Plant

Propagation

And

Nursery

Management
 At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1) Understood the importance of plant propagation.

2) Described the modes of plant propagation.

The progress in plant improvement would have been of little significance, without
methods whereby improved forms could have been maintained in cultivation. Most
cultivated plants either would have lost or reverted to less desirable forms unless they are
propagated under controlled conditions that perceive the unique characteristic which
make them useful.

Plant propagation means multiplication of plants with the aim to achieve increase in
number and preserve the essential characteristics of the mother plant. It is essentially of
two types:

A. Sexual Propagation
B. Asexual Propagation

Sexual Propagation

● Sexual reproduction refers to multiplication of plants by seeds. Seeds are

formed after successful pollination and fertilization (Fig.1.1) by the union of
male and female gametes.

● Meiosis division takes place in the course of fusion and the chromosome
numbers are reduced to half, which after fertilization becomes normal.

● The plants raised through seed are called seedling plants.

● Propagation of plants by seeds offers many advantages however several

have disadvantages too.

● Sexual propagation involves careful management of germination conditions

and facilities and knowledge of the requirements of individual kind of seeds.
 Asexual Propagation

● It is independent of sexual propagation process as there is no involvement of sex

organs.

● It takes place due to mitotic division. Mitotic division continues in shoot tip, root tip
and cambium.

● Some portion of plant is wounded, mitotic division takes place.

● Under mitotic division, chromosomes divide longitudinally to form two daughter cells.
This forms the basis of asexual propagation.

● The plants raised through asexual process are identical to mother plants. Cutting,
division, layering, budding and grafting are main techniques of asexual propagation.

Advantages

● Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother plants.

● Asexually propagated plants have short juvenile phase and bear flowers and fruits
in the early age (3-4 years) than seedling plants.

● The vegetatively propagated plants are smaller in stature and hence management
operations like spraying, pruning and harvesting etc. become easy .

● Plants in which seed setting does not take place (e.g. pineapple and banana),
asexual propagation serves as a substitute for sexual propagation.

● Using asexual methods, desirable characters of a mother plant can be perpetuated/

multiplied easily .

● The benefits of rootstocks and scion are usually exploited through asexual
propagation.

● Repairing of damaged portion of plant is possible through asexual propagation as in

case of bridge grafting.

● It is possible to convert a non-productive local variety into productive improved

variety by using asexual methods .

● It is possible to grow several varieties on one plant or change variety of existing plant
by top working.

Disadvantages

● Asexual propagated plants have shorter life-span.

● Asexual propagation restricts diversity .

● Sometimes asexual propagation disseminates diseases e.g. Tristeza virus in citrus.

 ● Technical expertise/skill is require.
●

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1) Internalized the importance of dormancy

2) Described the different types of dormancy
3) Explained the techniques for breaking different types of dormancy.

Dormancy is a condition where seeds will not germinate even when the environmental
conditions such as water, temperature and air are favorable for germination.

● It is observed that seeds of some fruit plants (mango, citrus) germinate

immediately after extraction from the fruit under favourable conditions of moisture,
temperature and aeration.

● However, in others (apple, pear, cherry) germination does not take place even
under favourable conditions. This phenomenon is called as ‘dormancy’.

● This is an important survival mechanism for some species because these species
do not germinate unless adverse climatic conditions end.

● In some species, chilling temperature for certain period helps in the termination of
dormancy. Often dormancy is due to several factors and may persist indefinitely
unless certain specific treatments are given..

Types of Dormancy (Exogenous Dormancy)

1. Exogenous Dormancy

● This type of dormancy is imposed by factors outside the embryo.

● In exogenous dormancy, the tissues enclosing the embryo can affect germination
by inhibiting water uptake, providing mechanical resistance to embryo expansion
and radicle emergence, modifying gaseous exchange (limit oxygen to embryo),
preventing leaching of inhibitor from the embryo and supplying inhibitor to the
embryo. It is of three types:

a) Physical dormancy (seed coat dormancy): Seed coat or seed covering may
become hard, fibrous or mucilaginous (adhesives gum) during dehydration
and ripening as a result they become impermeable to water and gases, which
prevents the physiological processes initiating germination This type of
dormancy is very common in drupe fruits i.e. olive, peach, plum, apricot,
 cherry etc. (hardened endocarp), walnut and pecan nut (surrounding shell). In
various plant families, such as, Leguminosae, the outer seed coat gets
hardened and becomes suberized and impervious to water.

b) Mechanical dormancy: In some fruits seed covering restricts radicle growth,

resulting in dormancy of seeds. Some seed covering structures, such as
shells of walnut, pits of stone fruits and stones of olive are too strong to allow
the dormant embryo to expand during germination. The water may be
absorbed but the difficulty arises in the cementing material as in walnut.
Germination in such seeds does not occur until and unless the seed coats are
softened either by creating moist and warm conditions during storage or by
microbial activity.

Chemical dormancy: In seeds of some fruits chemicals that accumulate in fruit and seed
covering tissues during development and remain with the seed after harvest. It is quite
common in fleshy fruits or fruits whose seeds remain in juice as in citrus, cucurbits, stone
fruits, pear, grapes and tomatoes. Some of the substances associated with inhibition are
various phenols, coumarin and abscisic acid. These substances can strongly inhibit seed
germination.

2. Endogenous Dormancy

This type of dormancy is imposed by rudimentary or undeveloped embryo

at the time of ripening or maturity. This can be of different types such as
morphological, physiological, double dormancy and secondary dormancy.

A. Morphological dormancy (Rudimentary and linear embryo)

Dormancy occurs in some seeds in which the embryo is not fully developed
at the time of seed dissemination. Such seeds do not germinate, if planted
immediately after harvesting. Plants with rudimentary embryos produce
seeds with little more than a pro-embryo embedded in a massive endosperm
at the time of fruit maturation. Enlargement of the embryo occurs after the
seeds have imbibed water but, before germination begins. Formation of
rudimentary embryo is common in various plant families such as
Ranunculaceae (Ranunculus ), Papavaraceae (poppy). Some plants of
temperate zone like holly and snow-berry have also rudimentary embryos.

B. Physiological dormancy

1) Non-deep physiological dormancy: After ripening time is required for

seeds in dry storage to lose dormancy. This type of dormancy is often
transitory and disappears during dry storage. Temperate fruits such as apple,
pear, cherry, peach, plum and apricot, cultivated cereals, vegetables and
flower crops, have this type of physiological dormancy which may last for
one to six months and disappears with dry storage.

2) Photo dormancy: Seeds that either require light or dark condition to

germinate are termed as photo-dormant seeds. It is due to photo-chemically
reactive pigment called phytochrome widely present in some plants. When
imbibed seeds are exposed to red light (660-760 nm), the phytochrome
changes to red form (Pfr), thereby substituting the germination process.
However, when seeds are exposed to far-red light (760-800), Pfr is changed
to Pf which inhibits germination process.
 3) Thermo dormancy: Some seeds have specific temperature
requirement for their germination, otherwise they remain dormant. Such
seeds are called as thermo dormant .For example seeds of lettuce, celery
and pansy do not germinate if the temperature is below 25oC.

Physiological dormancy is of 3 types:

a) Intermediate physiological dormancy: The seeds of some species

require a specific period of one-to-three months of chilling, while in an
imbibed and aerated state, commonly called as moist chilling. For example,
most of temperate fruit seeds require moist chilling to overcome seed
dormancy. This requirement led to the standardization of world famous,
horticultural practice of stratification. In this process, the seeds are placed
between layers of moist sand in boxes and exposed to chilling
temperatures.
(2 to 70C) for the period varying from 3-6 months to overcome dormancy.
b) Deep physiological dormancy: Seeds, which usually require a relatively
long (>8 weeks) period of moist chilling stratification to relieve dormancy as
in peach.
c) Epicotyl dormancy: Seeds having separate dormancy conditions for the
radicle hypocotyl and epicotyl, is called as epicotyl dormancy e.g. Lilium,
Hepatica antiloba and Trillium.

C. Double dormancy

● In some species, seeds have dormancy due to hard seed coats and
dormant embryos.

● For instance, some tree legumes seed coats are impervious and at the
same time their embryo are also dormant.

● Such seeds require two years for breaking of dormancy in nature. In the first
spring, the microorganisms act upon the seed making it weak and soft and
then embryo dormancy is broken by chilling temperature in the winter next
year.

● Combination of two or more types of dormancy is known as ‘double

dormancy’. It can be morpho-physiological i.e. combination of under
developed embryo and physiological dormancy or exo-endodormancy i.e.
combination of exogenous and endogenous dormancy conditions i.e. hard
seed coat (physical plus intermediate physiological dormancy).

D. Secondary dormancy
Secondary dormancy is due to germination conditions. It is a further
adaptation to prevent germination of an imbibed seed if other environmental
conditions are not favorable. These conditions can include unfavorably high
or low temperature, prolonged darkness and water stress. It is of two types:
a) Thermo dormancy: High temperature induced dormancy.
b) Conditional dormancy: Change in ability to germinate related to time of
the year.

Advantages:
 ⮚ Permitting germination only when environmental conditions favour
seedling survival as in fruit plants of temperate region
⮚ Helpful in creation of a “seed bank”

⮚ Dormancy can also synchronize germination to a particular time of

the year.
⮚ Seed disposal can be facilitated by specialized dormancy
conditions. For example modification of seed covering through
digestive tract of a bird or other animals.

Methods of Breaking Dormancy

Several methods are used for breaking seed dormancy of horticultural crops.
These are briefly described hereunder:

1. Softening seed coat and other seed coverings: This helps in better absorption of
water and gases, which ultimately leads to better germination of the seeds. This can be
achieved by scarification.

a) Scarification: Scarification is the process of breaking, scratching,

mechanically altering or softening the seed covering to make it
permeable to water and gases. Three types of treatments are
commonly used as scarification treatments. These include
mechanical, chemical and hot water treatments.

i) Mechanical scarification

● It is simple and effective if suitable equipment is available.

● Chipping hard seed coat by rubbing with sand paper, cutting with a file
or cracking with a hammer are simple methods useful for small
amount of relatively large seeds.
● For large scale, mechanical scarifiers are used. Seeds can be tumbled
in drums lined with sand paper or in concrete mixers containing coarse
sand or gravel. The sand gravel should be of a different size than the
seed to facilitate subsequent separation.
● Scarification should not proceed to the point at which the seeds are
injured and inner parts of seed are exposed.

ii) Acid scarification

● Dry seeds are placed in containers and covered with concentrated

Sulphuric acid (H2SO 4) or HCl in the ratio of one part of seed to two
parts of acid.
● The amount of seed treated at any time should be restricted to not
more than 10kg to avoid uncontrollable heating.
 ● The containers should be of glass, earthenware or wood, non- metal or
plastic. The mixture should be stirred cautiously at intervals during the
treatment to produce uniform results.

● The time may vary from 10 minutes to 6 hours depending upon the
species.

● With thick-coated seeds that require long periods, the process of

scarification may be judged by drawing out samples at intervals and
checking the thickness of the seed coat. When it becomes paper thin,
the treatment should be terminated immediately.

● At the end of the treatment period, the acid is poured off and the seeds
are washed to remove the acid.

● The acid treated seeds can either be planted immediately when wet or
dried and stored for later planting. Large seeds of most legume
species, brinjal and tomatoes are reported to respond simple sulphuric
acid treatment.

iii) Hot water scarification

● Drop the seeds into 4-5 times their volume of hot water with
temperature ranging from 77 to 100oC.

● The heat source is immediately removed, and the seeds soaked in the
gradually cooking water for 12 to 24 hours. Following this the
unswollen seeds may be separated from the swollen seeds by suitable
screens.

● The seed should be sown immediately after hot water treatment.

iv) Warm moist scarification

● The seeds are placed in moist warm medium for many months to
soften the seed coat and other seed coverings through microbial
activity. This treatment is highly beneficial in seeds having double seed
dormancy.

● The hard seeds are planted in summer or early fall when the soil
temperature is still higher, that usually facilitates germination.

● For instance the stone fruit including cherry, plum ,apricot and
peaches) show increased germination if planted early enough in the
summer or fall to provide one to two months of warm temperature prior
to the onset of chilling.

2. Stratification:

● Stratification is a method of handling dormant seed in which the imbibed seeds are
subjected to a period of chilling to after ripen the embryo in alternate layers of sand
or soil for a specific period. It is also known as moist chilling.
 ● However, temperate species displaying epicotyl dormancy (like fringed tree) or
under developed embryo (like hollies) a warm stratification of several months
followed by a moist chilling stratification is required.

● Several tropical and subtropical species (like palms) require a period of warm
stratification prior to germination to allow the embryo to continue development after
fruit drop.

● The seeds can be sown after fruit drop. The seeds can be sown immediately after
stratification in the field.

● Seeds with a hard endocarp, such as Prunus spp. (the stone fruit including cherry,
plum, apricot and peaches) show increased germination if planted early in the
summer or fall to provide one to two months of warm temperature prior to the onset
of chilling.

a) Outdoor stratification

● If refrigerated storage facilities are not available, outdoor stratification may be

done either by storing seeds in open field conditions in deep pits or in raised beds
enclosed on wooden frames.

● However it is likely that seeds are destroyed in outdoors by excessive rains,

freezing, drying, or by rodents. Seeds are placed in alternate layers of sand to
provide and low temperature and proper aeration in the stratification pit. The top is
covered with Sphagnum moss to maintain moisture level.

● The pit or tray is irrigated at regular intervals to maintain appropriate moisture

status.

ii) Refrigerated stratification

● An alternative to outdoor field stratification is refrigerated stratification.

● It is useful for small seed lots or valuable seeds that require special handling.

● Dry seeds should be fully imbibed with water prior to refrigerated stratification.
Twelve to twenty four hours of soaking at warm temperature may be sufficient for
seeds without hard seed coats.

● After soaking, seeds are usually placed in a convenient size box in alternate layers
of well washed sand, peat moss or vermiculite.

● A good medium is a mixture of one part of coarse sand to one part of peat,
moistened and allowed to stand for 24 hours before use. Seeds are placed in
alternate layers of sand or medium.

● The usual stratification temperature is 4-7oC. At higher temperature seeds sprout

prematurity and low temperature delays sprouting.

● The medium should be re-moistened. The stratified seed is separated from the
medium prior to sowing in nursery beds.
 ● The stratification of seeds results in quick and uniform germination and therefore
the seed should be subjected to stratification invariably under all conditions.

Table 1. Effect of seed stratification period on per cent germination of important

temperate fruits
Kind of fruit Stratification period (days) % germination

Apple 70-75 70-75

Kainth (Pyrus pashia) 30-35 90-95

Peach 60-70 55-60

Apricot 45-50 75-80

Almond 45-50 85-90

Walnut 95-100 80-85

Pecan 70-75 75-80

iii) Leaching of inhibitors

It is established fact that some inhibitors and phenolic compounds are present in seed
coverings of many species, which inhibit germination. Therefore, soaking of seeds in the
running water for 12-24 hours or placing them in water for few hours help in leaching off the
inhibitors and phenolic compounds, which help in easy seed germination.

iv) Pre-chilling:

In seeds of certain plant species, dormancy can be overcome by pre-chilling treatment. In this
treatment, the imbibed or soaked seeds are kept at a temperature of 5-100C for 5-7 days
before sowing. After that seed can be sown in the field immediately.

v) Pre-drying:

This is also a useful practice in some seeds to overcome seed dormancy. In this treatment,
the dry seeds are subjected to a temperature of 37-400C for 5-7 days prior to sowing. After
this, seed can be sown in the field.

vi) Seed priming:

Seed priming refers to the procedures followed to overcome dormancy in freshly harvested
fruits. Most widely used seed priming procedures are osmo- conditioning, infusion and fluid
drilling.
● In osmo-conditioning, the seeds are placed in shallow layer in a container having
20-30 per cent solution of polyglycol (PEG). The seeds are then incubated at
15-200C for 7-21 days, depending upon seed size and plant species.
 ● Different hormones and fungicides can also be added to protect the seeds from
pathogens. After this, the seeds are washed and dried at 250C and are stored until
use.

● In infusion, the hormones, fungicides or insecticides and antidotes are infused into
dormant seeds through organic solutions. In this process the seeds are placed in
acetone or dichloromethane solution containing chemicals to be used for 1-4 hours.
● Afterwards, the solvent is allowed to evaporate and seeds are dried slowly in
vacuum desiccators for 1-2 hours. The seeds absorb the infused chemical directly
into the embryo when soaked in water.
● In fluid drilling, the seeds are suspended in a special type of gel before sowing.
Now-a- days different types of gels are available in the market but sodium alginate,
guar gum and synthetic clay are most widely used in fluid drilling.

vii) Treatment with chemicals:

Some compounds other than hormones are also used to break dormancy but their
role is not clear. Thiourea is one example known to stimulate germination in some kinds of
dormant seeds. The seeds are soaked in 0.5 – 3 per cent solution of thiourea for 3-5 minutes.
Afterwords seeds are rinsed with water and are sown in the field. Similarly, potassium nitrate
and sodium hypochlorite also stimulate seed germination in many plant species.

viii) Hormonal treatment

● Among various hormones, GA3 is commercially used for breaking seed dormancy
in different types of seeds. The concentration of GA3 depends upon the kind of seed
but generally a concentration of 200-500 ppm is most widely used.

● Cytokinin is another group of hormones used for breaking physiological dormancy

and stimulating germination in seeds of many species. Kinetin and BA(6-benzyle
aminopurine) are commercial preparations of cytokinin used for breaking seed
dormancy. Soaking seeds in 100 ppm solution of kinetin for 3-5 minutes is highly
effective concentration for overcoming seed dormancy of many species. Etheral
also stimulates germination in seeds of some species.

Table 2. Recommended concentrations of growth hormones in temperate fruits for

increasing seed germination
Crop Chemical/hormone Concentration

Apple Thiourea 5000 ppm

Kinetin 25 ppm

GA 50 ppm

Ethrel 100-200 ppm

Pear GA 150 ppm

Thiourea 5000 ppm

Peach Thiourea 5000 ppm

 GA 400 ppm

BA 400 ppm

Walnut GA 250 ppm

Ethrel 1000 ppm

Hormonal changes during stratification:

A triphasic change in endogenous hormones is many seeds is depicted.

● A reduction of ABA

● Increased synthesis of cytokinin and gibberellins

● Reduction in hormone synthesis in preparation for germination.

● In general, gibberellins promote germination in dormant seeds, while ABA

inhibits germination.

● Pre-sowing treatments with certain seeds not only reduce

the stratification requirement and improve the seed germination but also enhances
seedling growth in a number of temperate fruits.

