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MODULE – 1
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS – I

POWER SUPPLIES
Nearly all electronic circuits require a source of well-regulated d.c. (direct current) at voltages of
typically between 5 V and 30 V. In some cases, this supply can be derived directly from batteries (e.g. 6
V, 9 V, 12 V); but, in many others it is desirable to make use of a standard a.c. (alternate current) mains
outlet. Here, we will see how rectifier and smoothing circuits operate and how power supply output
voltages can be closely regulated. The block diagram of a d.c. power supply is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of d.c. Power Supply

The transformer provides voltage transformation and electrical isolation between the input power supply
(a.c. mains) and the d.c. output. A step-down transformer of appropriate turns ratio is used to convert high
voltage to a low voltage.
The rectifier circuit changes the a.c. voltage appearing across the transformer secondary to d.c.
(unidirectional output). This is referred to as unsmoothed d.c. or pulsating d.c.
The rectifier circuit always has some a.c. content known as ripple. The filter circuit smoothens the ripple
of the rectifier circuit.
The regulator is a type of feedback circuit that ensures that the output d.c. voltage does not change from
its nominal value due to change in line voltage or load current.
Figure 1.2 shows some electronic components that are used in the realization of the power supply unit.

Figure 1.2: Block Diagram of d.c. Power Supply Showing Principal Components

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement (often based on a bridge circuit). The
output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value reservoir capacitor. This capacitor stores a
considerable amount of charge and is being constantly topped-up by the rectifier arrangement. The
capacitor also helps to smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier. Finally, a stabilizing
circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator and a zener diode voltage reference) provides a
constant output voltage.

RECTIFIERS:
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct current (d.c.), in
which case they are referred to as rectifiers. The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single
diode and, since it operates on only either positive or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a
half-wave rectifier. Figure 1.3 shows a simple half-wave rectifier circuit.

Figure 1.3: Half-wave Rectifier

Mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-down transformer (T1). The secondary of
T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or 20:1). Diode
D1 will allow the current to flow when it is forward biased. D1 will be forward biased during each
positive half-cycle and will effectively behave like a closed switch (see Figure 1.4 (a)). When the circuit
current tries to flow in the opposite direction, the voltage bias across the diode will be reversed, causing
the diode to act like an open switch (see Figure1.4 (b)).

Figure 1.4: Half-wave Rectifier Operation

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating output voltage which is developed across the load
resistor (RL). Since the mains supply is at 50 Hz, the pulses of voltage developed across RL will also be at
50 Hz. During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop 0.6 V to 0.7 V (forward threshold voltage
normally associated with silicon diodes).
During the negative half-cycle the peak a.c. voltage will be dropped across D1, since it is reverse biased.
This is an important consideration when selecting a diode for a particular application. Assuming that the
secondary of T1 provides 12 V r.m.s., the peak voltage output from the transformer’s secondary winding
will be given by:
𝑽𝒑𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 ∗ 𝑽𝒓.𝒎.𝒔. = 1.414 ∗ 12 𝑉 = 16.97 𝑉
The peak voltage applied to D1 will thus be approximately 17 V.
The negative half-cycles are blocked by D1 and thus only the positive half-cycles appear across RL. The
actual peak voltage across RL will be the 17 V positive peak being supplied from the secondary on T1,
minus the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage dropped by D1. Thus, positive half-cycle pulses having peak
amplitude of 16.3 V will appear across RL.

Solve: A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If
the secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak voltage that will appear across
a load.
Solution: Figure 1.5 shows the relation between voltage and turns of a transformer.

Figure 1.5: Transformer Turns Ratio

𝑁𝑆 1
The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by: 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃 ∗ 𝑁𝑃
= 220 ∗ 44
=5𝑉

The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:

𝑉𝑝𝑘 = 1.414 ∗ 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. = 1.414 ∗ 5 𝑉 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝑽
Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage drop of 0.6 V, the actual peak voltage
dropped across the load will be: VL = 7.07 V – 0.6 V = 6.47 V

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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RESERVOIR AND SMOOTHING CIRCUITS:

Figure 1.6 shows a considerable improvement to the circuit of Figure 1.3. The capacitor, C1, has been
added to ensure that the output voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is not
conducting.

