurements)
• Body marks, such as moles, scars and tattoo marks.
• Photographs of front view and right profile of the head are also taken.
 Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• Dactylography (Dactyloscopy) Dactylography (dermatoglyphics, Galton system)
is the study of fingerprints as a method of identification
• The fingers, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet of humans (and some
other primates) bear friction ridge skin
• On the tip of the fingers, the friction ridge skin forms a number of basic
patterns. Within each basic pattern are numerous possible variations.
• The arrangement and distribution of the patterns are unique to an individual
and no two hands resemble each other
• Fingerprints do not change throughout life, unless damage has occurred to the
dermal skin layer.
 Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• Fingerprint Patterns There are four basic ridge patterns
 forensic anthropology and anthropometry
Identification Protocol
• The unknown impression is examined, and all details are analyzed and
then compared to the known, to determine if a relationship exists
• Weight is assigned in a comparison, not only to the number of minutiae
in agreement, but also the rarity and clarity of those characteristics
• Differences in appearance due to recording technique, pressure and other factors
must be anticipated.
• The comparison can result in one of three possible conclusions:
insufficient ridge detail to form a conclusion, exclusion or identification
i.e. that they were made by the same finger.
 Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
Medico-legal Application
• Identification of criminals whose fingerprints were found at scene.
• Identification of fugitive through fingerprint comparison.
• Exchange of criminal identifying information with identification bureau of
foreign countries in cases of mutual interest.
• Identification of unknown deceased person, persons suffering from amnesia,
missing persons and unconscious patient.
• Identification in disaster work.
• Identification in case of accidental exchange of newborn infants.
• Identification of licensing procedure for automobile, firearm, aircrafts, etc.
• Problems of mistaken identity and detection of bank forgeries
Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• Lip prints (Cheiloscopy)
• The study of lip prints is called cheiloscopy.
• It is said that a person's lip prints are unique.
• Lip prints are revealed at the point of direct, physical contact of the
perpetrator's lips with an object at the scene of crime, e.g. cutlery
and crockery items particularly if a meal was eaten or the surface of
windows, plastic bags and cigarette ends.
Forensic anthropology and anthropometry
• Suzuki has divided lip prints into five main types
• Type I represents grooves running vertically over the lips.
• Type I! has partial length grooves of Type I variety. They do not cover
the entire breadth of the lips.
• Type II represents the branched grooves and
• Type III represents the intersected grooves.
• Type IV represents the reticular pattern, much like a wire mesh
• Type V represents all other patterns. These are irregular non-
classified patterns.
 Forensic anthropology and anthropometry

• Hair Examination of hair (tricology) can provide crime investigators with

important clues.
• Apart from burning, hair is virtually indestructible. It remains
identifiable even on bodies in an advanced state of decomposition or
attached to the weapon of offence after a crime has been committed
Discussion