Role of hormones in seed dormancy:

Plant hormones affect seed germinations and dormancy by affecting different parts
of the seed. Embryo dormancy is characterized by a high ABA/GA ratio, whereas
the seed has a high ABA sensitivity and low GA sensitivity. To release the seed from
this type of dormancy and initiate seed germination, an alteration in hormone
biosynthesis and degradation towards a low ABA/GA ratio, along with a decrease in
ABA sensitivity and an increase in GA sensitivity needs to occur.
● Plant regulators can be used to break or prolong the dormancy. Sprouting of potato
tubers and onion bulbs is a common phenomenon in storage.

● Pre-harvest spray of maleic hydrazide (MH) at 2000 ppm applied 15 days before
actual date of harvest prolongs dormancy in the above storage organs by inhibiting
the sprouting.

● In fruit trees of apple, plums and figs, early flowering is induced by spraying Dinitro
orthocresol at 0.1 % in oil emulsion.

● Seed treatment of tomato with GA at 1 00 ppm breaks the dormancy and increases
the percentage of germination.

● ABA controls embryo dormancy, and GA enhances embryo germination. Seed coat
dormancy involves the mechanical restriction of the seed coat, this along with a low
embryo growth potential, effectively produces seed dormancy.

● GA releases this dormancy by increasing the embryo growth potential, and/or

weakening the seed coat so the radical of the seedling can break through the seed
coat. Different types of seed coats can be made up of living or dead cells and both
types can be influenced by hormones; those composed of living cells are acted upon
 after seed formation while the seed coats composed of dead cells can be influenced
by hormones during the formation of the seed coat.

● ABA affects testa or seed coat growth characteristics, including thickness, and
effects the GA-mediated embryo growth potential. These conditions and effects
occur during the formation of the seed, often in response to environmental
conditions. Hormones also mediate endosperm dormancy.

● Endosperm in most seeds is composed of living tissue that can actively respond to
hormones generated by the embryo. The endosperm often acts as a barrier to seed
germination, playing a part in seed coat dormancy or in the germination process.

● Living cells respond to and also affect the ABA/GA ratio, and mediate cellular
sensitivity; GA thus increases the embryo growth potential and can promote
endosperm weakening. GA also affects both ABA-independent and ABA-inhibiting
processes within the endosperm.
 At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1) Understood the different methods of vegetative propagation.

2) Discussed the significance of vegetative propagation by cutting and layering.
3) Understood the significance of grafting techniques .
4) Performed the different methods of grafting.
5) Performed the different types of budding.
6) Performed the different methods of budding

A large number of horticultural crops are raised through one or the other vegetative
methods. Several methods of vegetative propagation have been standardized for different
horticultural crops. However, one method of propagation may be suitable for a particular crop
but may not be suitable for the others. Similarly, one crop may be propagated on large scale
with different methods of propagation, whereas, the others may have only one method.
Further, the success of different propagation methods is influenced by the environmental
conditions. Hence, one method for a particular crop may be highly successful in a particular
locality, but cannot be of any value in the other.
1. Propagation by apomictic seedlings (mango, citrus etc)
2. Propagation by cuttings and layering (propagation on its own root system)
3. Propagation by grafting and budding (propagation on the root system of other
plants)
4. Propagation by specialized vegetative structures (propagation by bulbs, tubers,
rhizomes, corms, suckers, runners, bulbils, slips and crown etc.
5. Micropropagation i.e. propagation through tissue culture system

Cuttings

Importance and advantages of propagation by cuttings.

Now-a-days, propagation system are more market driven than production-driven, which
means that propagators must first analyze market demands and then select and develop
cultivar utilizing optimum propagation techniques to produce plants for the customers.
 Cuttings are still most important means of propagating ornamental shrub-deciduous
species as well as broad and narrow leaved types of evergreen plants.
Cuttings are also widely used in commercial green house propagation of many
floricultural crops.

Many new plants can be produced in a limited space.

● It is inexpensive, rapid and simple and does not require the special
techniques necessary in grafting, budding or micropropagation.

● No problem of graft incompatibility with rootstock and poor graft union etc.

● No variation due to variable seedling rootstocks.

Disadvantages

● The advantages of rootstock like induction of dwarfism, drought or disease

resistance etc. cannot be utilized

● Plants raised through cuttings have lesser longevity as they are susceptible to
various diseases and insect-pests.

Types of Cuttings

On the basis of plant part used and relative positions on a plant, cuttings are classified in
various groups.

a.) Stem cuttings: A stem cutting is any cutting taken from the main shoot of a plant or any
side shoot growing from the same plant or stem. The shoots with high carbohydrate content
usually root better. Broadly, there are four types of stem cuttings, namely hardwood, softwood,
semi-hardwood and herbaceous cuttings.
i) Hardwood cuttings: Cutting from mature and lignified stem of shrubs and trees are called as
hardwood cuttings. Hardwood cuttings are prepared during dormant season, usually from
one-year-old shoots of previous season’s growth . The size of cuttings varies from 10 to 45
cm in length and 0.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter, depending upon the species. Usually, the cuttings
of 25-30cm length, with pencil thickness are preferred. Each cutting should have at least three
or more buds. While preparing the cutting, a straight cut is given at the base of shoot- below
the node while a slanting cut, 1 to 2 cm above the bud is given at the top of cutting. However,
in case of hollow pith species such as kiwifruit, top cut should also be close to bud to avoid
drying up of top portion. For tropical and subtropical crops, straight cut is given at top in order
to minimize transpiration loss and slant cut should be given at the base to expose more area
for absorption of water and nutrients. This helps in maintaining the polarity of the shoot and if
rain occurs, water does not accumulate on the tip of the cutting, which saves the cutting from
fungal infection. A number of deciduous fruit plants like grape, kiwifruit, hazel nut, chest nut, fig,
quince, pomegranate, mulberry, plum, olive, and gooseberry etc. are commercially propagated
by hardwood cuttings.

ii) Semi-hardwood (green wood) cuttings: Semi-hard wood cuttings are those made from
woody, broad-leaved evergreen species with partially matured wood. These types of cuttings
are mostly used in evergreen fruit plants like mango, guava, lemon, jackfruit some shrubs and
shrubby ornamental plants. The length of the cuttings varies from 7 to 20 cm. The cuttings are
prepared by trimming the cuttings with a straight cut below the node and removing a few lower
leaves. However, it is better to retain two-to-four leaves on the top of the cuttings. While
planting 1/4th cutting should be inserted in the soil. The best time for taking such cuttings is
summer, when new shoots have emerged and their wood is partially matured. It is necessary
that leafy cuttings should be rooted under conditions when water loss from the leaves is
minimum. Commercially, such cuttings are rooted under intermittent mist, fog or under
polyethylene sheets laid over the cuttings.

iii) Softwood cuttings: Cuttings prepared from the soft-succulent and non-lignified shoots,
which are not hard or woody, are called as softwood cuttings. Such types of cuttings are very
prone to desiccation. Therefore, proper arrangement for controlling humidity is required.
Usually the size of cutting is 5-5.7 cm but it may vary from species-to-species. In general,
some leaves should be retained with this type of cuttings. The best time for preparing softwood
cuttings is late summer. Softwood cuttings generally root easier and quicker than other types,
but require more attention and sophisticated equipments. Similarly, the temperature should be
maintained 23 to 27oC during rooting at the base of cuttings.

iv) Herbaceous cuttings: Herbaceous cuttings are made from succulent non-woody plants like
geranium, chrysanthemum, coleus, carnation and many foliage crops. These are usually 7-15
cm long with few leaves retained at the upper end. These are rooted under the same
conditions as that of softwood cuttings, requiring high relative humidity. Bottom heat is also
useful for initiation of rooting process. Herbaceous cuttings of some plants exclude a sticky
sap (as in geranium, pineapple, cactus etc.) that interferes with root initiation process. In such
cases, basal ends of cuttings should be allowed to dry for few hours before planting. Generally,
fruit plants are not propagated by herbaceous cuttings.

b) Root cuttings: Propagation by means of root cuttings is also a simple and cheap method of
vegetative propagation in species, which are difficult-to-propagate by other methods. In
general, the plants, which produce suckers freely, are easily propagated by root cuttings. For
preparation of root-cuttings, roots which are of 1cm thickness and 10-15cm long are cut into
pieces. The best time for taking root cutting is late winter or early spring, when roots are well
supplied with stored food material. However, in temperate fruits, root cuttings are prepared in
the month of December and are kept in warm place in moss grass or wet sand for callusing
and are then transplanted in the nursery during February-March in the open beds. Blackberry
and raspberry are commercially propagated by this method. However, kiwifruit, breadfruit, fig,
rose, mulberry, apple, pear, peach, cherry and persimmon are also propagated by root
cuttings.

c) Leaf cuttings: Propagation through leaf bud cuttings is partially useful in species where
leaves develop root system but die because of non-development of shoot system. Leaf bud
cuttings are particularly useful when planting material is scarce because each node in leaf can
be used as cutting. Leaf bud cutting should preferably be prepared during growing season
because buds if enter into dormancy may be difficult to force to active stage, thereby inhibit the
rooting in such cuttings.
d) Leaf bud cuttings: A leaf bud cutting consists of a leaf blade, petiole and short piece of stem
with attached axiliary bud of actively growing leavesIn leaf bud cutting, 10-15 cm stem portion
is used when propagating material is small. It is an useful method of propagation in blackberry,
raspberry, lemon, camellia etc.

Layering
Layering is a form of rooting of cuttings in which adventitious roots are initiated on a stem while
it is still attached to the plant. The rooted stem (layer) is then detached, transplanted, while
later becomes a separate plant on its own roots. It is a natural mean of propagation in black
raspberries and trailing blackberries or it may be induced artificially in many plants like clonal
rootstocks of apple. In general, better rooting in the layers can be obtained by ringing or
wounding, etiolation or by the use of rooting hormones like IBA, NAA and by providing
favorable environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) .

Advantages

● It is an effective method of propagating species that usually do not root easily

by cutting as in mango, litchi, filberts and kumquat etc.
● It is a natural method of propagation in blackberries and raspberries.
● It does not require precise control on water, relative humidity or temperature,
as for other methods of propagation.
● Easy-to-perform and does not require much infrastructure.

Disadvantages

● Costlier in areas where labour availability is a problem.

● Limited number of plants can be produced.
● Plants produced through layering have usually small brittle roots.
● The mortality rate is particularly higher in air layered plants.

Types of layering

The most commonly used systems to layer plants include:

● Simple layering
● Compound/ serpentine layering
● Continuous/Trench Layering
● Air layering
● Mound/ Stool layering

Of these, the most commercially important are mound layering for multiplication of
rootstocks and air layering for some tropical fruits.

Simple Layering

Simple layer consists of bending an intact shoot to the ground to cause adventitious
roots to form This method can be used to propagate a wide range of plants, indoor or outdoor
on woody shrubs that produce numerous suckers. Layering is usually done in the early spring
using flexible, dormant, one-year-old shoot-branches of the plant that can be bent easily to the
ground. These shoots are bent and “pegged down” at a location 15 to 20 cm from the tip
forming a “U”shape. Bending, twisting, cutting, or girdling at the bottom of the “U” stimulates
rooting at that location. The base of the layer is covered with soil or other media, leaving the tip
exposed.

Compound or serpentine layering

It is a modification of simple layering in which one-year-old branch is alternatively

covered and exposed along its length. The stem is girdled at different points in the
underground part. However, the exposed portion of the stem should have at least one bud to
develop a new shoot. After rooting, the sections are cut and lined out in the field. In this way,
many new plants can be made from one branch. It is also an easy plant propagation method,
but is suitable only for plants producing slender, long and flexible shoots. Muscadine grape is
commercially propagated by this method.

Continuous or trench layering

It is the most common method of propagation for woody plants, which produce long
vines and are difficult-to-propagate by other methods of propagation. Vigorous rootstocks of
apple like M-16, and M-25 and walnut can easily be propagated by trench layering. In this
method, it is important to establish a permanent row of plants to be propagated.
 The method the mother plants are planted at the base of a trench at an angle of 450 in
rows spaced 90 cm apart. The long and flexible stems of these plants are pegged down on the
ground to form a continuous line of layered.. The young shoots that arise from these plants are
gradually mounded up to a depth of 15-20 cm in autumn, winter or at the end of the growing
season, depending on the species to be propagated.

Air layering (Marcotting)

Air layering or marcotting, an asexual or vegetative method of plant propagation, can be easily
performed with less skill. Air layering is just slightly different from other methods of layering such
as tip layering, simple layering, compound or serpentine layering, etc. In all these methods, the
induction of root development is usually done by wounding the part of the plant to be rooted.

In this layering method, roots are induced to form on the part of the plant while it remains aerial
(aboveground), hence the term air layering. But in other layering methods, the same plant part is
rooted on the ground usually by bending it downward.

Plant and Shoot Selection

Girdled stem ready for wrapping with rooting medium

A shoot with plenty of leaves is chosen from a healthy plant. The size of the stem at the part to be
rooted is generally about that of an ordinary pencil, but this is not essential. Both the thickness and
length of the stem vary depending on the plant part to be layered (trunk, branch or twig), the
intended size of the marcotted plant to be produced, and the plant species.

In roses, the stems used in marcotting are normally thinner. In comparison, in herbaceous plants
like aglaonema and dieffenbachia, the stems are thick.

Girdling and Scraping

This is unique in marcotting. However, this procedure is skipped in bamboo and herbaceous
plants. For trees, shrubs and semi-woody plants, a strip of bark is first removed from around the
portion of the stem to be rooted. This involves pressing of a sharp knife against the bark preferably
as close as possible below a node, moving the knife in circular motion around the stem. A similar
cut is made generally about 2 cm to 5 cm below the first cut, but it can be wider with larger stems.
The two cuts are then connected by a straight cut and the bark is pried loose and removed.
The debarked portion of the stem is then scraped to remove the phloem and cambium, that
slippery coating on the wood, to prevent the wound from healing and the upper and lower barks
from reconnecting.

Slitting and Wedging

In herbaceous plants, an inward cut is made starting from below a node and slightly upward. The
cut has to traverse the horizontal line that marks the node at the point about halfway of the
thickness of the stem and terminate above the same node. In other words, this slanting cut must
be able to severe the horizontal connection of the node.

Marcotted ready for harvest.

Coir dust, sphagnum moss or a piece of wood or any other suitable material is then inserted into
the wound to serve as wedge. The purpose of this wedge is to keep the upper and lower cut
surfaces apart and prevent healing just like in girdling and scraping.
Placing and Securing the Rooting Medium

A slightly moistened sphagnum moss or coconut coir dust is placed around the debarked stem
and wrapped with a piece of plastic sheet. A transparent plastic sheet is preferred to be able to see
later if roots have developed. In many plant species, however, the stems can be marcotted even
with pure soil.

The rooting medium may be as thick as 1 inch (2.5 cm) from side to side or bigger depending on
the earliness to develop roots and size of the stem. The longer is the time required to induce
rooting and the bigger is the stem, the thicker should be the rooting medium.
Both ends of the plastic sheet are gathered and tied securely against the stem, with one end just
under the bottom part of the debarked stem (lower cut) and the other a short distance above the
upper part (upper cut). It is important that the upper cut should be covered with the rooting medium
because it is from this cut that roots form.

As an alternative, the plastic sheet may be placed first on the stem with one end tied just below the
lower cut. The rooting medium is then inserted gradually and the upper end of the plastic wrapping
is tied securely to the stem. This marcotting technique is more convenient and applies with any
rooting medium which crumbles if not held by the hand.
To prevent breaking of the stem with big and heavy rooting medium, it is tied to another branch or
to a stick attached to the parent plant.
In stems which are more or less erect, the rooting medium can be held by any container such as
broken or halved pots, cans or plastic cups with open top. For big containers, a support is needed
to prevent them from dropping.

A container can be made also with a relatively thick plastic sheet with the bottom gathered and tied
just below the lower cut and the top is expanded to form a shape like that of a funnel. The sides are
overlapped and stapled or fastened by piercing with a piece of thin stick.

Mound /Stool layering or stooling

The term stooling was first coined by Lynch in 1942 for mound layering. It is a method
of propagation in which the shoots/plants are cut back to the ground and soil or rooting
medium is mounded around new sprouts/shoots to stimulate roots to develop at their bases.
This method is commercially used to propagate apple, pear, quince, currants, gooseberry and
other fruit crops. In stooling, the mother plant is headed back to 15 to 20 cm above ground
level during dormant season.

● The new sprouts will arise within 2 months. The sprouts are then girdled near the
base and rooting hormone (IBA), made in lanolin paste, is applied to the upper
portion of the ring.
● The concentration of IBA depends on species to species but generally; 3,000 to
5,000 ppm is commonly used. These shoots are left as such for two days for
proper absorption of rooting hormone, before they are covered with moist soil.

● Care should be taken to keep the soil heaps moist all the times. It facilitates rooting
in the stools. The roots in shoots may emerge within 30 to 40 days.

● However, the rooted shoots should be severed from the mother plants only after 60
to 70 days and then planted in the nursery or field.

Tip layering

It is the simplest form of layering, which often occurs naturally. The tips of shoots are
buried 5 to 10cm deep in the soil (Fig.5.5). Rooting in buried shoots takes place within a
month.The new plants (layers) may be detached and transplanted in the soil during spring. It is
a natural method of propagation for black berries, raspberries etc. However, currants,
gooseberries and rambling roses can also be propagated by tip layering easily.
Grafting

Before going into the details of different methods of grafting, it becomes very important to
know about the basic terminology related to grafting methods.

Grafting: Grafting is a process by which two living parts are joined together in such a manner
that they would unite together and subsequently grow into a composite plant. Usually graft has
two parts, the scion and rootstock.

Scion: Scion refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the top of the plant. Scion
is the short piece of detached shoot containing 3 or more dormant buds, which when united
with the rootstock or inter-stock, comprises the upper portion of the graft and from which will
grow the stem or branches or both. It should be of the desired cultivar and free from diseases.

Rootstock: The rootstock is the lower portion of the graft, which develops into the root
systems of the grafted plant. It may be seedling, a rooted cutting, or a layered or micro-
propagated plant.

Inter-stock: Inter-stock is a piece of stem inserted by means of two graft unions between the
scion and rootstock. Inter-stocks are used to avoid an incompatibility between the rootstock
and scion, to produce special tree forms, to control diseases or to take advantage of its growth
controlling properties.

Vascular cambium: Vascular cambium is a thin tissue located between the bark and the wood.
Its cells are meristmatic i.e. they are capable of dividing and forming new cells. For successful
graft-union, the cambium of the scion is placed in the close contact with the cambium of the
rootstock.
Callus: Callus is a term applied to the mass of parenchymatic cells that develop from and
around wounded plant tissues. It occurs at the junction of a graft union, arising from the living
cells of both the scion and rootstock. The production and interlocking of these parenchymatic
cells (callus) constitute one of the important step in callus bridge formation between the scion
and rootstock in a successful graft.