Figure 1.6: Half-wave Rectifier with Reservoir Capacitor

When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first positive half-cycle output from the secondary
will charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL. Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V at the peak of the positive
half-cycle. As C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage across RL will be the same as that across C1.
The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined by the charging circuit
time constant (the series resistance multiplied by the capacitance value). In this circuit, the series
resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance together with the forward resistance of the diode
and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring and connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as D1
starts to conduct.
The time required for C1 to discharge is very much greater. The discharge time constant is determined by
the capacitance value and the load resistance, RL. In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of
the secondary circuit and hence C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge. During this time, D1 will be
reverse biased and will thus be held in its non-conducting state. As a consequence, the only discharge
path for C1 is through RL.
C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores charge during the positive half-cycles of secondary
voltage and releases it during the negative half-cycles. The circuit of Figure 1.6 is thus able to maintain a
reasonably constant output voltage across RL. Even so, C1 will discharge by a small amount during the
negative half-cycle periods from the transformer secondary.
Figure 1.6 also shows the secondary voltage waveform together with the voltage developed across RL
with C1 present. This gives rise to a small variation in the d.c. output voltage (known as ripple).
Since ripple is undesirable we must take additional precautions to reduce it. One obvious method of
reducing the amplitude of the ripple is that of simply increasing the discharge time constant. This can be
achieved either by increasing the value of C1 or by increasing the resistance value of RL.
Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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R–C Smoothing Filter:

Figure 1.7(a) shows a further refinement of the simple power supply circuit.

Figure 1.7(a): Half-wave Rectifier Circuit with R–C Smoothing Filter

This circuit employs two additional components, R1 and C1, which act as a filter to remove the ripple.
The value of C1 is chosen so that the component exhibits a negligible reactance at the ripple frequency
(50 Hz for a half-wave rectifier or 100 Hz for a full-wave rectifier – discussed later). In effect, R1 and C1
act like a potential divider. The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:
𝑋𝐶

√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2

Solve: The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 =
100 Ω and C2 = 1,000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of
ripple appearing at the output.
Solution: First we must determine the reactance of the capacitor, C1, at the ripple frequency (50 Hz):
𝟏 1
𝑿𝑪 = = = 3.18 Ω
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 6.28 ∗ 50 ∗ 1000 ∗ 10−6
The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit (i.e. appearing across C1) will be given by:
𝑿𝑪 3.18
𝑽𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 = = = 0.032 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 32 𝑚𝑉
√1002 + 3.182
√𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑪

Homework: A half-wave rectifier is fitted with an R–C smoothing filter comprising R = 200 Ω and C =
50 μF. If 2 V of 400 Hz ripple appear at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing
at the output.

L–C Smoothing Filter:

Figure 1.7(b) shows the circuit of a half-wave power supply with an L–C smoothing circuit.
At the ripple frequency, L1 exhibits a high value of inductive reactance while C1 exhibits a low value of
capacitive reactance. The combined effect is that of an attenuator which greatly reduces the amplitude of
the ripple while having a negligible effect on the direct voltage.
Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 1.7(b): Half-wave Rectifier Circuit with L–C Smoothing Filter

Solve: The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 = 10
H and C2 = 1,000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple
appearing at the output.
Solution: The reactance of the capacitor, C1, at the ripple frequency (50 Hz):
𝟏 1
𝑿𝑪 = = = 3.18 Ω
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 6.28 ∗ 50 ∗ 1000 ∗ 10−6
The reactance of L1 at 50 Hz can be calculated from:
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 = 2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 50 ∗ 10 = 3140 Ω
The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit (i.e. appearing across C1) will be approximately given
by:
𝑿𝑪 3.18
𝑽𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 = = ≈ 0.001 𝑉
𝑿𝑪 + 𝑿𝑳 3.18 + 3140

Homework: The L–C smoothing filter fitted to a 50 Hz mains operated full-wave rectifier circuit consists
of L = 4 H and C = 500 μF. If 4 V of ripple appear at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of
ripple appearing at the output.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS:
Half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles.
A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative half-cycles – the full-wave
rectifier.