Reasons for grafting and budding

● Perpetuating clones that cannot be readily propagated by cutting, layers, division or

other asexual methods
● Obtaining the benefits of certain rootstocks
● Obtaining the benefits of certain plants (double working)
● Changing cultivars of established plants (top working)
 ● Precocity in bearing
● Reduction in juvenility
● Obtaining special forms of plant growth
● Repairing the damaged parts of trees
● Study and elimination of viral diseases
● Studying the developmental and physiological processes

Elements for successful grafting

There are five important elements for any successful grafting operation. These are:

● The rootstock and scion must be compatible.

● The vascular cambium of the scion must be placed in intimate contact with that of
the rootstock.
● The grafting operation must be done at a time when the rootstock and scion are in
the proper physiological stage.
● Immediately after completion of grafting, all cut surfaces must be protected from
desiccation.
● Proper care must be given to the grafts for some period of time after grafting.
●
Types of Grafting

1. Detached scion grafting

A. Apical grafting
Whip-and –tongue grafting
Splice grafting (whip grafting)
Cleft-grafting (split grafting)
Wedge grafting (saw-kerf grafting)
Saddle grafting
Four flap graft (banana grafting)

B. Side grafting
Side–veneer grafting
Side-tongue grafting

C. Bark grafting
Bark graft (rind grafting)
D. Root grafting
Whole-root and piece root grafting

2. Approach grafting
Spliced approach grafting
Tongued approach grafting
Inlay approach grafting

3. Repair grafting
Inarching
Bridge grafting
Bracing
With increasing labour costs, only a few of the more efficient grafting techniques are
utilized, such as side veneer, tongue and whip-tongue grafts. In automated and manual
grafting of herbaceous vegetable crops, the splice graft is one of the most important. The
description of some of the methods used in fruit crops, ornamental or vegetable crops is
as under.

Detached Scion Grafting

A. Apical grafting

Splice or whip grafting:

● In this method, it is essential that both the stock and scion should be of equal
diameter. The various steps involved in splice grafting.

● For this, about one-year-old rootstock is headed back at a height of 20-25 cm

from the soil and a splice (diagonal) cut of 2.5 to 6 cm long is made at the
distal end of the rootstock with the help of a sharp knife.

● A similar slanting cut is made on the proximal end of the scion. The cuts
should be smooth and the cut surface of both the rootstock and scion are
bound together and tied firmly with polythene strip. After the union has taken
place, the rootstock above the union is lopped off gradually. Sprouts arising
below the grafting union must be removed at regular intervals to divert flow of
metabolites for the growth of scion only.

Whip and tongue grafting:

● It is modified form of whip grafting. It differs from whip grafting that a reverse
cut is made downward at a point about 1/3rd of the distance from the tip and
should be about ½ the length of first cut.

● The various steps involved in splice grafting are shown in Plate 7.2. To obtain
a smooth-fitting graft, the cut should not split.

● The rootstock and scion is then inserted into each other, with the tongues
interlocking. It is important that vascular cambium layer match along at least
one side, preferably along both sides.

● The lower tip of the scion should not overhang the stock as there is a likely
hood of the formation of large callus knots.

● The use of scions larger than root stock should be avoided. After the scion
and rootstock are fitted together, they should be securely held by tying with
budding/grafting tape or polythene.

● This method gives better success than splice grafting because of better
cambial contact between stock and scion due to formation of tongue.

● Regular de-shooting of sprouts on stock is required to obtain better growth of

scion.

Cleft grafting:
 ● It is one of the oldest methods of field grafting. It is used to top work trees,
either in the trunk of a small tree or in the scaffold branches of a bigger tree.

● In making the cleft-graft, a heavy knife is used to make a vertical split for a
distance of 5 to 8 cm down the center of the stub to be grafted. This split is
made by pounding the knife in with a hammer.

● The branch is sawed off in such a way that the end of the stub is smooth and
free from knots for at least 15 cm.

● In this method, two scions are inserted, one at each side of the stock where
the vascular cambium layer is located. The scions should be 8 to 10 cm long
and 10-15 mm in thickness and should have two or three buds.

● The side of the wedge, which is to go to the outer side of the rootstock should
be slightly wider than the inside edge. When the knife is removed, a hard
wooden wedge is inserted to keep it open for the subsequent insertion of the
scion.

● The graft should be wrapped with a polyethylene strip properly to prevent

wilting of the scion. The scion starts growing after 2 to 3 months of grafting.
The right time for cleft grafting is the later part of the dormant season or just
before the start of active growth.

● Pear, walnut, hazelnut, pecan nut and grapes are propagated by this method.

Wedge grafting (saw-kerf grafting):

● It is performed in late winter or early spring before the bark begins to slip. A
sharp, heavy, short bladed knife is used for making a V-wedge in the side of
the stub or stock about 5cm long.

● Two cuts are made, coming together at bottom and as far apart at the top as
the width of the scion. These cuts extend about 2 cm deep into the side of the
stub.
● The base of the scion is trimmed and a wedge shape cut exactly the same
size and shape as the opening. With the two vascular cambium layers
matching the scion is tapped downward firmly into place and slanting outward
slightly at the top so that the vascular cambium layers cross.

● After all scions are firmly tapped into place, all cut surfaces including the tips
of the scion, should be waxed thoroughly. It is called saw-kerf grafting
because the cuts in the side of the rootstock can be made with a saw rather
than the sharp knife.

Saddle grafting:

● The saddle grafting can be bench grafted by hand or machine. The rootstock
and scion should be of the same size. The scion is prepared by cutting
upward through the bark and into the wood opposite sides of the scion.

● The knife should penetrate more deeply into the wood as the cuts are
lengthened. Before the scion piece, and the saddle shape is gradually formed
by removing pieces of the wood.
 ● The rootstock is cut transversely and then two upward cuts are made on
either side. The apex of the rootstock is carved to fit the saddle so that
vascular cambia of both stock and scion match.

● The graft is tied and cut surfaces are sealed by polythene until the graft-union
is formed.

● t is used for the propagation of grape and rhododendron cultivars.

B. Side grafting methods

Side veneer grafting:

● This method is used for grafting small potted plants such as seedling of
deciduous trees, shrubs and fruit crops. A shallow downward and inward cut
from 2.5-3.5 cm long is made.

● At the base of this cut, a second short inward and downward cut is made,
inserting the first cut, so as to remove the piece of wood and bark.

● The scion is prepared with a long cut along one side and very short one at the
base of the scion on the opposite side.

● These scion cuts should be of the same length and width as those made in the
rootstock so that the vascular cambium layers can be matched as closely as
possible. After inserting the scion, the graft is tightly wrapped with polythene
strips.

● After the union has healed, the rootstock can be cut back above the scion in
gradual steps. This method is commercially used for raising mango and
walnut plants.

Side-tongue grafting:

● In this method, the cut is made at the base of the scion, like the cut made in
whip-and tongue graft. Then, a thin piece of bark and wood from stock and
scion is completely removed.

● Then a reverse cut is made downward in the cut on the rootstock starting
1/3rd of the distance from the top of the cut. This second cut in the rootstock
should be of the same length as the reverse cut in the scion.

● The scion is then inserted into the cut of the rootstock, the two tongues
interlocking, and the vascular cambium matching. The graft is wrapped tightly,
to avoid desiccation.

● The top of the graft union is left intact for several weeks until the graft union is
healed and may be cut afterwards above the scion gradually so that the buds
on the scion are forced into active growth.
C. Detached scion grafting methods
Bark Grafting (Rind grafting):

● It is very simple method of propagation and some nurserymen prefer it,

because it can be done without splitting the stub, which prevents the entry of
pathogens.

● It can be done in branches, which are 25 to 30 cm long. It should be done in

spring when the bark of the stock slips easily.

● It is important to note that the scion used in bark grafting should be dormant.
The rootstock is first sawed off at a point, where bark is smooth. If the stock is
thick many scions can be inserted.

● For each scion, bark is split downward, about 5 cm from the top of the stub.
Scions of 10-12cm length containing 2-3 buds are prepared by giving a
slanting cut (5cm) downward along one side of the base.

● On the other side, a small cut is made. The scion is then inserted in the centre
of split between the bark and wood of the rootstock. The longer cut of the
scion is placed against the wood.

● The scion is held firmly by using adhesive tape. Afterwards, all the exposed
portions of the stub and scion should be tied with polyethylene strip tightly. The
scions will start sprouting after 6-8 weeks in case of successful grafts.

D. Root grafting (Whole root and Piece-root grafting):

● In this method, the seedling rootstock, rooted cuttings or layered plant is dug
up and the roots are used as the rootstock for the graft.

● The entire root system may be used (whole-root graft) or the roots may be cut
into small pieces and each piece is used as a rootstock (piece-root graft). As
the roots used are relatively small (0.5-1.5 cm) in diameter, the whip and
tongue graft is generally used. Root grating is usually bench grafted indoor
during the late winter or early spring.

● In preparation of root-grafts, the root-pieces should be 7.5 to 15.0 cm long and

the scions of about the same length containing two to four buds are used.

● After the grafts are made and tied properly, they are bundled together in
groups of 50 to 100 and stored for callusing in damp sand, peat moss or other
packing material.

Approach Grafting

The characteristic features of approach grafting are that two independent, self-sustaining
plants are grafted together. After the formation of union, the top of rootstock plant is
removed above the graft union and the base of the scion plant is removed below the graft
union.
 ● Generally, it is performed with one or both of the plants to be grafted, which are
growing in a container. Rootstock plants in containers may also be placed adjoining
to an established plant, which is to furnish the scion part of the new grafted plant.

● It must be performed in the season when plants are in active growth because under
such conditions, rapid healing of the graft-union will take place. The important
methods are:

Spliced approach grafting:

● In this method both scion and stock should be of same thickness. A splice of 4-5cm
bark and wood is removed both from stock and scion (Fig.7.3).

● The cut on both the partners should be of the same size and should be smooth too.
The cut surfaces of stock and scion are bound together with some suitable tying
material and waxed properly.

● The stock above the union and scion below the union are cut after sometime, when
proper union has taken place. It may be necessary to reduce the leaf area of the
scion if it is more than the root system of the rootstock.

Tongue approach grafting:

● The tongue approach grafting is the same as the spliced approach grafting, except
that after the first cut is made in each stem to be joined, a second cut downward on
the stock and upward on the scion is made, by providing a thin tongue on each
piece.

● By interlocking these tongues tightly, a closely fitted graft union can be obtained.

Approach grafting:

● The inlay approach grafting may be used if the base of the rootstock plant is
considerably thicker than that of the scion plant.

● A narrow slot, 7.5 to 10 cm long is made in the bark of the rootstock plant by making
two parallel cuts and removing the strip of bark between. This can be done only
when the rootstock plant is actively growing and their bark slipping easily.

● The slot should be exactly as wide as the scion to be inserted. The stem of the scion
plant, at the point of union, should be given a long shallow cut along one side, of the
same length as the slot in the rootstock plant and deep enough to go through the
bark and slightly into the wood.

● This cut surface of the scion branch should be laid into the slot cut in the rootstock plant
and held there by nailing with two or more small, flat headed wire nails. The entire union
must then be thoroughly covered with grafting wax.

● After the union has healed, the rootstock can be cut off above the graft and the scion
below the graft.

Inarching:
● Inarching is similar to approach grafting as rootstock and scion plants are on their
own roots at the time of grafting.
 ● It differs in that the top of the new rootstock plant usually does not extend above the
point of the graft-union as it does in approach grafting. Inarching is used to replace
roots damaged by cultivation equipment, rodents or diseases.

● It is very advantageous in saving a valuable tree or improving its root system

● In this method seedlings (or rooted cuttings) planted beside the damaged tree, or
suckers arising near its base are grafted into the trunk of the tree to provide a new
system to supplement the damaged roots.

● The seedlings to be inarched into the tree should be spaced about 10-15 cm apart
around the circumference of the tree if the damage is extensive.

● The seeding of compatible species is planted around the tree during dormant season
and grafted when active growth commences in them during early spring. Inarching
will enhance growth of uninjured older trees.

● A thin slice of bark (6-10 cm in length) at about 20 cm above the ground level is
removed from the stock with a sharp knife. A similar cut is made in the scion. Thus,
the cambium layers of both stock and scion are exposed. These cut are brought
together and tied firmly with the help of a polythene strip.

● After the successful union, stock above and scion below the graft union are lopped
off gradually. In low rainfall areas, it should be done with the onset of rains, while in
regions of heavy rainfall; it should be done soon after the rainy season is over,
provided temperature does not fall below 150C.

Other Grafting Methods

2. Repair Grafting

Bridge grafting:
● Bridge grafting is basically not a method of propagation but a form of repair grafting
only in plants, which have been damaged either by frost, rodents or insects.

● It may, however, be kept in mind that bridge grafting is only helpful if the trunk is
damaged but the root system of the plant is healthy.

● In this method, first the damaged portion of the stock is cleaned and the irregular
edges of the girdled area are cut evenly.

● The scion of desired variety is inserted in such a way that it is attached at both
upper and lower ends into the living bark. Similarly, it is important that scions should
be inserted right side up to ensure the polarity.

● The exposed injured wood must also be covered otherwise; it may serve as an
entry channel for decaying organisms.

Bracing:
 ● Bracing is a form of natural branch grafting that is used by fruit growers to
strengthen scaffolding limbs of a tree in order to support the load of the fruit crop. In
this method two strong, young lateral shoots from the limbs are to be braced.

● A rope or electrical cord is used to temporarily brace the larger limbs. The weaved
smaller shoots, which will naturally graft, are tied with waxed string or poly tape to
keep them together.

4. Softwood grafting

● This technique of grafting is commercially used for raising mango, sapota, tamarind
and cashewnut in western India. In this technique, grafting is done with mature,
procured scion on the emerging soft, coppery-red shoot of the rootstock, which is
60-70 days old.

● The basic technique involves the beheading of rootstock with a sharp knife. Then, a
slit is made on the beheaded stock to insert the procured scion. The lower portion of
scion is made in wedge shape so that both the faces of scion fit with the stock. Both
stock and scion are tied with help of a polyethylene strip.

● The scion is then covered with a polythene bag (100 gauge) and tied with thread to
keep the scion fresh till the complete union is formed (Fig.7.9). After sprouting, the
bag is removed. To have better success, the leaves on the stock must be retained.

● This technique is effective in dry hot weather or in areas of low precipitation where
mortality of nursery raised grafts is very high.

5. Epicotyl grafting

● It is also called as stone grafting. In this method, germinating seeds of less than two
weeks old are wedge or splice grafted with mature scion. Moderate temperature and
high relative humidity are major factors related to success of epicotyl grafting. For
splice grafting, germinating seeds less than 2 weeks old are used as rootstock.

● A 2-3 cm long slanting cut is made in the epicotyl with a matching cut on the
proximal portion of the scion and then these are tied firmly with polythene strip. In
wedge grafting, the selected 2 weeks old seedlings are headed back, by retaining
6-8cm long stem with the stone.

● The longitudinal transverse cut running 4-6 cm centrally down on the beheaded
rootstock is made with the help of a sharp grafting knife. A wedge shaped cut,
slanting from both sides is made on the lower side of scion stick.

● The scion stick is then inserted into the saddle-like structure made on the rootstock
and press properly so that cambium tissues of the rootstock and scion stick firmly
and overlap each other.

● The union is then tied with the help of 150 gauge-polyethylene strip. This technique
has been commercialized for rapid multiplication of mango in Konkan area of
Maharashtra.
 Budding

Budding is a form of grafting in which one bud and a small section of bark with or without
wood is used, in comparison to grafting, in which the scion consists of a short-detached
piece of stem tissue with several buds. Chip budding and T-budding are the most
important types of budding for fruit crops and woody ornamentals. The type of budding
method to be adopted depends upon the bark’s slipping, ability of the stock and scion,
which coincides with the period of active growth in season and when newly formed
tissues are easily torn as the bark is lifted from the wood. Among the different methods,
chip budding can only be done when bark is not slipping.

Advantages

● It is the best propagation method if the propagating material is scarce and

valuable.

● Budding is useful in plants, which release excessive wound gum (e.g. stone
fruits) from injury caused to wood portion of the stem at the time of grafting.

● Budding union is stronger than grafting so damage by wind or storm is less

compared to grafted plants.

● Budding is comparatively simple, efficient and quicker method of propagation

than grafting.

Selection of bud-wood

● While selecting bud-wood, one should careful enough to use vegetative buds
than the flowering buds for budding.

● The vegetative buds are usually small and pointed while flower buds are large
and plump. In case of bud wood to be procured from distant place, the leaves
must be removed by leaving petiole intact.

● The bundle of bud-wood should be packed in moist jute or sphagnum moss, or

cloth and should be kept moistened in the transit.

Stages of Bud/Graft Union Formation

There are four stages viz; pre-callus, callus formation of cambial bridge and healing of the
bud union.

Pre-callus stage: It lasts for 5 to 8 days, after budding or grafting operation. During
this stage, there is no sign of callus formation and scion falls if the wrapping
material is removed.

Callus formation: After 5th to 8th day, the callus formation may take place in the
bud/graft union. The process of callus formation is fast in firmly attached stock and
scion. The initiation of callus formation takes place either from stock, scion or both.
Usually, living cells of recently formed xylem and phloem play active role in the
callus formation.

Formation of cambial bridges: The paranchymatous cells of the callus form a

 cambial bridge within 12 to15 days after budding. After the formation of cambial
bridge, de-differentiation of secondary xylem and phloem takes place after 36-48
days of budding. Afterwards, the partial movement of stock to scion takes place.
The bud union is completed within 6-7 weeks, if conditions are favourable.

Healing of the bud/graft union: After de-differentiation of secondary xylem and

phloem of both stock and scion, there is formation of many new xylem and phloem
cells after 6-8 months of budding or grafting. The callus unites completely with the
scion pith and the union heals completely. In general, better contact and alignment
of the cambial cells of stock and scion helps in development and proliferation of
callus.

Methods of Budding

Chip Budding:

In chip budding, a chip of bark and wood is removed from the smooth surface between
the nodes of the stock.. A chip of similar size and shape is also removed from the bud
wood of the desired cultivar. For which, a 2-3cm long downward cut is made through the
bark and slightly into the wood of the stock. Then a second cut of about 2.5cm is made
so that it bisects the first cut at an angle of 30-45O and the chip is removed from the
stock. Similarly, a chip of bud is removed from the budwood, ensuring that the bud is in
the middle of chip. The bud chip inserted in the stock in such a way that cambium of the
bud chip should have direct contact with the cambium of the stock. It is then tightly
wrapped with polythene strip, leaving the bud uncovered. The bud may sprout after 3-4
weeks and afterwards the wrapping material should be removed. When the bud starts
growing, the stock may be cut above the bud union.

Shield or T-budding:

As the name indicates, shield is the shape of the bud and ‘T’ is the shape of cut given on
the rootstock. It is the most common method of budding used by nurserymen worldwide.
The various steps involved. For shield budding, one year old rootstock seedlings of 25-35
cm height and 2-2.5 cm thickness is selected. The bark of seedlings should slip easily.
The selected bud of desired cultivar is inserted 15-20cm above the ground level and is
tied with a polythene strip.

For performing budding operation, a “T” shaped cut is made on the selected portion of the
stock with the help of a sharp budding knife. The incision should be given through the
bark not the wood. The two flaps of bark are loosened with the help of budding knife. The
healthy bud is removed from the bud wood by cutting shallowly about 5-6 mm below and
2-3cm above the bud. This shield piece containing a bud is inserted in the “T” cut made
on the rootstock. The shield should be covered by two flaps of the bark, but bud should
be exposed. The buds are pressed firmly, fitted into the “T” cut and finally tied with
polythene strip. When bud healing process is over, the bud may attain a height of
15-20cm, the remaining portion of the stock is cut to about 10-15cm above the bud.
Plants with thin bark, with sufficient flow of the sap like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot,
cherry, rose and citrus are propagated by this method.

Patch budding:

In case of patch budding, a rectangular patch of bark is removed completely from the
rootstock and replaced with a patch of bark of the same size containing a bud of the
cultivar to be propagated. It is a slower and difficult to perform method than T-budding. It
is widely used in thick-barked species, such as walnuts, pecans and rubber tree, where
T-budding gives poor results due to poor fit around the margins of the bud-particularly the
top and bottom. It is usually done in late summer or early fall, but can be done in spring
also.

In patch budding, the stock and scion should preferably be of same thickness
(20-25mm). The various steps involved are shown in Plate 8.3. First, a rectangular piece
of bark (25mm long and 10-15cm wide) is removed from the stock and a similar patch,
containing a bud is removed from the scion by making two horizontal cuts above and
below the bud and then two vertical cuts connecting the horizontal cut.

After removing the patch, the bud should fit tightly at the top and bottom. It is then
wrapped with polythene strip, keeping the bud uncovered. The wrapping material should
hold the bark tightly and cover all the cut surfaces to prevent free entry of air or water or
pathogens. After the bud starts sprouting, the stock above the bud union may be cut off
step-by-step. In addition to pecan nut and walnut, mango, rubber plant, aonla, jackfruit
and jamun are also propagated by this method.
Ring or annular budding:

In this type of budding, a complete ring of bark is removed from the stock and it is
completely girdled. A similar ring of bark containing a bud is removed from the bud stick
and is inserted on to the rootstock. The various steps involved are shown in Fig.8.2. The
thickness of stock and scion should be of same size. It has been utilized in ber, peach
and mulberry because the newly emerged shoots from the heavily pruned plants are
capable of giving such buds for budding, which can be easily separated. In this method
since the stock is completely girdled and if the bud fails to heal in, the stock above the
ring may eventually die.

Forkert budding:

In forkert budding, the stock is prepared by giving two vertical cuts and a transverse cut
above the vertical cuts to join them. The bark is removed carefully along the cuts, so the
flap of bark hangs down. The scion is prepared in a fashion similar to patch budding,
having the size similar to cuts made on the stock. The scion is then slipped into the
exposed portion of the stock and the flap is drawn over the inserted bud patch. It is then
tied with a suitable wrapping material. After successful growth of bud, the portion of stock
above the union is removed carefully.

Flute budding:

In flute budding, the patch of bark is removed from the stock in such a way that it almost
completely encircles the stock except with a narrow bark connection between the upper
and lower cuts on the stock. A similar patch of bark is removed from the bud stick
containing a healthy bud. The shield containing the bud is then inserted in the vacant area
of the stock and the shield should fit tightly on the stock. It is then wrapped with suitable
wrapping material, leaving the bud uncovered. The other procedure is same as in patch
budding. Because of the presence of a narrow connecting strip of bark on the stock, it
remains alive even if the bud fails to sprout.
I-budding:

In I-budding, the bud patch is cut in the form of a rectangle or square like patch budding.
With the same parallel–bladed knife, two transverse cuts are made through the bark of
the rootstock. These are joined at their centre by a single vertical cut to produce the
shape of letter-I. The two flaps of the bark can then be raised to insert the bud patch
beneath them. A better fit may occur if the side edges of the bud patch are slanted. While
tying the I-bud, one should ensure that the bud patch does not buckle outward and leave
a space between the rootstock. I-budding is the most appropriate method of propagation
when the bark of the rootstock is much thicker than that of the bud stick. In such cases, if
the patch buds are used, considerable paring down of the bark of the rootstock around
the patch would be necessary.

Micro-budding:

Micro-budding is used successfully for propagating citrus particularly in Australia. It is

similar to “T” budding except that the shield (bud piece) utilized is thin and tiny like
“T-budding”; the micro-budding is also not done under aseptic conditions. The petiole is
cut off just above the bud and then bud is removed from the bud stick by a flap cut just
underneath the bud. Thus, only the buds are utilized in micro-budding. In stock an
inverted “T” cut is made and the tiny shield containing the bud is inserted in it and later
tied with a thin plastic tape. The tape may be removed soon (15-20 days) after the healing
has taken place.
 Lesson 4: Physiological and Biochemical basis of Rooting

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1. Described the physiological, anatomical and biochemical basis of root

formation.

Adventitious root formation is an organized developmental process involving

discrete biochemical, physiological and histological events in the induction, initiation,
development and elongation of root primordia. In general, regeneration of a new plant
from a cutting basically depends on two fundamental properties of the plant cell.

a) Totipotency: which states that individual cell contains all the genetic information
required for producing a new plant of same kind.

b) Dedifferentiation: which means the capacity of mature cell to return to a

meristmatic condition and develop into a new growing point.

In some species, cuttings root very easily as in grapes, while in some species, rooting
takes place only after some treatments, where as others do not root at all. Therefore, it
becomes mandatory to study the anatomical and physiological basis involved in the
process of rooting of cuttings.

Anatomical basis of rooting of cuttings

● Adventitious roots in stem cuttings of many woody plant species have been
reported to originate from various tissues. ARF in woody plants generally originate
in young secondary phloem, but also arise from vascular rays, cambium or pith
(Hartmann and Kester, 1983).

● The origin of adventitious roots has been reported to be callus tissue in

difficult-to-root species. Poor rooting in stem cuttings of certain woody species
has been correlated with extensive sclerification.

● Thick lignified walls of sclerenchyma tissues were physiological or

mechanical barriers to adventitious root formation in poor-to-root species
like Fagus, Prunus and Quercus . Generally, four anatomical changes are
observed in adventitious root formation.

These anatomical changes are:

● Dedifferentiation of specific mature cells

● Formation of root initials from the dedifferentiated specific mature cells

 ● Development of root initials into organized root primordia and formation of vascular
connection between root primordia and conducting tissues of the cuttings emerging
through the cortex and epidermis.

● Emergence of roots outside the cuttings

In herbaceous plants, adventitious roots generally appear just outside and
between the vascular bundles. In woody plants, one or more layers of xylem and
phloem are present and adventitious roots are formed in the stem cutting from the
living parenchyma cells. After emergence, the roots develop root cap and other
tissues of the root. Adventitious root and shoot usually arise within the stem
(endogenously) near vascular tissue, outside the cambium.

Dedifferentiation of specific mature cells: It is also referred as callus formation and

rooting process. When the cuttings are placed in a suitable medium, a mass of
undifferentiated parenchymatous cells, called as callus, is usually developed at the base
of the cutting and only then the root initiation process takes place. There was a belief
that callus formation is necessary for rooting of cutting but now it has been established
that callusing and root initiation are two independent phenomenons and can occur
simultaneously. Though, excess of callus formation may hinder root initiation in some
species.

Formation of root initials: Root initials are sometimes developed in the intact stem of
certain woody plants, even before cuttings are made from them. These root initials
remain dormant in the stem. These dormant root initials are called as preformed or
latent root initials. When the cuttings made from such stems are placed in favorable
environmental conditions, these root initials become active and roots are developed
rapidly and easily from them. Occurrence of root initials is quite common in willow,
hydrangea, poplar, jasmine, currant and citron. In some clonal apple and cherry
rootstocks and old trees of apple and quince, the preformed root initials show a swelling
(outgrowth) on the stem and are more often called as burr knots. Cuttings taken from
plants having burr knots usually root better and easily as compared to those having no
burr knots

Stem structure and rooting: It has been found that certain type of stem structures or
tissue relationship plays a vital role in adventitious root formation in the cuttings. The
development of continuous sclerenchyma ring between the phloem and cortex of the
stem is generally considered as an anatomical barrier to the rooting of cutting as in olive
and in some leaf cuttings. Similarly, presence of sclerenchyma fibers in the cortex of
stem may cause difficulty in the rooting of cuttings in some species as in English Ivy
and Hedera helix .

Physiological basis of Rooting of Cuttings

Prerequisites for adventitious root formation to occur include:

● Availability and receptivity of parenchyma cells for regenerating new meristematic

regions.

● Various modifications of the rhizocaline complex of phenolics (inhibitors,

promoters, rooting co-factors) auxin, enzyme system

● Substrate needs such as carbohydrate accumulation and partitioning and changes

in nitrogen and amino acids.
Several physiological processes occur during rooting of cuttings such as:

Growth regulators:

Various growth regulators such as, auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid
and ethylene influence rooting of cutting. In addition, various other natural
occurring promoters and inhibitors may also take part in the root initiation process.

Auxins

During 1934, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) was identified as the first naturally
occurring auxin having activity, which takes part in inducing rooting in the
cuttings. Later on Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid
(NAA) were found to be more effective in inducing rooting in cuttings.

● For initiation of rooting in the cuttings, continuous supply of auxin is

basically required for the first 3-4 days.

● Usually, the cuttings do not respond to exogenous application of auxin

once the rooting process has initiated.

● IBA treatments may control endogenous auxin levels of cuttings either

through direct regulation of the IAA oxidase system or indirectly
through the transport of auxin protectors.

Cytokinins

Cytokinins are responsible for growth and differentiation of the cells. Various
natural and synthetic chemicals like kinetin, zeatin and 6-benzyl adenine
have cytokinin activity. In general, cuttings having high endogenous levels
of cytokinins have more difficulty to root than those having low cytokinin
activity.

● Similarly, if cytokinins are applied artificially, root initiation process is

inhibited. However, cytokinins at very low concentration promote root
initiation process, while high concentrations inhibit it.
● Cytokinins strongly promote bud initiation in root cuttings of some
species as in Bryophyllum and Convolvulus .

Giberellins

Giberellins are a group of naturally occurring compounds first isolated in

Japan during 1939. They are primarily known for their elongation effects in
the intact stems.

● The high concentrations of gibberellins (10-3M) usually inhibit root

initiation process in cuttings but lower concentration (10-11to 10-7M)
promotes it.
● The inhibitory effect of higher doses of GA3 is mainly due to prevention
of early cell division, involvement in transformation of mature stem
tissues to the meristmatic conditions. Therefore, many gibberellins
antagonist chemicals like Alar, Arrest or Abscisic acid which usually
promote rooting in cuttings.
 Abscisic acid

The role of abscisic acid in rooting of cuttings is not very clear and reports
are highly contradictory. However, its effects on rooting depend upon
concentration and nutritional status of the stock plant from which the
cuttings have been prepared.

Ethylene

Ethylene, gaseous material produced by the plants, has a promoting effect

on rooting of cuttings at low concentration. Ethylene application at 10ppm
induces root formation in stem and root cuttings but at higher concentration
(100ppm or above) decrease or inhibit it. Root promotion activity of ethylene
is supposed to be due to its synergistic effects on auxin synthesis, which
alternately leads to root initiation process.

Role of vitamins

Endogenous optimum level or exogenous application of vitamin promotes root initiation

process in the cuttings. Thiamine (vit B1), pyridoxine (vit B6), niacin and biotin
B-complex vitamins and vitamins K or H all are known to stimulate the rooting process
in different plants. Vitamin, if applied with some auxins like IAA, NAA or IBA have
synergistic effect on root initiation in cuttings of different plant-species.

Presence of buds and leaves

It has been demonstrated by many workers that presence of leaves on the cuttings
exerts a strong stimulating influence on the root initiation process in cuttings. The leaves
produce carbohydrates, which are translocated downward to the base of stem, where it
promotes root formation. Further, the leaves and buds are powerful auxin producers and
their transport to basal parts may initiate rooting faster as in poplar, grape and currant. If
the buds are removed from the cuttings, the root formation may be hindered adversely.

Rooting co-factors: Many rooting co-factors have been isolated from cuttings of different
plants. These co-factors are naturally occurring substances that appear to act
synergistically with auxin, primarily IAA, for root formation in cuttings. Bouillenne and
Went were the first to name the root- forming factors of leaf, cotyledon and buds as
rhizocaline in 1933. Later, a new hypothesis was proposed, highlighting that rhizocaline
is a complex of three components viz:

● A specific rooting factor, which is translocated from buds, leaves, characterized

chemically as ortho-dihydroxy phenol

● A non-specific factors (auxin) in low concentration, which is also translocated from

leaves and the buds, and

● A specific enzyme, probably polyphenol oxidase present in pericycle, phloem or

cambium.

According to this hypothesis, ortho-hydroxyphenol reacts with auxin, giving rise to

rhizocaline wherever the enzyme is present. The formation of rhizocaline leads to the
reactions involved in the root initiation process.
Another hypothesis proposed by Hess (1968) indicated that a number of co-factors
interact with IAA, resulting in IAA co-factors complex, which subsequently initiates
rooting.

● Generally, the easily rooted plants have a large number of co-factors and in higher
concentration than in difficult-to-root plants.
● One of these co-factors (no 4) consists of highly active substances characterized
as oxygenated terpenoids.
● Another co- factor (no.3) was identified as chlorogenic acid. Later, it was postulated
that phenolic compound more especially catechol, reacts synergistically with IAA in
root formation.
● This oxidation of ortho-dihydroxy phenol is one of the first steps leading to root
initiation process.

Similarly, ABA was also found to be associated as one of the co-factors in root initiation.
The action of phenolic compounds in root initiation is mainly in protecting the natural
occurring auxin IAA from destruction by indole acid oxidase. Rooting co-factors have
been found in Hedera helix , Crab C, MM-106 and M-26 apple rootstocks and Old Home
pear.

Nutritional factors

The nutrient status of plant from which cuttings are taken, also plays vital role in root
initiation process of the cuttings.

● Low nitrogen and high carbohydrate resources usually favour root initiation process
compared to high nitrogen and low carbohydrate reserves.
● High nitrogen content usually favours luxuriant growth and hinder root initiation
process but extreme N-deficiency also hinders the rooting process.
● Thus, high C: N ratio should be maintained in the stock plants before taking
cuttings from them.

Endogenous rooting inhibitors

In addition to root promoting substances, certain endogenous root-inhibiting substances

are also present in some plant species, inhibiting the process of root initiation.

● Therefore, cuttings of certain plants do not root easily mainly because of presence
of endogenous inhibitors.
● For example, the cuttings of Vitis berlandieri do not root easily as compared to the
cuttings of Vitis vinifera because of presence of higher concentration of abscisic
acid.
● Similarly hardwood cuttings of Bartlett pear do not root easily as compared to Old
Home cultivar.
● Placing these cuttings in water before planting help in leaching of inhibitors and
enhance the root initiation and subsequent development of roots.
 Lesson 5: Micro-Propagation and Hardening of Plants in Nurseries

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1) Discussed the significance of micropropagation..

2) Applied the techniques of micropropagation.

Micropropagation refers to the production of plants from very small plant parts, tissues
or cells, grown aseptically in a test tube or containers under controlled nutritional,
environmental and aseptic conditions. All the biological principles of micropropagation
techniques are based on the phenomenon or totipotency of cell, which implies that a plant cell
has the capacity to generate into a full-fledged plant having different organs.
Micropropagation versus other propagation methods: Micropropagation propagation
differs from other vegetative propagation methods as:

● A very small plant part (explants) is used as a starting material.

● The explants are maintained in small containers having well defined culture medium.

● Highly aseptic conditions are required.

A large propagating material Is produced in a very short-time.

Applications of Micro Propagation

The various applications of micro propagation are:

1. Rapid rate of multiplication of a plant clonally

2. Production of disease-free and disease resistant plants
3. Induction of mutants and selection of mutants
4. Production of haploids through anther culture
5. Wide hybridization through excised embryo and ovule culture
6. Somatic hybrids and cybrids through protoplast fusion
7. Transformation through uptake of foreign genome
8. Nitrogen fixation
9. Cryopreservation of germplasm types

Advantages

● Production of large propagating material in shorter time

● Production of disease-free plants
● Clonal propagation of parental stock for hybrid seed production
● Year-around nursery production
● Useful in propagation of dioecious plants
 ● Breeding cycle is reduced
● Useful in hard-to-propagate plant species
● Germplasm preservation

Disadvantages

● Expensive and sophisticated facilities, trained personnel and specialized techniques

are required
● High cost of production results from expensive facilities and high labour inputs
● Contamination or insect infestation can cause high losses in a short time
● Higher level of somatic variation
● Poor establishment of the plantlets in the field

Principles and Practices

A. Totipotency and plant regeneration:

The term totipotency was coined by Germen plant physiologist Haberlant in 1902. This
is achieved by excising the explants and placing it on culture medium, which involves
the following consecutive events:
1) Differentiation of source tissue or organ, as a result of which, all
physiological mechanism activate in the cell, which leads to cell division.

2) Active cell division in the entire cut surface of the explants, resulting in
proliferation of the callus tissue.

3) Organization of defined meristems, resulting in formation of shoot or root

meristems or both.

4) Regeneration and differentiation of new organs through organogenesis or

somatic embryogenesis.

B. Axillary bud proliferation

● It is considered a convenient route for micropropagation, because it does not

include a callus stage and is considered safe for the preservation of clonal
characteristics.

● It has been observed by many workers that a large number of axillary shoot buds
grow extensively when shoot-tips or even smaller apical meristems are cultured in
an appropriate culture medium, containing higher concentration of cytokinin.

● Both the excision of the explants and the cytokinin rich medium activate the bud,
leading to proliferation of many side shoots, which can later be separated for further
culture.

C. Organogenesis (Development of organs)

● Organogenesis from explants results in the formation of both shoots and roots.
● Generally shoots are formed first than roots.
 ● The regeneration of other organs occur later on, either in the same media or after
sub-culturing in another medium, supplemented with different concentration of salt
under different environmental conditions.
D. Somatic embryogenesis

● Somatic embryogenesis is different from organogenesis in that the regeneration

and organization are bipolar i.e. the shoots and root meristems in the explants are
formed simultaneously from pre-embryonic masses.