Full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over their half-wave counterparts. They are
not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms of the reservoir and smoothing
components. There are two basic forms of full-wave rectifier; the bi-phase rectifier type and the bridge
rectifier type.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Bi-Phase Rectifier Circuits:

Figure 1.8 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit. Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the
step-down transformer (T1) which has two identical secondary windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s. (the
turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or 20:1 for each secondary winding).

Figure 1.8: Bi-Phase Rectifier Circuit

On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive
with respect to point C. In this condition, D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with
respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its
cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles (see Figure 1.9 (a)).
On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be
positive with respect to point A. In this condition, D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to
its cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles (see Figure 1.9 (b)).

Figure 1.9: Bi-Phase Rectifier Circuits with (a) D1 Conducting & (b) D2 Conducting

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Thus, D1 conducts on positive half-cycles and D2 conducts on negative half-cycles. The result is that,
current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive half-cycles (see Figure 1.9).

As with the half-wave rectifier, the switching action of the two diodes results in a pulsating output voltage
being developed across the load resistor (RL). But, the pulses of voltage developed across RL will occur at
a frequency of 100 Hz (not 50 Hz, as in half-wave rectifier). This doubling of the ripple frequency allows
us to use smaller values of reservoir and smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of ripple
reduction.
Also, the peak voltage produced by each of the secondary windings will be approximately 17 V and the
peak voltage across RL will be 16.3 V (i.e. 17 V less the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage dropped by the
diodes).
Figure 1.10 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to ensure that the output voltage remains
at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diodes are not conducting.

Figure 1.10: Bi-Phase Rectifier with Reservoir

The capacitor charges to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the voltage
at this level when the diodes are in their non-conducting states. The time required for C1 to charge to the
maximum (peak) level is determined by the charging circuit time constant (the series resistance multiplied
by the capacitance value). In this circuit, the series resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance
together with the forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring and
connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct.
The time required for C1 to discharge is very much greater. The discharge time is determined by the
capacitance value and the load resistance, RL. In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of the
secondary circuit and hence C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge. During this time, D1 and D2 will
be reverse biased and held in a non-conducting state. As a result, the only discharge path for C1 is
through RL.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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SELF STUDY:

1. Bi-Phase Rectifier with R–C Smoothing Filter

2. Bi-Phase Rectifier with L–C Smoothing Filter

Bridge Rectifier Circuits:

The bi-phase rectifier circuits require two separate secondary windings (i.e., centre-tapped transformer).
By using four diodes in a bridge fashion (see Figure 1.11), a bridge rectifier is constructed; in which
opposite pairs of diodes conducts on alternate half-cycles.
Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-down transformer (T1). The secondary winding
provides 12 V r.m.s. (approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of 20:1.

Figure 1.11: Bridge Rectifier Circuit

On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. In this condition D1 and D2 will
allow conduction while D3 and D4 will not allow conduction (see Figure 1.12 (a)).
On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to point A. In this condition D3 and D4 will
allow conduction while D1 and D2 will not allow conduction (see Figure 1.12 (b)).

Figure 1.12: Bridge Rectifier Circuits with

(a) D1 and D2 Conducting & (b) D3 and D4 Conducting

Thus, D1 & D2 conducts on positive half-cycles and D3 and D4 conducts on negative half-cycles. The
result is that, current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive half-cycles (see Figure

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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1.12). Once again, the peak output voltage is approximately 16.3 V (i.e. 17 V less the 0.7 V forward
threshold voltage).

Figure 1.13 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to maintain the output voltage when the
diodes are not conducting.