● Differentiation and organization of somatic embryogenesis usually, a two stage

culture is involved.

● First induction of pre-embryonic masses, which is usually favoured by 2,4-D or

other auxins and second, by the transfer of the pre-embryonic masses to a
differentiation medium in which the somatic embryos fully differentiate into organs.

Stages of Micropropagation

Micro propagation is an integrated process in which cells, tissues or organs of the

selected plants are isolated, surface sterilized and incubated in growth promoting, sterile
medium and environment to produce a large number of plants. The different stages are:

Stage 0: Selection of mother plant for explants isolation: The mother plant from
which explants has to be excised should be
a.) A certified and true to type representative of the desired species and or
cultivar.
b.) Healthy and free from insect pest and disease
c.) Should be quite vigorous.

Stage1: Explant establishment in culture medium

During this stage the explant is cultured in a suitable culture medium, preferably
agar based media for tissue activation and multiplication.

Stage2: Proliferation and multiplication

In this stage, repeated sub-culturing is done to encourage more proliferation, which

largely depends upon the combination of growth regulators (Plate 13.1). The
duration of this stage is unlimited and largely depends on the choice of propagator.

Stage 3: Plant establishment and rooting:

In this stage the selected plants are forced for root formation, which can be
achieved by media modification and modifying the concentration of growth
regulators. The concentration of cytokinins and sugars are reduced and
concentration of auxins and light intensity in the laboratory is increased to start with
photosynthesis and other physiological activities.

Stage 4. Acclimatization or hardening

The plantlets developed in the culture tubes are acclimatized to specific

environment having a high humidity, a low light level and a constant temperature
(Plate13.2). Besides, the roots developed in vitro are hairless and hence delicate,
 requiring care during transfer from culture medium. To have better survival rate, the
plantlets may be transferred to container kept in mist chambers where relative
humidity is maintained at higher order. Once new growth is seen, the plants may be
slowly transferred to outside by exposing to increased light intensity in stages.

Once plantlets are well rooted, they must be acclimatized to the green house
environment. In vitro rooted plants are removed from the culture vessel and the
agar is washed away completely to remove a potential source of contamination.
Plantlets are transplanted into a standard pasteurized rooting or soil mixture in
small pots or cells in a more or less conventional manner as shown in Plate 13.3.
Initially, micro-plants should be protected from desiccation in a shaded, high
humidity tent or under mist or fog. Several days may be required for new functional
roots to form.

Plantlets should be gradually exposed to a lower relative humidity and a higher light
intensity. Any dormancy or resting condition that develops may need to be
overcome as part of the establishment process. These conditions help the plantlets
in getting acclimatized to the natural conditions, which would help them in getting
established in the field easily.

Culture Techniques and Medium

Culture Techniques

Various culture techniques such as (i) meristem culture (ii) callus culture (iii) shoot bud
regeneration (iv) somatic embryogenesis (v) ovule culture (vi) embryo culture (vii) anther
culture and (viii) protoplast culture are employed in micropropagation.

1. Meristem culture: Meristem culture involves culture of both shoot-tip and

axillary-bud. The use of small shoot-tips comprising of the apical dome with one or
two leaf primordia (0.1-0.5 mm) is the basis for the technique known as
meristem-tip-culture, pio¬neered by Morel in the 1950s. Meristem tip culture is now
being routinely used, mainly in horticultural crops, for the elimination of virus from
infected material. Virus apparently either does not easily invade or rapidly multi¬ply
in the young meristematic tissue. A simple nutrient medium consisting only of salts,
sucrose and vitamins is used in order to minimize the formation of callus.
Gibberellic acid is often needed to promote adequate growth and NAA may be
required to stimulate root formation.

2. Callus culture: A piece of sterile plant tissue with living cells is transferred¬ to a
culture medium to induce callus proliferation. Sub-culturing is then done onto a
medium with or without altered growth regulator concentrations, ultimately resulting
in the induction of adventitious or¬gans or embryos. In the last stage, regenerated
plants are removed from in vitro culture and slowly exposed to outer environment
so that the plants can be fully autotrophic.

3. Cell culture: The cells are maintained in suspension cultures so as to produce

free cells and are then sub-cultured to regenerate complete plant from single cells.
This technique is now useful to induce variability in plant cells and to select
desirable cell variants and regenerate complete plants from these variants.

4. Embryo culture: It involves aseptic excision of the embryo and its transfer to a
suitable medium for development under optimum culture conditions. After the
 embryo has grown into a plantlet in vitro, it is transferred to sterile soil or vermiculite
and grown to maturity in a green house. This technique is useful in the production of
intetspecific and intergeneric hybrids which could not be otherwise accomplished
and also in overcoming embryo abortion.

5. Protoplast culture: From different sources, protoplasts (the plant without any rigid
cellulose wall but with plasma membrane only allowed to fuse to form a somatic
hybrid) are cultured in suitable media to regenerate the cell wall and are again
cultured in suitable medium for differentiation and morphogenesis.

6. Anther culture: The culture of anthers is of considerable value to breeders as it is

possible to produce haploid plants which reveal recessive alleles. These haploid
plants can be used for the production of homozygous diploids, thus avoiding
generations of inbreeding. Added benefits, such as small flowers and prolonged
flowering time, might be ensured from the use of haploid plants as they are usually
smaller than their diploid counterparts and being sterile there will be no
pollination-induced senescence. Anther culture has been used in Pelargonium spp.
to eliminate virus, in Lilium spp. to produce haploid plants and in Gerbera to obtain
different flower colour.

7. Somatic embryogenesis: The greatest potential for clonal multiplication is

through somatic embryogenesis, where technically a single isolated cell can
produce first an embryo, then a complete plant. Somatic embryogenesis and
plantlet regeneration has been report¬ed in various species of horticultural plants
by using mid-rib, leaf and stem callus on modified MS basal medium supplemented
with 1.0 – 2.0 mg/l 2,4-D and 0.25-0.50 mg/l BA or kinetin.

Culture medium

● Success in the technology and application of tissue culture methods depends on the
selection of proper culture medium, which meets the nutritional requirements of
cultured cells and tissues. The basic components of all nutrient media are inorgan¬ic
salts, carbohydrates, vitamins, growth regulators, agar (for solid medium) and water.
Other components including organic nitrogenous compounds, organic acids and
complex substances can be important but are optional.

● The inorganic nutrients required in macro-amounts are N,P, K, Ca, S and Mg. The
optimum concentration of each nutrient for achieving maximum growth rates varies
considerably. The essential nutrients required in micro-molar concentration include
Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu and Mo. The concentration of inorganic nitrogen in the culture
medium varies from 25 to 50 mM. Nitrate is commonly used in the range from 25-40
mM and the amount of ammonium varies between 2 and 20 mM. Potassium is
supplied in the range of 20 mM or higher and the optimum concentrations of P, Mg,
Ca and S for most tissues are 1-3 mM.

● The standard carbon source is sucrose or glucose at a concentration of 2-3%. Other

carbohydrates which have been tested include fructose, lactose, maltose, galactose
and starch but these compounds are generally much inferior to sucrose or glucose
as a carbon source. Most media contain myo-inositol. There is no absolute
requirement of myo-inositol, but its inclusion (100 mg/l) generally improves tissue
growth. MS medium is the most popularly used nutrient medium in tissue culture.

● The nutrient media are supplied with certain vitamins. There is an absolute
requirement (0.1-0.4 mg/1) for thiamine. Growth is also improved by the addition of
 nicotinic acid and pyridoxine; sometimes biotin, vitamin B12, folic acid, choline
chloride, riboflavin and ascorbic acid are also added to the culture medium,
depending on the type of tissue to be cultured.

● The pH of the culture medium is an important factor for maintenance of growth of

cultured plant tissues. In general, plant tissues require an acidic pH, and an initial pH
of 5.5 - 5.8 is optimum. The physical form of the culture medium is also an important
factor determin¬ing the success or failure of tissue culture. Both liquid and solid form
of culture medium are useful for initiation and proliferation of callus tissue and initial
organogenesis, but for further growth of organs solid medium is essential. When
culturing in a liquid medium, gentle agitation of the liquid is necessary for aeration of
culture medium, rotating apparatus is used for this purpose.
 Lesson 6: Techniques of Propagation through Specialized Organs; Corms, Runner,
Sucker etc.

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1. Understood the different types of specialized vegetative structures .

2. Explained the significance of the specialized vegetative structures

The specialized vegetative structures include runners, suckers, crown, offsets,

bulbs, corms, tubers, tuberous roots and stems, rhizomes and pseudo bulbs that function
primarily in the storage of food, nutrients and water during adverse environmental
conditions. Plants possessing these modified plant parts are generally herbaceous
perennials, in which the shoot die down at the end of a growing season but the fleshy
vegetative structure usually do not die and remains in the soil, which put forth new
vegetative growth in the next season. Plants that survive as underground storage organs
are called geotypes, which can withstand period of adverse growing conditions in their
regular growth cycle. A brief description on propagation techniques used for species with
specialized organs is as under:

Bulb: A bulb is a complicated structure, which consists of a short thickened stem

bearing roots on the underside and thick fleshy leaves on the upper side. Bulbs are
usually produced by monocotyledonous plants in which these are modified for storage
of food and water and reproduction. Oxalis, is the one dicot genus that produces bulbs.
Bulbs generally consist of bulb scales Fig.14.1 and Fig.14.2. The outer bulb scales are
fleshy, which contain reserve food materials, where as inner scales do not function as
storage organs and are leaf like. In the centre of the bulb, there is either a vegetative
meristem or an unexpanded flowering shoot. Meristem develops in the axil of these
scales to produce miniature bulbs, known as bulblets, which when grown to full size
are known as offsets. In some species (e.g. Lilies), the bulblets are produced in the
underground organs. Bulbs are of two type’s tunicate i.e. (laminate) and non-tunicate
(scaly).

Tunicate (laminate) bulbs: The examples of tunicate bulbs are onion, garlic, daffodil
and tulip. These bulbs have outer bulb scales that are dry and membranous. This
covering or tunic, provides protection from drying and mechanical injury to the bulb.
The fleshy scales are in continuous, concentric layers or lamina to provide solid
structure to the bulb.

Non-tunicate (scaly) bulbs: Non-tunicate bulbs are represented by the lily, have dry
coverings, loosely arranged like the petals of a flower overlapping each other. In
general, non- tunicate bulbs are easily damaged and must be handled more carefully.
They must be kept moist because they are injured by drying. The bulbs are
propagated through offsets, bulb cuttings, scaling, scoring, stem cuttings, leaf cuttings,
leaf buds and bulbils.

In case of scaling, individual bulb scales are separated from the mother bulb and
placed 5-6 cm deep vertically in a suitable growing media. These scales usually
develop 3-5 bulblets after 4-5 weeks of planting. In many advanced countries, there is
a programme to produce forcible commercial bulbs after one growing season only
from scaling with preformed bulblets in lilies. Basically four types of plant development
take place in this method of scaling as under:

● Epigeous-type plant (ETP) in which direct bolting bulblet is produced with

foliage leaves but no scales. It is considered as the most desirable
development form.

● Hypoepigeous type plant (HETP) in which rosette structure is produced

first with foliage scale, which bolts after attaining some growth.

● Hypogeous type plant (HTP) forms only a rosette structure with foliage
scales. It is not a commercial method.

● Non-green leaf bulblet (NLB) does not produce any foliage because the
bulblet remains dormant. It is also not desirable.

Scooping and scoring are commercially used for the propagation of Hyacinth
and Scilla. Scooping and scoring methods are basically used to remove apical
dominance and to encourage bulb let formation. In scooping, the entire basal
plate of the mature bulb is scooped out with a special sharp and curved scalpel
to destroy the main shoot. Adventitious bulblets will develop from the base of the
exposed bulb scales.

In scoring, three straight cut are given across the basal plate and growing point
of the bulb but the complete plate is not removed as in scooping. Growing point
in the axils of bulb scales grow into bulb lets. After scoring and scooping, the
bulbs are placed about 2.5 cm deep in dry sand or open trays at about 21oC for
callusing. After callusing, the bulbs are incubated in trays at 21oC, which may be
increased 29-32oC in dark or diffused light for 2 weeks and held at 80-90 percent
relative humidity for 2-3 months. The mother bulb along with bulblets are planted
10cm deep in the nursery in the fall.

Tubers: A tuber is a swollen, modified underground stem, which primarily function as

the storage organ of the plant. The potato, Caladuim, Yam, Jesusalem artichoke are
examples of tubers. The tuber has nodes (eyes), internodes, lateral and terminal buds.
The eyes (nodes) of a tuber are spirally arranged, consisting of one or more small
buds. Usually one bud in the eye sprouts and suppresses the growth of others, which
shows the phenomenon of apical dominance. Usually, the removal of first sprout from
the stem permits other buds to sprout.

Propagation by tubers is usually done either by planting whole tuber or by cutting the
whole tuber into pieces, called as division. The each division or seed tuber should
have one ‘eye’ or bud. The weight of a seed tuber should be between 28-56 g to
provide sufficient food for the establishment of new plants. The seed tubers should be
kept at 200C with 90 percent relative humidity for 2-3 days prior to planting for rapid
healing. These seed tubers may be treated with fungicides to prevent Rhizoctonia rot
and scab. When whole tuber is used for propagation, its dormancy should be
overcome by dipping the tubers in thiourea, ethrel or KNO 3. Sprouting takes place only
after the dormancy is over. Tubers of Begonia and Dioseorea vines produce aerial
tubers called as tubercles. These tubercles can also be used for raising new plants.
Runners
It is a specified long slender stem that develops from the axil of leaf
at the crown of a plant, which prostate horizontally along the ground. The roots appear
at one of the nodes having contact with soil. After root formation in the new plant, the
contact with the mother plant is automatically detached and the new plant can be
separated and planted. Strawberry is a typical runner. Oxalis corniculata, Bosten fern,
bugle (Ajuga) and spider plant (Chlorophytum comosum) are other examples of plants
propagated through runners.

Production of strawberry runners ot, which arises on a plant below the ground, arising
from an adventitious bud on a root. The capacity of a plant to form suckers varies from
species-to-species and even from variety-to-variety. Pineapple is usually propagated
through suckers. In banana two types of suckers are produced water suckers and
sword suckers Water suckers are broad leaved, whereas, sward suckers are pointed
and have sword shape. For propagation purpose, sword suckers are preferred over
the water suckers. Suckers are separated from the mother plant and are either planted
in the nursery or directly in the field for rooting. Multiplication of apple clonal rootstocks
is also done by suckers.

Off-sets (off-shoots): An offshoot is a young plant produced laterally by the parent plant
or branch that develops from the base of main stem in some plants, which can easily
be detached from it. The term offset in generally applied to a shortened, thickened
stem of rosette like appearance (Fig.14.6). It is also applied to lateral shoots arising on
the stems of monocotyledonous fruit plants, like date palm, pineapple or banana.
Similarly, some cacti and succulents also produce a cluster of small plants around the
base and these offsets merely need separation.For propagation, well rooted offsets are
cut close to the main stem with a sharp knife and planted in a suitable medium or soil.
The development of offsets in the plants can be stimulated by way of heading back the
crown of the plant.

Rhizome: A rhizome is a modified and specialized stem structure in which the main
axis of the plant grows horizontally at or just below the soil surface (Fig.14.7). The
stem is segmented having nodes and internodes. A leaf like sheath is attached to each
node, which on expansion becomes the foliage. Usually, roots develop in the vicinity of
the nodes. The flowering stems, called as culms, are either produced from the
rhizome tip or from the lateral branches. The banana is a typical example of rhizome.
Other rhizomatous plants are ginger, bamboo, iris, sugarcane and many grasses.

For propagation, the whole rhizome or piece of a clump or cutting may be used in
rhizomatous plants but the division of rhizome is most commonly used propagating
material. The mother rhizome is cut into sections, each having atleast one lateral bud
or eye. These sections are planted in a suitable medium. Adventitious roots and new
shoots will develop from the nodes and ultimately into plants, such as bamboos, the
aerial shoot or culm is used as cutting. The cuttings or sections containing 3-4 nodes
are planted vertically in the soil. The new branches arise from the nodes, producing an
individual plant.
Corms: A corm is a short, solid, much swollen underground stem, enclosed by dry
scale like leaves, with one or several buds near the top, a tuft of leaves at the upper
side and a ring of thick fibrous roots around the base. At the apex of corm is terminal
shoot, which usually develops into a flowering shoot or leaves. Gladiolus, crocus and
water chestnut are examples of some typical cormous plants. Cormous plants can be
propagated through new corms, cormels or corm segments. Usually, a mother corm
produces 2-3 new corms and 15-20 cormlets, the miniature corms.
In general, a corm flower within a year of planting, whereas it takes 2-3 growing
seasons for a cormel to flower. Division of corm is also sometimes used as a method
of propagation of cormous plants. While making segments, it must be ensured that at
least one eye should be present in one piece. These segments are planted vertically 5
cm deep in soil, which later develop into a full plant. Micro propagation protocols are
now standardized and commercially used in gladiolus even in our country.

Pseudo bulbs
Pseudobulb (false bulb) is an enlarged fleshy stem with several nodes. It is produced
by some horticultural plants (mostly orchids), mainly for the storage of food. The plants
producing pseudobulbs are usually propagated through offshoots, division or from
black and green bulbs produced by them. The rooted shoots are cut from the mother
bulb and planted in the nursery. Some orchids, like Cattleya, Laclia, Miltonia etc. are
multiplied commercially through the division of pseudobulbs. The bulb is cut into
different sections by a sharp knife during dormant season. Each section is sown and
new growth begins at the nodes.
 Lesson 7: Use of Growth Regulators in Propagation

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1) Discussed the role of growth regulators in plant propagation.

2) Applied in actual the growth regulators.

Plant growth regulators (PGR) usually are defined as organic compounds, other
than nutrients, that affect the physiological processes of growth and development in
plants when applied in low concentration. Practically, plant growth regulators can be
defined as either natural or synthetic compounds that are applied directly to a target
plant to alter its life processes or its structure to improve quality, increase yields or to
facilitate harvesting. The term plant hormone, when correctly used is restricted to
naturally occurring plant substances. This fall into five classes: auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, inhibitors and ethylene (gas). The term plant growth regulators include
synthetic as well as naturally occurring hormones.

Main functions
Auxins: Cause enlargement of plant cell.
Giberellins: Stimulate cell division, cell elongation or both.
Cytokinins: Stimulate cell division in plants
Inhibitors: Plant hormones that inhibit or retard a physiological or biochemical
process in plants.

Rooting and plant propagation

● One of the oldest uses of plant growth regulators has been to initiate or accelerate
the rooting of cuttings.

● The best and most commonly used chemical for this purpose is indole butyric
acid (IBA), which is decomposed relatively slowly by the auxin-destroying
enzyme system in plants. Because this compound also moves very slowly in the
plant, much of it is retained near the site of application.

● Another highly active auxin frequently used for root promotion is naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA). As NAA is more toxic than IBA, there is a greater danger of
injury to treated plants. The amides of both compounds are also effective rooting
agents.

● Many phenoxy compounds, including 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T (trichlorophenoxy acetic

acid) promote root formation if used at low concentrations. The type of root
systems produced varies with the growth regulators used. These phenoxy acids
tend to produce bushy, stunted and thickened roots systems.
 ● IBA is commercially used as rooting hormone in many horticultural and forest
plants including apple, peach ,plum, poplar ,ficus, grapes, kiwifruit, pomegranate,
rose, tea, winged bean, rhododendron, egg plant etc.

Methods of Application

There are three major methods of applying growth regulators to stem cuttings for the
induction of roots:
1. Quick dip method
2. Prolonged soaking method (Dilute solution soaking method)
3. Powder method
4. Lanolin paste method

1. Quick dip method (Concentrated solution dip)

● In the quick dip method, a concentrated solution varying from 500 to 10,000
ppm (0.05 to 1.0 percent) of auxin in aqueous solution or 50 percent alcohol
is prepared, and the basal end (0.5 to 1cm) of the cutting is dipped in it for a
short time (usually 3 to 5 seconds sometimes longer).

● The cuttings are then inserted into the rooting medium. Cuttings are most
efficiently dipped as a bundle, not one-by-one.

● Many propagators prefer the quick dip compared to a talc application

because of consistency of results and application ease.

● Greater rooting and more consistent rooting response have been reported
with quick dip method than with talc. Change the solution after use at the
end of the day, rather than pouring it back into stock solution.

● On extreme hot days in open areas where evaporation is high, it is best to

discard the old solution and add fresh solution several times during the day.

● Stock solution that contains a high percentage of alcohol will retain their
activity almost indefinitely if kept clean. One should use rubber or plastic
gloves when working with these rooting compounds.

2. Prolonged soaking method

● In this method, the basal end of cuttings are soaked in dilute solution (10 to
500 ppm) for up to 24 hrs just before they are inserted into the rooting
medium. The concentration varies from about 20 ppm for easily rooted
cuttings to about 200 ppm for the difficult-to-root species.

● During the soaking period, the cuttings should be held at about 200C, but
not placed in the sun.

● This is generally a slow, cumbersome technique and is not commercially

popular.

● Due to long duration, there are chances of variability of results, with

environmental changes occurring during the soaking period.
 3. Powder method

● In this method, the basal ends of cutting are treated with the growth
regulators in a carrier-usually a clay or a talc. The concentration of active
ingredients in the inert carrier is between 500 to 1000 ppm.

● Talc preparations have the advantage of being easy-to-use. However,

uniform rooting may be difficult to obtain, due to variability in the amount of
the talc adhering to the base of cutting, the amount of moisture at the base
of the cutting, the texture of the stem ( i.e. coarse or smooth) and loss of
the talc during insertion of the cutting into the propagation medium.

● Talc formulations are generally less effective than IBA in solution at

comparable concentration. Seradax-A, B and Rootone are such
formulations, which are still popular among the nurserymen.

4. Lanolin paste method

● For preparing hormonal pastes, the required quantity of hormone is

weighed accurately and dissolved in a few drops of alcohol.

● The required quantity of lanolin is weighed and heated slightly in a beaker

under gentle flame. When the lanolin is slightly liquidified, the dissolved
hormone is poured in it.

● The contents are dissolved and mixed thoroughly and allowed to cool
down. The paste is ready to use.

● The growth regulators are applied to the girdled portion of a layer or stool in
lanolin paste for inducing rooting.

● Germination and Dormancy

Giberellic acid is the most potent germination promoter, by breaking seed dormancy in
a wide range of species like peach, wild mustard, citrus, rough lemon, trifoliate orange,
sweet orange, beans, peach, chinese cabbage etc. Giberellin occurs at a relatively
high concentration in developing seeds but usually drop to a lower level in mature
dormant seeds. Giberellins play an important role in the initial enzyme induction,
activation of reserve food and certain types of dormancy, including physiological
dormancy, photo dormancy and thermo dormancy.

Cytokinin is believed to offset the effect of inhibitors like ABA in germination. It allows
giberellic acid to function. Applied cytokinin can also be effective in overcoming thermo
dormancy.

Ethylene has been effective in overcoming seed dormancy in snowberry

(Symphoricarops ), honey suckle (Lonicera), corn and other cereals, germinating bean
and pea seeds produce ethylene. Ethylene is a natural germination promoting agent for
certain kinds of seeds, but has limited role in germination of seeds.

Other Nutrients: Use of potassium nitrate has been an important seed treatment in
seed testing laboratories. Thiourea overcomes certain types of dormancy, such as the
seed coat deep embryo-dormancy. Prunus seeds as well as high temperature
 inhibition of lettuce seeds. The effect of thiourea may be due to its cytokinin activity in
overcoming inhibition.

Hormonal changes during stratification

A triphasic change in endogenous hormones is typical for many seeds; generally there is:
I. A reduction of ABA
II. Increased synthesis of cytokinin and gibberellins
III. Reduction in hormone synthesis in preparation for germination.

In general, gibberellins promote germination in dormant seeds, while ABA inhibits

germination Pre-sowing treatments with certain seeds not only reduce
the stratification requirement and improve the seed germination but also enhances
seedling growth in a number of temperate fruits.

Simple Layering
Simple layer consists of bending an intact shoot to the ground to cause adventitious
roots to form This method can be used to propagate a wide range of plants, indoor or outdoor
on woody shrubs that produce numerous suckers. Layering is usually done in the early spring
using flexible, dormant, one-year-old shoot-branches of the plant that can be bent easily to the
ground. These shoots are bent and “pegged down” at a location 15 to 20 cm from the tip
forming a “U”shape. Bending, twisting, cutting, or girdling at the bottom of the “U” stimulates
rooting at that location. The base of the layer is covered with soil or other media, leaving the tip
exposed.

Compound or serpentine layering

It is a modification of simple layering in which a one-year-old branch is alternatively

covered and exposed along its length. The stem is girdled at different points in the
underground part. However, the exposed portion of the stem should have at least one bud to
develop a new shoot. After rooting, the sections are cut and lined out in the field. In this way,
many new plants can be made from one branch. It is also an easy plant propagation method,
but is suitable only for plants producing slender, long and flexible shoots. Muscadine grape is
commercially propagated by this method.

Continuous or trench layering

It is the most common method of propagation for woody plants, which produce long
vines and are difficult-to-propagate by other methods of propagation. Vigorous rootstocks of
apple like M-16, and M-25 and walnut can easily be propagated by trench layering. In this
method, it is important to establish a permanent row of plants to be propagated.

The method the mother plants are planted at the base of a trench at an angle of 450 in
rows spaced 90 cm apart. The long and flexible stems of these plants are pegged down on the
ground to form a continuous line of layered.. The young shoots that arise from these plants are
gradually mounded up to a depth of 15-20 cm in autumn, winter or at the end of the growing
season, depending on the species to be propagated.
Air layering (Marcotting)

Air layering or marcotting, an asexual or vegetative method of plant propagation, can be easily
performed with less skill. Air layering is just slightly different from other methods of layering such
as tip layering, simple layering, compound or serpentine layering, etc. In all these methods, the
induction of root development is usually done by wounding the part of the plant to be rooted.

In this layering method, roots are induced to form on the part of the plant while it remains aerial
(aboveground), hence the term air layering. But in other layering methods, the same plant part is
rooted on the ground usually by bending it downward.

Plant and Shoot Selection

Girdled stem ready for wrapping with rooting medium

A shoot with plenty of leaves is chosen from a healthy plant. The size of the stem at the part to be
rooted is generally about that of an ordinary pencil, but this is not essential. Both the thickness and
length of the stem vary depending on the plant part to be layered (trunk, branch or twig), the
intended size of the marcotted plant to be produced, and the plant species.

In roses, the stems used in marcotting are normally thinner. In comparison, in herbaceous plants
like aglaonema and dieffenbachia, the stems are thick.

Girdling and Scraping

This is unique in marcotting. However, this procedure is skipped in bamboo and herbaceous
plants. For trees, shrubs and semi-woody plants, a strip of bark is first removed from around the
portion of the stem to be rooted. This involves pressing of a sharp knife against the bark preferably
as close as possible below a node, moving the knife in circular motion around the stem. A similar
cut is made generally about 2 cm to 5 cm below the first cut, but it can be wider with larger stems.
The two cuts are then connected by a straight cut and the bark is pried loose and removed.

The debarked portion of the stem is then scraped to remove the phloem and cambium, that
slippery coating on the wood, to prevent the wound from healing and the upper and lower barks
from reconnecting.

Slitting and Wedging

In herbaceous plants, an inward cut is made starting from below a node and slightly upward. The
cut has to traverse the horizontal line that marks the node at the point about halfway of the
thickness of the stem and terminate above the same node. In other words, this slanting cut must
be able to severe the horizontal connection of the node.

Marcotted ready for harvest.

Coir dust, sphagnum moss or a piece of wood or any other suitable material is then inserted into
the wound to serve as wedge. The purpose of this wedge is to keep the upper and lower cut
surfaces apart and prevent healing just like in girdling and scraping.
Placing and Securing the Rooting Medium

A slightly moistened sphagnum moss or coconut coir dust is placed around the debarked stem
and wrapped with a piece of plastic sheet. A transparent plastic sheet is preferred to be able to see
later if roots have developed. In many plant species, however, the stems can be marcotted even
with pure soil.

The rooting medium may be as thick as 1 inch (2.5 cm) from side to side or bigger depending on
the earliness to develop roots and size of the stem. The longer is the time required to induce
rooting and the bigger is the stem, the thicker should be the rooting medium.
Both ends of the plastic sheet are gathered and tied securely against the stem, with one end just
under the bottom part of the debarked stem (lower cut) and the other a short distance above the
upper part (upper cut). It is important that the upper cut should be covered with the rooting medium
because it is from this cut that roots form.

As an alternative, the plastic sheet may be placed first on the stem with one end tied just below the
lower cut. The rooting medium is then inserted gradually and the upper end of the plastic wrapping
is tied securely to the stem. This marcotting technique is more convenient and applies with any
rooting medium which crumbles if not held by the hand.
To prevent breaking of the stem with big and heavy rooting medium, it is tied to another branch or
to a stick attached to the parent plant.

In stems which are more or less erect, the rooting medium can be held by any container such as
broken or halved pots, cans or plastic cups with open top. For big containers, a support is needed
to prevent them from dropping.

A container can be made also with a relatively thick plastic sheet with the bottom gathered and tied
just below the lower cut and the top is expanded to form a shape like that of a funnel. The sides are
overlapped and stapled or fastened by piercing with a piece of thin stick.
Mound /Stool layering or stooling

The term stooling was first coined by Lynch in 1942 for mound layering. It is a method
of propagation in which the shoots/plants are cut back to the ground and soil or rooting
medium is mounded around new sprouts/shoots to stimulate roots to develop at their bases.
This method is commercially used to propagate apple, pear, quince, currants, gooseberry and
other fruit crops. In stooling, the mother plant is headed back to 15 to 20 cm above ground
level during dormant season.

● The new sprouts will arise within 2 months. The sprouts are then girdled near the
base and rooting hormone (IBA), made in lanolin paste, is applied to the upper
portion of the ring.
● The concentration of IBA depends on species to species but generally; 3,000 to
5,000 ppm is commonly used. These shoots are left as such for two days for
proper absorption of rooting hormone, before they are covered with moist soil.

● Care should be taken to keep the soil heaps moist all the times. It facilitates rooting
in the stools. The roots in shoots may emerge within 30 to 40 days.

● However, the rooted shoots should be severed from the mother plants only after 60
to 70 days and then planted in the nursery or field.

Tip layering

It is the simplest form of layering, which often occurs naturally. The tips of shoots are
buried 5 to 10cm deep in the soil (Fig.5.5). Rooting in buried shoots takes place within a
month.The new plants (layers) may be detached and transplanted in the soil during spring. It is
a natural method of propagation for black berries, raspberries etc. However, currants,
gooseberries and rambling roses can also be propagated by tip layering easily.
Grafting

Before going into the details of different methods of grafting, it becomes very important to
know about the basic terminology related to grafting methods.

Grafting: Grafting is a process by which two living parts are joined together in such a manner
that they would unite together and subsequently grow into a composite plant. Usually graft has
two parts, the scion and rootstock.

Scion: Scion refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the top of the plant. Scion
is the short piece of detached shoot containing 3 or more dormant buds, which when united
 At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1.Described the different types of nursery.

2. Applied the techniques in nursery management.

The importance of the best quality planting materials as an initial investment is a

well realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So nurseries have great
demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers & assured planting material
at reasonable price is not available. So persons having a skill of propagation of plants can
go for this avenue as an agro- business of future.

Nursery is a place where plants are grown, nurtured and sold out. Generally, various
commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type.

Types of Nurseries

Nurseries are categorized in different ways. According to time duration nurseries are
classified in two types:

1. Temporary Nursery
Is develop only to fulfil the requirement of the season or a targeted project. The
Nurseries for production of seedlings of transplanted vegetables and flower crops
are of temporary nature. Likewise temporary arrangement for growing forest
seedlings for planting in particular area can also be done in temporary nursery.

2. Permanent nursery
This type of the nursery is placed permanently so as to produce plants continuously.
These nurseries have all the permanent features. The permanent nursery has
permanent mother plants. The work goes on continuously all the year round in this
nursery. According to type of plants produced nurseries are classified in to following
types:

a. Fruit plant Nurseries

In this nursery seedlings and grafts of fruit crops are developed.
 b. Vegetable nurseries
In this nursery seedlings of cauliflower, cabbage, brinjal and tomato are
prepared.

c. Flowers plants nurseries

The seedlings of flowering plants like gerbera,carnation, petunia, salvia,rose,
chrysanthemum,coleus,aster, dianthus are developed in this nurseries

d. Forest nurseries
The seedlings of plants useful for forestation like oak, teak, eucalyptus,
casuarinas are prepared and sold.

e. Miscellaneous nurseries
In such type of nurseries plants with great economic value, rare and medicinal,
herbal plants are propagated. In this nursery plants like geranium,
rose,calendula, and marigold are propagated. Planning of nursery one has to
decide which type of nursery is to be started. At the same time the durations and
type of plants propagated should be finalized. Selection of site is the basic
requirement of a nursery. Site is a place upon which one can produce seedlings
of plants. Qualities of a good site are:
1. Nearness of road
2. Near a habitat
3. Suitable climate
4. Neither shady nor exposed area
5. Sufficient sunlight
6. Good irrigation facilities
7. Good soil condition
8. Good transport facility

Management of Nursery

Nursery plants require due care and attention after having either emerged from the seeds or
have been raised from other sources like rootstock or through tissue culture technique.
Generally they are grown in the open field under the protection of mother nature where, they
should be able to face the local environment. It is the duty & main objective of a commercial
nursery grower to supply the nursery plants with suitable conditions necessary for their
development & growth. This is the major work of management in the nursery which
includes all such operations right from the emergence of young plantlet till they fully
grown-up or are ready for uprooting & transplanting in the main field.

1. Potting the seedling

Before planting of sapling in the pots should be filled up with proper potting mixture.
Now a days different size of earthen pots or plastic containers are used for
propagation. For filling of pots loamy soil, sand and compost can be used in 1:1:1
proportion. Sprouted cuttings, bulbs,corms or polythene bag grown plants can be
transferred in earthen pots for further growth. All necessary precautions are taken
before the pots planting of sapling.
2. Manuring & irrigation

Generally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not available in the soil used for seedbed.
Hence, well rotten F.Y.M/ compost and leaf mould is added to soil. Rooted cuttings,
layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the permanent location, require
fertilizers. Addition of fertilizers will give healthy & vigorous plants with good root &
shoot system. It is recommended that each nursery bed of 10 X 10 m area should
given 300 gm of ammonium sulphate, 500 gm of single super phosphate and 100
gm of Muriate Potash. Irrigation either in the nursery beds or watering the pots is an
important operation. For potted hand watering is done & for beds low pressure
irrigation by hose pipe is usually given. Heavy irrigation should be avoided.

3. Plant Protection Measures

Adoption of plant protection measures, well in advance and in a planned manner is
necessary for the efficient raising of nursery plants. For better protection from pest
and diseases regular observation is essential. Disease control seedbed; the major
disease of nursery stage plant is “damping off” for its control good sanitation
conditions are necessary. Preventive measures like treatment with 50% ethyl
alcohol, 0.2% calcium hypo chloride and 0.01% mercury chloride is done. These
treatments are given for 5;30 minutes. Some of the seed treatment are as follows;

a. Disinfection
The infection within a seed is eliminated by use of formaldehyde, hot water or
mercuric chloride.

b. Hot water treatment

Dry seeds are placed in hot water having a temperature of 480C for 10-30
minutes.

c. Protection
In dry seed treatment organo mercuric and non- mercuric compounds like
agallal, aretan-6, and tafastan -6. For this the seeds are shaken within the seed
container. While in wet method, the seeds are immersed for certain period in
liquid suspension.

d. Soil Treatment
Soil contain harmful fungi, bacteria, nematodes and even weeds seeds, which
affect the growth and further development of plant. These can be eliminated by
heat, chemical treatment. For the soil is disinfected by heating to the
temperature of about 600C for 30 minutes.

e. Chemical Treatment
The chemicals like formaldehyde, methyl bromide, chloropicrin, vapam are
used. Other diseases like rust, powdery mildew, leaf spot, bacterial blight, yellow
vein mosaic are also observed. For control of these diseases Bodeaux mixture,
 Cabendazime, Redomil can used. Tricoderma viridi a bio- fungicide can be also
tried out.
4. Weed Control
Weeds competes with plants for food, space and other essentials. So timely control
of weeds is necessary. For weed control weeding, use of cover crops, mulching,
use of chemicals (weedicides) are practiced. Pre- emergence weedicides like
Basaline or post – emergence weddicides like 2;4-D and round up are usedful.

5. Measures against heat and cold

The younger seedling is susceptible to strong sun and low temperature. For
protection from strong sun, shading with the help of timber framework of 1 meter
height may be used. Net house and greenhouse structures can be also used.

6. Packing of Nursery plants

Packing is the method or way in which the young plants are tied or kept together till
they are transplanted. So they have to be packed in such way that they do not lose
their turgidity and are able to establish themselves on the new site. At the same time
good packing ensures their success on transplanting. For packing baskets, wooden
boxes, plastic bags are used. In some parts of the country, banana leaves are also
used for packing the plants with their earth ball. This is useful for local transportation.