Figure 1.13: Bridge Rectifier with Reservoir

The capacitor C1 charges to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the
voltage at this level when the diodes are in their non-conducting states. The capacitor operates in exactly
the same way as for the bi-phase circuit and the secondary and rectified output waveforms are shown in
Figure 1.13. Note that, the ripple frequency is twice that of the incoming a.c. supply.
Finally, R–C (and also, L–C) ripple smoothing filter can be added to bi-phase and bridge rectifier circuits
in exactly the same way as those shown for the half-wave rectifier arrangement (see Figure 1.7).

SELF STUDY:

1. Bridge Rectifier with R–C Smoothing Filter

2. Bridge Rectifier with L–C Smoothing Filter

VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
In spite of providing output filter with full-wave rectifiers, the voltage regulation is unacceptable as d.c.
power supply used for electronic circuits draw peak current. Therefore, special voltage regulators are
required at the output of power supply.
Voltage regulator is a circuit that keeps the output voltage constant under all operating conditions.
Voltage regulation is the process of keeping a voltage steady under conditions of changing applied
voltage, changing load and temperature.
There are two types of voltage regulators: shunt and series.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 1.14 shows a simple shunt zener voltage regulator.

Figure 1.14: A Simple Shunt Zener Voltage Regulator

Resistor RS is included to limit the zener current to a safe value when the load is disconnected. When a
load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current is diverted into the load resistance (it is
usual to allow a minimum current of 2 mA to 5 mA in order to ensure that the diode regulates). The
output voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener voltage until regulation fails at the point at which the potential
divider formed by RS and RL produces a lower output voltage that is less than VZ. The ratio of RS to RL is
thus important. At the point at which the circuit just begins to fail to regulate:
𝑹𝑳
𝑽𝒁 = 𝑽𝑰𝑵 ∗
𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝑺
where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.
The maximum value for RS can be calculated from:
𝑽𝑰𝑵
𝑹𝑺 𝐦𝐚𝐱. = 𝑹𝑳 ∗ ( − 𝟏)
𝑽𝒁
The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by PZ = IZ * VZ
Hence the minimum value for RS can be determined from the off-load condition when:
𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑧 𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑧 (𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑧 ) ∗ 𝑉𝑍 𝑽𝑰𝑵 𝑽𝒁 − 𝑽𝟐𝒁
𝑹𝑺 𝐦𝐢𝐧. = = 𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥. = =
𝐼𝑍 ( 𝑍𝑉 ) 𝑃𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑷𝒁 𝒎𝒂𝒙.
𝑍

where PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the zener diode.

Solve: A 5 V Zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used
in a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω; determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
Solution: Given: VZ = 5 V; PZ max. = 500 mW; RL = 400 Ω; VIN = 9 V
The maximum value for the series resistor RS is:
𝑉𝐼𝑁 9
𝑅𝑆 max. = 𝑅𝐿 ∗ ( − 1) = 400 ∗ ( − 1) = 320 Ω
𝑉𝑍 5
The minimum value for the series resistor RS is:
Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑍 − 𝑉𝑍2 9 ∗ 5 − 25
𝑅𝑆 min. = = = 40 Ω
𝑃𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 500 ∗ 10−3
Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 Ω (roughly mid-way between the two extremes).

Homework: If a 9 V Zener diode is to be used in a simple shunt regulator circuit to supply a load having a
nominal resistance of 300 Ω; determine the maximum value of series resistor for operation in conjunction
with a supply of 15 V.

Output Resistance and Voltage Regulation:

In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant regardless of the current taken by the
load. In practice, however, the output voltage falls as the load current increases.
To account for this fact, we say that the power supply has internal resistance (ideally this should be
zero). This internal resistance appears at the output of the supply and is defined as the change in output
voltage divided by the corresponding change in output current. Hence:
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝚫𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒕 = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝚫𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕
where ∆Iout represents a small change in output (load) current and ∆Vout represents a corresponding small
change in output voltage.

The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕)𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small. Simple shunt zener diode regulators of the type
shown in Figure 1.14 are capable of producing values of regulation of 5 % to 10 %. More sophisticated
circuits based on discrete components produce values of between 1 % and 5 % and integrated circuit
regulators often provide values of 1 % or less.