7. Sale management
In general the main demand for nursery plants is during rainy season. A proper
strategy should be followed for sale of nursery plants. For that advertisement in local
daily newspapers, posters, hand bills, catalogue and appointment of commission
agents can be followed.

8. Management of Mother Plants

Care of mother plants is necessary so as to get good quality propagules and scion.
A labelling and records B. Certificate C. Irrigation D. fertilization E. Pruning F.
Protection from the pests and diseases collection and development of new mother
plants fruit Nurseries.

Let’s see what’s on your mind!

Direction: explain further the given words and phrases. ( 5 pts. Each)

1. Weed Control
2. Management of Mother Plants
3. Sale management
4. Packing of Nursery plants
5. Measures against heat and cold
6. Chemical Treatment
7. Disinfection
8. Temporary Nursery
 Lesson 2 : Nursery Tools and Implements

At the end of the lesson, the learner must have:

1. Identified and classified the different kinds of tools used in the nursery.

Nursery tool and Implements

For carrying out day-to-day routine cultural operations in the nursery, various tools,
implements and accessories are required. Some tools are simple and are used for
simple operations, whereas for carrying out specific operations, special types of
equipment are required. These are listed and briefly described hereunder:

Tools for land preparation and other basic works

Kudali: It is a simple but important tool used for digging of soil, pits or any basic digging
work prior to preparation of nursery beds. It has a metal (iron) blade attached to a
wooden handle. It is operated manually.

Garden fork: Garden fork is used for breaking of soil clods and separation of medium
size soil during preparation of nursery bed or fields.

Weeding fork: It loosens the soil and helps in weeding also. It consists of a long handle
with a blade of handle teeth. It is drawn manually with the help of handle to collect the
weeds and cops of plants etc.

Crow bar: It is an iron rod with one end pointed and other as a wedge shaped. It is
used for digging out large or hand boulders from the soil and digging of pits. It is also
used for breaking hard soil pan.

Shovel: It has iron blade of spoon shape and wooden handle and is used for within field
transport of dug out soil required for leveling of field for preparation of nursery beds

Pick-Axe: It is made of carbon steel. Pick axe has two edges with provision of axial
hole for attachment with handle. One edge of pick –axe is pointed and another is
broadened. Pick axe is used for digging hard, compact and stony soils

Spade: It is used for lifting and turning the soil. Also used for digging the pit, preparing
channel for irrigation and drainage lines.

Hoe-cum-Rake: It is of rectangular shape metal blade with fork like fore edge. It is
used for digging, hoeing, earthing, leveling and collecting weeds.

opener: It is used for opening narrow and shallow furrow after sowing seeds in nursery.

Hand leveler: It consists of narrow rectangular metal blade attached to long wooden
handle

Trowel (Khurpi): It is of shovel shape but small in size with iron blade and wooden
handle. It can be made in many shapes as per local designs and requirements. It is
used for hoeing, weeding and nursery plants and also for transplanting seedlings.

Axe: Iron blade, fastened to wooden handle. It is used for felling trees and cutting
branches.

Bill Hook (Darat): It is made of iron curved at the far end or used for cutting hardy
branches of plant and other woody shrubs in the field.

Sickle: It is used for cutting grass and leafy vegetables.

Wheel-Barrow: It is manually operated small trolly, used for carrying nursery plants,
compost, fertilizes, leaf litter, horticultural produce, stones etc. from one place to
another place. It can be designed into different shapes according to requirement.

Cultivator: It is a tractor drawn implement used for tilling the soil efficiently. It has tynes
of quality carbon comprising of different sizes depending upon the plough depth. These
days, hand driven small cultivator is more popular. It can plough upto ½ to 1 feet depth.

Disc harrow: It is used for pulverizing the soil. It is also used for turning crop residues,
weeds and other debris in the soil. It is used for deep ploughing and turning of soil.

Grafting and budding tools

Knife: Knives having combined blade for grafting and budding purposes. A
grafting/budding knife has a straight 7.5cm long blade and strong long handle. It has a
spatula at the end of a handle, which is used for lifting the bark during budding
operation. Sometimes knife has two parallel double blades, used specially for lifting or
removing the patch of a bud from the budwood. Generally these knives have either a
folding or fixed blade. The blade of knife should be made from high carbon steel and
should always be very sharp.

Secateurs: Secateurs are considered as the most important tool for a propagator or a
nurseryman. It is used for removing scions, lopping off the rootstock, preparation of
scion sticks, removal of undesirable shoots/sprouts from the stock and training and
pruning operations. The blades of secateurs should be of high quality carbon blade for
giving smooth cuts to the stock and scions

Grafting machines: Many machines have been developed and commercially used for
the preparation of scion sticks and bud wood for budding and grafting operation in
many developed countries.

Pruning saw: Several types of saws are required for performing different operations
involved in propagation of horticultural plants. The commonly used are crescent saws,
tapered saws and straight saws. All of them have long and widely set teeth to facilitate
pruning or cutting of green wood. Its blades should be narrow so that it can pass
through the narrow or closely spaced branches.

Ladders: In propagation work, ladder is required for operations like cutting of bud wood,
training of vigorous plants, performing layering operations and top working of declining
plants. In general, step ladder or straight ladder or hook ladders are used for such
operations in the field of propagation.

Tying and wrapping materials: It is essential to hold scion and stock firmly together to
have successful graft/bud union. For this purpose a suitable tying or wrapping material
is required. Generally polyethylene tapes/strips, waxed string and cloth, raffia fibro and
rubber strips are used for this purpose. In addition, adhesive tapes similar to surgical
adhesive tapes but lighter in weight are also used by commercial nursery men.

Grafting wax: Wax is used by propagator to seal the graft union for preventing moisture
loss and desiccation of cells at cut surface and to prevent the decay of wood by way
of checking the entry of pathogens (Fig.16.5). Waxes are of two types i) Hot wax ii)
Cold wax.

Labels: Labels are used for proper labeling of plants, before sale. Labels may be made
of paper, card board, wooden, celluloid, aluminum and plastic etc

Pots: Pots of different shapes and sizes are used in nursery. They may be of clay,
metal or plastic usually 10cm, 15cm or 20cm for single specimen. Pots are of different
types, tube pots, ¼ size,1/2 size,3/4 size and full size, thali and urn. These are used
for potting ornamental plants, fruit plants, saplings etc. Iron pots/ plastic pots are used
for irrigation purpose also.

Spray-pumps: To spray protective material i.e. insecticides/pesticides/fungicides to

eliminate the infection of pathogens or insects, spray pumps are very important tools.
Pumps are of different shapes, size and types. Commonly used sprays are knap-sack
sprayer
rocker sprayer, foot sprayer, hand sprayers or power sprayers Depending upon the
volume of nursery and specific purpose different types of sprayers are put in
operation.

Chain saw: It operates using fuel (petrol/kerosene). It aid to cut wood logs of bigger
size and lopping of branches and shoots.

Chain weeder: It is operated by petrol/diesel/kerosene. It is used to slash the weeds on

large scale.

Rose can: A tubular pipe with rose i.e. fitted into the can through which water is
sprinkled over the nursery beds until the germination of seeds and to avoid splashing
of seeds from the nursery beds due to loose pipe irrigation and flood irrigation.

Iron pan: It is made of iron and used for transporting pot mixtures, potted plants
through head load from one place to another for short distance.

Hose pipe: This is available in convenient length. Irrigation to nursery plants is made
possible to any extent.

Pruning shear: It is made of iron fitted with wooden handle. It is used to prune
unwanted branches, collection of scion, trimming of the edges and hedges and topiary
work.

Scythe: It is long knifed, fitted with wooden handle. It is used for slashing of weeds.
Exercise 1: Media for Propagation of Plants in Nursery beds and mist
Chambers

Exercise: Media for propagation of plants in nursery beds and mist chambers.

Materials required: Sand, soil, FYM or other formulation of compost, digging and media
preparing tools, pots.

Procedure:

● Media used for propagation of Horticultural plants mainly consists of organic and
inorganic components.

● The components of organic media include peat, sphagnum moss or bark.

Sometimes leaf mulch, wheat straw, paddy straw, paddy hulls and saw dust are also
used. While using these components some coarse mineral components should be
used for increasing aeration such as sand, grit, pumice, vermiculite, perlite etc. The
characteristics of different medium used for propagation are as under:

Soil:

● The soil texture and structure is the first deciding factor for preparations of soil
media.

● A soil having 40 percent sand, 40 percent silt and 20 percent clay is considered best
for seed germination, where as sandy loam soils are excellent for preparation of soil
mixtures for container growing plants.

● The soil pH of 5.5. to 6.5 is generally preferred. On the other hand structure of soil
plays vital role in the germination of seed and rooting of cuttings

● Heavy soils are avoided, as working with such type of soil is quite difficult.

Sand:

● Sand contains silica and has almost no mineral in it. Quartz sand, which chiefly
contains silica components, is used by nurserymen for propagation. Because sand
is the heaviest of all rooting media, it should be used in combinations with some
other organic material.

● Sand should be washed, fumigated or heat treated before use to kill harmful
pathogens present in sand.

Vermiculite:

● It is a micaceous mineral obtained from mica ore after processing the ore at 1090oC.

● Sterilization of material is done by heating. Heating turn water to steam, popping the
layers apart forming small, sponge like kernels.

● Chemically, it is hydrated magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate. It is neutral in reaction

with good buffering property and insoluble in water.
 ● It can absorb large quantities of water. It has good cation exchange capacity and can
hold nutrients in reserve and release them slowly. It contains enough magnesium
and potassium, which is needed for plant growth.

● Horticultural vermiculite has four grades according to the size of particles:

Name of grade Particle size (mm)

No 1 5-8
No.2 2-3
No 3 1-2
No 4 0.75-1

● In general NO.2 grade is widely used as horticultural grade and No.4 is useful as
seed germinating medium. Nurserymen should not use non-horticultural grades.

Compost:

● It is decomposed and rotten material of farm waste. For growing seeds and cuttings
it is very common and useful material. Compost is rich in organic matter, nutrients or
has higher water holding capacity. It can be used as a medium for propagation but
should be mixed with soil. The whole process of compost making occur in three
steps.
1. Decomposition of easily degradable material, which is for few days.
2. Cellulose compounds are degraded at a high temperature which takes
several months.
3. The micro-organisms recolonize the material.

● Mostly, compost is prepared using dung which contains faecal pass out, living seed
of weeds and may be infested with soil dwelling pests like beetles, grubs and
root-rotting pathogens. Therefore, it should preferably be used after sterilization.

Perlite:

● It is grey-white silicaceous material obtained after processing of crude ore which

appears, after volcanic eruption.

● Perlite is obtained after heating the crushed ore to about 760oC. As a result of
heating, the moisture in the particle changes to steam and expand the particles to
small, sponge like kernels that are very light. It holds 3-4 times more water to its
weight.

● It is neutral in reaction with a pH of 6.0 to 8.0. It does not contain mineral nutrient.
Perlite in combination with peat moss is a very popular rooting medium for cuttings.

● Perlite is available in different grades with particle size of 1.6 to 3.0 mm in diameter
is mostly used for propagation. In combination with peat moss it is an ideal rooting
medium for rooting of cuttings.

Peat:

● Peat consists of the decomposed remains of aquatic, marsh, bog, or swamp

vegetation and sediment of water bodies. Peat is of three types:
 ● Moss Peat: It is least decomposed and derived from sphagnum or other
mosses. It has high moisture holding capacity about 15 times to its dry weight.
It varies in colour ranging from light tan to dark brown. It has highly acidic pH
(3.2 to 4.5) and contains little amount of nitrogen. This type of peat is mostly
used in horticultural nurseries, the course grade being the best. When peat
moss is to be used in mixes as a propagation medium, it must be broken down
into pieces and moistened before use. However, its continuous use may be
improved by using agents like Agro Grow.

● Reed sedge peat: It consists of remains of grasses, reeds sedges and other
swamp plants. It holds about 10 times more water to its dry weight and its pH
ranges from 4.0 to 7.5.

● Peat humus: Peat humus is highly decomposed material. It can originate from
hypnum moss or reed sedge peat. It has very low moisture holding capacity
and pH ranges from 2.0 to 3.5. It may contain latent seed inoculations of soil
dwelling pathogens, so it should be pasteurized while using.

Sphagnum moss:

● It is a bog grass plant of the genus Sphagnum such as Sphagnum

papillosum , S.capillaceum and S.palustre.

● It grows as lithophytes in swampy spheres and is commonly found in hilly tracts of

India. Sphagnum is obtained after dehydrating living portion of the
grass. Sphagnum moss is relatively sterile, light in weight, having high moisture
holding capacity.

● It has pH of about 3.5 to 4.0. It is widely used for keeping the live material moist for
distant transport of seedlings and in air layering (goottee) of plants.

● It can be used as rooting medium for cuttings. Moss should be shredded either by
hand or mechanically before use.

● It should be moistened with water before use. Sometimes, moss contains a strain of
Streptomyces bacteria, which inhibit damping off the seedlings in the nursery.

Saw dust; wood-shaving and shredded bark:

● Saw dust, wood shavings and shredded bark of different plants like cedar, fir, pines,
maple and redwood etc. can be used in mixtures with various propagating medium.

● Because of low cost, light weight and easy availability, these are mainly used in soil
mixes for container grown plants.

● These mixes usually contain a lower amount of nutrients and hence additional
amount of nutrients may be added to the mixes before their use as a growing
medium.

● Being organic in nature, saw dust is ideal for the growth of fungus and hence its use
is limited in propagation.
Coco peat:

● It is also called as coco dust. It is a byproduct of cutting and shifting of coconuts for
fibre production.

● It is becoming very popular propagating and growing medium these days, because it
has an excellent pore space (25-30 per cent) and fine structure required for proper
growth and development of seedlings.

● It is a rich source of nutrients and can easily be mixed with other growing media.

Soil mixes:

● Different soil mixes are used as medium for propagation. Usually, soil mixtures are
prepared by mixing sand, loam soil leaf moulds in different proportions.

● Ideal soil mixtures should be porous and should have good water holding capacity.

● Soil mixtures are not only used as propagation medium for seed germination or
rooting of cuttings but also for filling of containers.

● The success of these mixes lies in the proportion and thorough mixing of the
ingredients.

Precautions

1. The media used for propagation should be free from infections

2. We must use economic source of media preferably locally available
 Exercise 2: Preparation of Nursery beds and Sowing of Seeds

Exercise: Preparation of nursery beds and sowing of seeds

Materials required: Digging and hoeing implements, seed, measuring tape, rope and
wooden pegs, organic manures (FYM), mulching material.

Procedure: A nursery beds are of three types

● Flat nursery bed

● Raised nursery bed
● Sunken nursery bed

Flat nursery bed:

● It is prepared during spring-summer when there is no risk of rain and in the areas
where the soil is light sandy to sandy loam and has no problem of water stagnation.

● The area selected for nursery is well prepared till the pulverization of land and well
rotten FYM at the rate of 10 kg per square meter area and is thoroughly mixed in the
soil. The field is divided into small plots comprising of beds of uniform size
depending upon the requirement, with the help of layout rope and measuring tape.

● Ridges are prepared around each bed, which facilitate the cultural practices. In
between two rows of beds, control irrigation channel is prepared through which each
bed is connected.

Raised nursery bed:

● It is especially useful for raising seedlings during rainy season when stagnation of
water becomes problematic and causes damping off disease. Raised bed of 10 to
15 cm height from ground level is prepared.

● All the stumps, stones, pebbles, weeds etc. are removed from the bed and FYM at
the rate of 10kg per square meter is mixed in the soil.

● In between two rows, a space of 45 to 60cm is left so as to carry out cultural

practices easily. The seeds are sown in lines in the bed.

Sunken nursery bed:

● This type of bed is useful and prepared during winter season. This type of nursery is
prepared 10 to 15cm downwards from the soil surface.
● The air blows across the surface of soil and the seedlings in sunken bed is not hit by
the cool breeze of the air.
● Further, covering of sunken bed with polyethylene sheets becomes easy which is
required for protecting the seedlings from cool air.

Sowing of seeds: Till the soil to a fine tilth by removing stones, pebbles, crop residues
etc.Break the clods and level the land/bed. Mix FYM@ 3 to 4kg, 250 g ammonium
sulphate and 250 g super phosphate per square meter area.
 ● The seeds are sown about 2 to 4 cm deep and 8 to 10 cm apart. The depth of the
furrow depends upon the size of seeds.

● Bigger are the seeds, deeper the furrow. After sowing, the seeds should be covered
with a mixture of FYM and coarse sand in the ratio of 3:1.

● Level the bed and sprinkle water after mulching the seed beds, as per requirement.

● Over watering should be avoided, as excess moisture encourages root rot disease.

In situ sowing: In situ sowing refers to sowing of seeds directly in the field and grafting
and budding are performed there itself.

● It is particularly important in some fruits like walnut, pecan nut, jackfruit and ber,
which has long tap root system, In situ sowing enables to avoid the damage to tap
root at the time of transplanting or uprooting of plants from the nursery.

● Similarly, for high density planting in Amrapali mango, in situ orchard establishment
is recommended.

Precautions:
1. The seed source should be genuine and good quality.

2. The depth of sowing should be decided carefully depending upon the size of
seed.

3. Avoid over watering of nursery beds and stress conditions.

Exercise 3: Preparation and application of Plant growth regulator solutions for
seed germination and Vegetative propagation

Exercise: Preparation and application of plant growth regulator solutions for seed
germination and vegetative propagation.

Materials Required: Plant growth regulator(s), measuring cylinder, volumetric flask,

beaker(s), electronic balance, distilled water.

Procedure:

Preparation of growth regulator solution:

● The strength of growth regulators is calculated in ppm (parts per million). One ppm
means 1.0mg of chemical dissolved in one litre of water.

● After weighing the required quantity of growth regulator transfer it to a beaker and
dissolve it with the small quantity of solvent.

● Auxins are soluble in alcohol or 0.1% NaOH. Gibberellins are soluble in absolute
alcohol, while, cytokinins can be dissolved in 1-2 ml N/10 HCl.

● Abscisic acid is highly soluble in NaOH. Shake the beaker till the growth
regulator/chemical is fully dissolved. Now transfer it into volumetric flask and make
final volume with distilled water to one litre.

● For every use one should prepare fresh solution. Following formula is used for
conversion of hormonal strength.

I) Percent solution = ppm 10,000

II) ppm solution = % x 10000 = % x 104

Preparation of hormonal powder:

● For preparation of hormonal powder, the required quantity of hormone is weighed

precisely with the help of sensitive balance.

● It is dissolved in ½ litre ethanol, methanol or acetone in a beaker. This material is

poured into one kilogram of talc taken in mortar and mixed thoroughly with a glass
rod.