Solve: The following data were obtained during a test carried out on a d.c. power supply:
(i) Load test
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V
Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V
(ii) Regulation test
Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V
Output voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine: (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply and
(b) the regulation of the power supply.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Solution: The output resistance can be determined from the load test data:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 12 − 11.5
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = = 0.25 Ω
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 2−0
The regulation can be determined from the regulation test data:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 12 − 11.9
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100% = ∗ 100 % = 0.5 %
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 220 − 200

Homework: The following data were obtained during a load test carried out on a d.c. power supply:
Output voltage (no-load) = 8.5 V Output voltage (800 mA load) = 8.1 V
Determine the output resistance of the power supply and estimate the output voltage at a load current of
400 mA.
Homework: The following data were obtained during a regulation test on a d.c. power supply:
Output voltage (a.c. input: 230 V) = 15 V Output voltage (a.c. input: 190 V) = 14.6 V
Determine the regulation of the power supply and estimate the output voltage when the input voltage is
245 V.

VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS:
Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers a d.c. voltage twice or rnore times of
the peak value of the input a.c. voltage. Such power supplies are used for high-voltage and low-current
devices such as cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers, oscilloscopes and computer display).

Voltage Doubler:

Figure 1.6(a): Voltage Doubler / Multiplier

Consider a half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter (See Figure 1.6). By adding a second diode and
capacitor (as shown in Figure 1.6(a)), the output of half wave rectifier is increased.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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During the positive half cycle, diode D1 gets forward biased, capacitor C1 charges to the peak voltage
with polarity indicated in the Figure; the diode D2 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 being forward biased, capacitor C2 charges to the peak voltage
with polarity shown in the Figure; the diode D1 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.
Hence, the output voltage will be equal to the sum of voltages across capacitors C1 and C2.
i.e., VC1 + VC2 = 2 VIN

Voltage Tripler:
Consider the Figure 1.6(b). Here C1 charges to the positive secondary voltage VIN, while C2 and C3
charge to twice the positive secondary voltage. The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the
voltages across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would be produced by a single diode.

Figure 1.6(b): Voltage Tripler / Multiplier

During the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D2 reverse biased, capacitor C1 gets charged to the peak
(VIN).
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 gets forward biased and diodes D1 & D3 reverse biased. Diode
D1 does not let discharge the capacitor C1, so voltage across C1 = VIN. The capacitor C2 gets charged
with the combined voltage of C1 (VIN) and negative peak voltage of secondary voltage; so, C2 gets
charged to 2 VIN.
During the second positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 gets forward biased and D2 get reverse biased.
So, the capacitor C2 charges the capacitor C3 up to 2 VIN.
The capacitors C1 and C3 are in series and thus, the total voltage across these capacitors is VIN + 2 VIN =
3 VIN.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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AMPLIFIERS
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal. Amplifiers are
electronic devices for increasing amplitude of electrical signals. An electronic amplifier is a device that
is used to increase the power, current, or voltage of a signal. Amplifiers are used in music equipment,
electronic devices such as television and radio receivers, audio equipment, and computers to increase the
amplitude of a signal.

TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS:
Many different types of amplifiers are found in electronic circuits. These different types of amplifiers are
briefly described below.

a.c. Coupled Amplifiers: In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that, d.c.
levels are isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.

d.c. Coupled Amplifiers: In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way
that, stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c. signal components are transferred from
stage to stage.

Large-Signal Amplifiers: Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/ or
current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).

Small-Signal Amplifiers: Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally
less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat
the effects of noise.

Audio Frequency Amplifiers: Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

Wideband Amplifiers: Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies,
typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.

Radio Frequency Amplifiers: Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). Note that it is desirable for
amplifiers of this type to be frequency selective and thus their frequency response may be restricted to a
relatively narrow band of frequencies.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Low-Noise amplifiers Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal
disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small
signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).

GAIN:
One of the most important parameters
of an amplifier is the amount of
amplification or gain that it provides.
Gain is simply the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage, output
current to input current, or output
power to input power (see Figure
1.15). Figure 1.15: Block Diagram for an Amplifier
Showing Input and Output Voltages and Currents
These three ratios give, respectively, the voltage gain, current gain and power gain.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑉 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 Since power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V),
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 we have;
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑝 = = = ∗ = 𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝐴𝑖
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑝 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Solve: An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50 mV. If the input and output
currents in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and 200 mA, determine:
(a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain.
Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2𝑉 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑉 = = = = 𝟒𝟎
𝑉𝑖𝑛 50 𝑚𝑉 50 ∗ 10−3

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 200 𝑚𝐴 200 ∗ 10−3

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑖 = = = = 𝟓𝟎
𝐼𝑖𝑛 4 𝑚𝐴 4 ∗ 10−3

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑝 = = ∗ = 𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝐴𝑖 = 40 ∗ 50 = 𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛

Homework: The following measurements were made during a test on an amplifier:

Vin = 250 mV, Iin = 2.5 mA, Vout = 10 V, Iout = 400 mA
Determine: (a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain;
(d) the input resistance.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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INPUT AND OUTPUT RESISTANCE:

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in ohms. The input of an
amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive component is negligible) in the middle of its
working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band). In some cases, the reactance of the input may become
appreciable (e.g. if a large value of stray capacitance appears in parallel with the input resistance). In such
cases we would refer to input impedance rather than input resistance.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current and is
measured in ohms. Note that this resistance is internal to the amplifier and should not be confused with
the resistance of a load connected externally.
As with input resistance, the output of an amplifier is normally purely resistive and we can safely ignore
any reactive component. If this is not the case, we would once again need to refer to output impedance
rather than output resistance.
Figure 1.16 shows how the input and output resistances are ‘seen’ looking into the input and output
terminals, respectively.

Figure 1.16: Input and output resistances ‘seen’ looking into the input and output terminals

FREQUENCY REAPONSE:
The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies of the amplifier. These frequencies are those at which –
• the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value or
• the output power has dropped to 50% (otherwise known as the −3 dB points).

Figure 10.17, show how the bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either voltage or power (the cut-off
frequencies, f1 and f2, and bandwidth are identical).

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 1.17: Frequency Response and Bandwidth

(a) Output Voltage Plotted Against Frequency

(b) Output Power Plotted Against Frequency

Note that, for response curves of this type, frequency is almost invariably plotted on a logarithmic scale.
The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifier are shown in Figure 1.18.

Figure 1.18: Frequency Response Characteristics of Various Types of Amplifiers

PHASE SHIFT:

Figure 1.19: Phase Shift in Transistor Amplifiers

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured in degrees. The
measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most amplifiers, the phase shift remains
relatively constant. Note also that, conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of
either 180° or 360°. Figure 1.19 shows phase shift in transistor amplifiers.

BANDWIDTH:
The Bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is defined as the difference between the frequency limits of the
amplifier. The range of frequencies within a band is known as bandwidth. The bandwidth of an amplifier
is usually taken as the difference between the upper and lower cut-off frequencies (i.e. f2 − f1 in Figure
1.17).

Solve: Determine the mid-band voltage gain, upper and lower cut-off frequencies and bandwidth for the
amplifier whose frequency response is shown in Figure 1.20(a).

Figure 1.20(a): See Above Problem

Solution: The mid-band voltage gain corresponds with the flat part of the frequency response
characteristic. At that point the voltage gain reaches a maximum of 35 (see Figure 1.20(a)).
The voltage gain at the two cut-off frequencies can be calculated from:
Av cut-off = 0.707 × Av max = 0.707 × 35 = 24.7
This value of gain intercepts the frequency response graph at f1 = 57 Hz and f2 = 590 kHz (see Figure
1.20(a)).
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the frequency limits. From Figure 1.23; f1 = 57 Hz and f2 =
590 kHz; hence, BW = f2 – f1 = 590 kHz – 57 Hz ≈ 590 kHz.
Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Homework: Determine the mid-band voltage gain and upper and lower cut-off frequencies for the
amplifier whose frequency response curve is shown in Figure 1.20(b). Also determine the voltage gain at
frequencies (a) 10 Hz (b) 1 MHz.

Figure 1.20(b): See Above Homework

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK:

Figure 1.21: Amplifier with Negative Feedback

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely control the gain, reduce distortion
and improve bandwidth. The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back a small
proportion of the output. The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain. Since this
form of feedback has the effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit, this is known as negative
feedback (See Figure 1.21).

An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input
(rather than to subtract from it) is known as positive feedback. This form of feedback is used in oscillator
circuits.

Figure 1.24 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback applied. In this circuit,
the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
given by: 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Note that, the amplifier’s input voltage has been reduced by applying negative feedback. Hence,
′ ′
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
If Av is the internal gain of the amplifier,
′
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Thus, overall gain, G, is
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝑉′𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝑉′𝑖𝑛 𝑨𝒗
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑮 = = ′ = ′ =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽(𝐴𝑣 ∗ 𝑉′𝑖𝑛 ) 𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝒗
where, βAv is the loop gain of the feedback amplifier.

Further, if Av is very large (Av >> 1); then

𝟏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑮 =
𝜷

Solve: An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop voltage gain of 50, and one-tenth of
its output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1).
(i) Determine the overall voltage gain with negative feedback applied.
(i) If the amplifier’s open-loop voltage gain increases by 20%, determine the percentage increase
in overall voltage gain.
Solution:
(i) With negative feedback applied the overall voltage gain will be given by:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑣 50
𝐺= = = = 8.33
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 1 + 0.1 ∗ 50

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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(ii) The new value of voltage gain will be given by:

Av = Av + 0.2 * Av = 50 + 02 * 50 = 60
Hence, overall voltage gain with negative feedback will then be:
𝐴𝑣 60
𝑮= = = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟕
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣 1 + 0.1 ∗ 60
The increase in overall voltage gain, expressed as a percentage is
8.57 − 8.33
∗ 100 % = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟖 %
8.33

Solve: An integrated circuit that produces an open-loop gain of 100 is to be used as the basis of an
amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of 20. Determine the amount of feedback required.
𝐴𝑣
Solution: We have, overall gain, 𝐺 = 1+ 𝛽𝐴𝑣
1 1 1 1
Re-arranging; 𝛽 = 𝐺
− 𝐴𝑣
= 20
− 100
= 0.05 − 0.01 = 0.04

Homework: An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop voltage gain of 250, and 5%
of its output is fed-back to the input. Determine the overall voltage gain with negative feedback applied.
If the open-loop voltage gain increases by 20% determine the new value of overall voltage gain.
Homework: An amplifier produces an open-loop gain of 180. Determine the amount of feedback required
if it is to be operated with a precise voltage gain of 50.

MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS:
To provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is necessary to use a number of interconnected stages
within an amplifier. The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is
simply the product of the individual voltage gains. Hence:
𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣1 ∗ 𝐴𝑣2 ∗ 𝐴𝑣3 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
Note that, the bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each individual
stage. In other words, an increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.
Signals can be coupled between the individual stages of a multi-stage amplifier using one of a number of
different methods shown in Figure 1.22.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 1.22: Different Methods Used for Interstage Coupling

R–C Coupling: The stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low reactance at the signal
frequency and resistors (which also provide a means of connecting the supply).
Figure 1.23 shows a practical example of this coupling method.
L–C Coupling: The inductors have a high reactance at the signal frequency. This type of coupling is
generally used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.
Two further methods, transformer coupling and direct coupling, are shown in Figures 1.22(c) and
1.22(d), respectively.

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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Figure 1.23: A Two-Stage High-Gain R–C Coupled Common Emitter Amplifier

By: DR. Mahesh Prasanna K.,

Dept. of ECE, VCET.
____________*********____________
*********

Dr. MAHESH PRASANNA K., VCET, PUTTUR

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