● After mixing, the mixture is kept open in air for few hours. The alcohol will
evaporate soon, after which, the dried talc is ground to a fine powder.

● This fine powder should be kept in air tight containers to avoid moistening and can
be used as and when required.

Preparation of hormonal paste:

● For preparing hormonal pastes, the required quantity of the hormone is weighed
accurately and dissolved completely in a few drops of alcohol.

● The required quantity of lanolin (wool fat, a product similar to grease and is
greenish-yellow in colour) is weighed and heated slightly in a beaker under gentle
flame.

● When the lanolin is slightly liquefied the dissolved hormone is poured in it.

● The mixture is dissolved thoroughly with constant stirring with a glass rod. The
mixture is allowed to cool down.
The paste is ready for use. Until use, the paste may be kept for few months
in a cool dry place but one should prefer to use fresh paste.

Precaution:

● First of all check the expiry date of the hormone powder.

● The weight should be taken precisely, preferably on electronic balance.

● Proper solvent should be used to avoid precipitation.

● Hormones deteriorate under high temperature, so store in cool and dry place.

● Hormones are photosensitive; therefore they must be stored in dark or amber

colored bottles.

● Use hormonal solutions for treatment of cuttings and lanolin paste for layers.

● Solutions should be prepared fresh. If required to store for some time use,
refrigerators.

● The treated cuttings should be planted with the help of some stick to make hole, so
as to avoid removal of solution from basal end of cutting.

Method of application of growth regulators:

The effectiveness of growth regulators not only depend the concentration, but
also on the method of application. Auxins are most effectively and widely
used rooting hormone. Among synthetic auxins IBA and NAA are found to be
most effective for inducing rooting. The different methods used for treatment
of cuttings and layers are as under:

Prolonged soaking method:

● In this method, the basal end of cuttings is dipped in the dilute solution of the
hormone for 24 hours in a cool dry place.

● The concentration of hormone or growth regulator usually varies from 20ppm to

200 ppm, depending upon plant species and type of cutting.

● After treatment cuttings are planted in growing medium. The concentration is

usually low in growing medium.
● The concentration is usually low for easy to root species and vice versa.

● This method is very useful for difficult to root species, where some materials like
vitamins, sugars and nitrogenous compounds are also used along with the growth
regulators for facilitating rooting.

Quick dip method:

● In this method, the basal end of cuttings is dipped in the concentrated solution of a
hormone for a short time, usually for 5 seconds to 2 minutes depending upon the
species to be propagated.

● Treated cuttings are planted in the rooting medium or field. The concentration of
hormone for quick dip method may vary from 500 to 10,000 ppm depending upon
the type of cutting and species, but generally a concentration of 3000 to 5000 ppm
is used.

Powders dip method:

● In this method also basal ends of cuttings are dipped in the hormonal powder which
carries (talc) for some time.

● After treatment of cuttings, extra amount of powder adhering to the cuttings should
be removed by shaking and cuttings are immediately inserted into the rooting
medium.

● For effective rooting, the cut ends of the cuttings should be moistened before the
treatment and care should be taken that extra powder adhered to cuttings should
be shaken off, otherwise, it may cause adverse effect on the rooting process.

● Seradix, Rootex or many other formulations are available in the market as

powders.

Lanolin paste method:

● As described under preparation of hormonal paste, the paste of growth regulators

made in lanolin is applied to the girdled portion of a layer or stool for inducing rooting
in them.

Spray method:

● Spraying of growth regulators is sometimes done to mother plants before taking

cuttings from them. Spraying of stock plants with 2,4,5-T in concentrations
ranging from 25 to 100 ppm is done about 30 to 40 days before taking cuttings
from them, Cuttings taken from such plants root better as compared to
untreated plants.
Exercise 4: Use of Mist Chamber for Propagation and Hardening of Plants

Exercise: Use of mist chamber for propagation and hardening of plants.

Materials required: Mist chamber, cuttings, secateurs, hormone solution and sand

Procedure:

● Mist propagation units are used for propagation of difficult to root cuttings.

● The main aim of misting is to maintain continuously a film of water on the leaves by
reducing transpiration and keeping the cuttings turgid until rooting takes pla
● The misting is controlled by time clock, operating a magnetic solenoid value and is
set in a way to turn on the mist for 3-5 seconds to wet the leaves and turn off for
some time and by the time leaves are dry, the mist is given turned on.

Generally, mist has five control mechanisms:

1. Timer
2. Electronic leaF
3. Thermostat and timer
4. Screen balance and
5. photoelectric cell.

Timer: Two types of timers are used in a mist unit one turn on in the morning and off
at night and second operates during day hours to produce an intermittent mist,
usually 60 seconds ‘On’ and 90 seconds ‘Off’.

Electronic leaf: A plastic with two terminals is placed under the mist along with
cuttings, the alternate drying and wetting of the terminal breaks off the current,
which in turn controls the solenoid value.

Thermostat: Controls the temperature of mist.

Screen balance: It consists of a stainless steel screen attached to a lever with

mercury switch. When mist is on water is controlled on the screen and when
weight is more, it trips the mercury switch.

Photoelectric cell: It is based on the relationship between light intensity and

transpiration rate.

Hardening of plants in mist chamber:

● After rooting in the mist, hardening of the rooted cuttings is important for better field
survival. When cuttings are rooted, misting should not cease abruptly because this
may lead to drying of young plants as a result of scorching.

● The weaving off process should be adopted in which misting is continued but the
number of sprays are gradually reduced. Lessening the ‘On’ period and increasing
the ‘Off’ period can do it.
 ● Another way is to shift the rooted cuttings to a greenhouse, fog chamber or frames,
maintained at higher temperature and low relative humidity.

● Hardening should be done in phased manner so that rooted cuttings are planted at
permanent locations.

Precautions :

a) There should be regular supply of water

b) The pH of water should be in the range of 5.5 to 6.5, avoid hard and
alkaline water, as it blocks the nozzles
c) Rooting media should have good aeration
d) Keep mist chamber free from the growth of blue green algae.
 Exercise 5: Seed treatments for breaking seed dormancy and Inducing
vigorous seedling growth

Exercise: Seed treatments for breaking seed dormancy and inducing vigorous seedling
growth.

Materials Required: Seed, sand, stratification box (pit), sand paper, moss, hessian cloth,
water, bavistin, labels, and glass containers

Procedure:

Methods of Breaking Dormancy :

Scarification: Scarification is any process of breaking, scratching, mechanically

altering or softening the seed covering to make them permeable to water and
gases. Three types of treatments are commonly used as scarification treatments.

Mechanical scarification:

● It is simple and effective if suitable equipment is available.

● Chipping hard seed coat by rubbing with sand paper, cutting with a file or
cracking with a hammer are simple methods useful for small amount of
relatively large seeds.

● For large scale, mechanical scarifiers are used. Seeds can be tumbled
in drums lined with sand paper or in concrete mixers containing coarse
sand or gravel.

● The sand gravel should be of different size than the seed to facilitate
subsequent separation.

Acid scarification:

● Dry seeds are placed in containers and covered with concentrated

sulfuric acid (H2SO 4) or HCl in the ratio of one part seed to two parts
acid.

● The amount of seed treated at any time should be restricted to not more
than 10kg to avoid uncontrollable heating.

● The containers should be of glass, earthenware or wood non metal or

plastic. The mixture should be stirred cautiously at intervals during the
treatment to produce uniform results.

● The time may vary from 10 minutes to 6 hours depending upon the
species. With thick-coated seeds that require long periods, the process
of scarification may be judged by drawing out samples at intervals and
checking the thickness of the seed coat.
 ● When it becomes paper thin, the treatment should be terminated
immediately.

● At the end of the treatment, the acid is poured off and the seeds are
washed to remove the acid.

● The acid treated seeds can either be planted immediately when wet or
dried and stored for later planting.

● Large seeds of most legume species respond to simple sulfuric acid

treatment.

Hot water scarification:

● Drop the seeds into 4-5 times their volume of hot water with temperature
ranging from 77 to 100oC.

● The heat source is immediately removed, and the seeds soaked in the
gradually cooking water for 12 to 24 hours.

● The unswollen seeds may be separated from the swollen seeds by

suitable screens. The seed should be sown immediately after hot water
treatment.

Stratification

● Stratification is a method of handling dormant seed in which the imbibed seeds

are subjected to a period of chilling to after ripen the embryo in alternate layers
of sand or soil for a specific period. It is also known as moist chilling.

● The seeds can be planted immediately after stratification in the field.

● Seeds with a hard endocarp, such as Prunus spp. (the stone fruit including
cherry, plum and peaches) show increased germination if planted early
enough in the summer or fall to provide one to two months of warm
temperature prior to the onset of chilling.

Refrigerated stratification

● An alternative to outdoor field stratification is refrigerated stratification. It is

useful for small seed lots or valuable seeds that require special handling.

● Dry seeds should be fully imbibed with water prior to refrigerated stratification.
Twelve to twenty four hours of soaking at warm temperature may be sufficient
for seeds without hard seed coats.

● After soaking seeds are usually mixed with well washed sand, peat moss or
vermiculite. A good medium is a mixture of one part coarse sand to one part
peat, moistened and allowed to stand 24 hours before use.

● Seeds are placed in alternate layers of sand or medium. The

usual stratification temperature is 0-10oC.
 ● At higher temperature seeds sprout prematurely and low temperature delay
sprouting.

● During stratification seeds should be examined periodically, if they are dry, the
medium should be remoistened.

● The stratified seed is separated from the medium prior to sowing in nursery
beds.

Stratification period and percentage of germination in seeds of temperate

fruits.

Kinds of Fruit Stratification period % Germination

(days)

Apple 70-75 70-75

Kainth (Pyrus 30-35 90-95

patia)

Peach 60-70 55-60

Apricort 45-50 75-80

Almond 45-50 85-90

Walnut 95-100 80-85

Pecan 70-75 75-80

The stratification of seeds results in quick and uniform germination and therefore the seed
should be subjected to stratification invariably under all conditions.

Precautions:

● Scarification should not proceed to the point at which the seeds are injured and inner
parts of seed are exposed.

● The sand should be passed through coarse sieve mesh to separate bigger size
gravels so as to avoid confusion between seed and gravels at the time of sowing.

● Irrigation during stratification should be given at regular intervals to maintain

adequate moisture level.

● Seed should not sprout during stratification.

● Mulching of seed beds after sowing is must to ensure uniform germination

 Exercise 6: Preparation of Different Types of Cuttings

Exercise: Preparation of different types of cuttings

Materials Required: Cuttings, Secateurs, prepared nursery beds, growth hormone,

sensitive balance, alcohol, measuring cylinders, small tub

Procedure(s):

On the basis of plant part used and relative position on a plant, cuttings is classified into
various groups as:

a.) Stem cuttings: A stem cutting is any cutting taken from the main shoot of a plant or
any side shoot growing from the same plant or stem. The shoots with high
carbohydrate content usually root better. Broadly, there are four types of stem
cuttings, namely hardwood, softwood, semi hardwood and herbaceous cuttings.

b. Hardwood cuttings (HWC): Cutting from mature and lignified stem of shrubs and trees
are called as hardwood cuttings. Hardwood cuttings are prepared during dormant
season, usually from one year old immature shoots of previous season’s growth.
The length of cuttings varies from 10 to 45 cm in length and 0.5 to 2.5 cm in
diameter, depending upon the species. Usually, the cuttings of 25-30cm length, with
pencil thickness are preferred. Each cutting should have at least two buds or more.
While preparing the cutting, a straight cut is given at the base of shoot- below the
node while a slanting cut, 1 to 2 cm above the bud is given at the top of cutting.

However, in case of hollow pith species such as Kiwifruit top cut should also be close to
bud to avoid drying up of top portion. This helps in maintaining the polarity of the shoot
and if rain occurs, water does not accumulate on the tip of the cutting, which saves the
cutting from fungal infection. A number of deciduous fruit plants like grape, hazelnut,
chestnut, fig, quince, pomegranate, mulberry, plum, olive, gooseberry and apple etc. are
commercially propagated by hard wood cuttings. The concentration of rooting hormone
depends upon the species to be propagated.

Semi-hardwood (greenwood) cuttings: Semi-hardwood cuttings are those made from

woody, broad-leaved evergreen species and leafy summer and early fall cuttings of
deciduous plants with partially matured wood. These types of cuttings are mostly used in
evergreen fruit plants like mango, guava, lemon, jackfruit, some shrubs and shrubby
plants and ornamental shrubs. The length of the cuttings varies from 7 to 20cm. The
cuttings are prepared by trimming the cutting with a straight cut below a node and
removing a few lower leaves. However, it is better to retain two to four leaves on the top
of the cuttings. While planting 1/4th of their length should be inserted in the soil. The best
time for taking cuttings in summer, when new shoots have emerged and their wood is
partially matured. It is necessary that leafy cuttings be rooted under conditions that will
keep water loss from the leaves at a minimum. Commercially they are rooted under
intermittent mist, fog or under polyethylene sheets laid over the cuttings. The
concentration of rooting hormone depends upon the species to be propagated

Softwood cuttings: Cuttings prepared from the soft-succulent and non-lignified shoots,
which have not become hard or woody, are called as soft wood cutting. Such types of
cuttings are very prone to desiccation. Therefore, proper arrangement for controlling
humidity is required. Usually the cutting size is 5-5.7 cm but it varies from species to
species. Usually, some leaves should be retained with this type of cuttings. The best time
for preparing soft-wood cuttings is late summer. Softwood cuttings generally root easier
and quicker than other types, but require more attention and sophisticated equipment.
Temperature should be maintained during rooting at 23 to 27oC at the base of cuttings.
The concentration of rooting hormone depends upon the species to be propagated.

Herbaceous cuttings: Herbaceous cuttings are made from succulent non-woody plants
like geranium, chrysanthemums, coleus, carnation and many foliage crops. They are
7-15 cm long with leaves retained at the upper end. They are rooted under the same
conditions as softwood cuttings, requiring high relative humidity. Bottom heat is also
useful for initiation of rooting process. Herbaceous cuttings of some plants exclude a
sticky sap (as in geranium, pineapple, cactus etc.) that interferes with root initiation
process. In such cases basal ends of cutting should be allowed to dry for few hours
before planting. Generally, fruit plants are not propagated by herbaceous cuttings.

Root cuttings: Propagation by means of root cuttings is also a simple and cheap method
of vegetative propagation in species which are difficult to propagate by other methods. In
general, the plants, which produce suckers freely, are easily propagated by root cuttings.
For preparation of root-cuttings, roots which are of 1cm thickness and 10-15cm long are
cut into pieces. Best time for taking root cutting is late winter or early spring, when roots
are well supplied with stored food material but before the new growth starts. However, in
temperate fruits, root cuttings are prepared in the month of December and are kept in
warm place in moss grass or wet sand for callusing and are then transplanted during
February -March in the open beds. Blackberry and raspberry are commercially
propagated by this method. However, kiwi fruit, breadfruit, fig, rose, mulberry, apple, pear,
peach, cherry and persimmon are also propagated by root cuttings.

Leaf cuttings: Propagation through leaf bud cuttings is partially useful in species where
leaves develop root system but die because of non-development of shoot system. Leaf
bud cuttings are particularly useful when planting material is scarce because the each
node in leaf can be used as cutting. Leaf bud cutting should preferably be prepared during
growing season because buds if enters into dormancy may be difficult to force to active
stage. A leaf bud cutting consists of a leaf blade, petiole and shoot piece of stem with
attached axillary bud of actively growing leaves. In leaf bud cutting, 1-15cm stem portion
is used when propagating material is small. It is useful method of propagation in
blackberry, raspberry, lemon, camellia etc.

Precautions:

● Cuttings of appropriate type should be selected and prepared.

● Concentration of rooting hormone should be prepared accurately.
● Rooting media should be prepared in accurate proportion.
● Optimum level of relative humidity should be maintained.
 Exercise 7 : Practicing different types of layering

Exercise: Practicing different types of layering.

Materials Required: Secateurs, prepared nursery beds, growth hormone, sensitive

balance, alcohol, measuring cylinders, small tub, planted mother stool

Procedure(s):
The most commercially used methods are mound layering for multiplication of rootstocks
and air layering for some tropical fruits.

Simple Layering:

● Simple layer consists of bending an intact shoot to the ground to cause adventitious
root to form. The method can be used to propagate a wide range of plants, indoor or
outdoor on wood shrubs that produce numerous suckers.

● Layering is usually done in the early spring using flexible, dormant, one year-old
shoot-branches of the plant that can be bent easily to the ground.

● These shoots are bent and “pegged down” at a location 15 to 20 cm (6-9 inches)
from the tip forming a “U”. Bending, twisting, cutting, or girding at the bottom of the
“U” stimulates rooting at that location.

● The base of the layer is covered, leaving the tip exposed.

Compound or serpentine layering:

● It is modification of simple layering in which one year-old branch is alternatively

covered and exposed along its length.

● The stem is girdled at different points in the underground part. However, the exposed
portion of the stem should have at least one bud to develop a new shoot.

● After rooting, the sections are cut and lined out in the field. In this way many new
plants can be made from one branch.

● It is also an easy plant propagation method to perform but is only suitable for plants
producing slender, long and flexible shoots. Muscadine grape is commercially
propagated by this method.

Continuous or trench layering:

● It is the most common method of propagation in woody plants, which produce long
vines and are difficult to propagate by other methods of propagation.

● Vigorous roots of apple like M-16, and M-25 and walnut can usually be propagated
by trench layering. In this method, it is important to establish a permanent row of
plants to be propagated.
 ● The mother plants are planted at the base of a trench at an angle of 450C in rows
spaced 90 cm apart.

● The long and flexible stems of these plants are pegged down on the ground to form a
continuous line of layered plants.

● The young shoots that arise from these plants are gradually mounded up to a depth
of 15-20 cm in autumn, winter or at the end of the growing season, depending on the
species to be propagated

Air layering ( Marcottage, Gootee, Pot Layerage):

● Air layering is an ancient method of layering, originally introduced from China and
now commercially used for propagation of a number of tropical and subtropical trees
and shrubs including litchi, longan, Persian lime (Citrus aurantifolia) , ficus, croton
etc.

● Air layers are made in the spring or summer on stems of the previous season’s
growth. The presence of active leaves on the layered shoot speeds root formation.

● Layers are prepared by making an upward cut about 5 cm long at or about the
centre of the shoot. The shoot is then girdled by removing a ring of bark about 2 cm
wide.

● The upper part of wound is applied with IBA paste made in lanolin.

● The wound is covered with moist sphagnum moss in a way to provide complete
cover to it.

● Polyethylene film is wrapped around the moss grass in such a way as to leave no
opening, which could allow evaporation of moisture from the moss.

● Pruning to reduce the top in proportion to the roots is usually advisable. The rooted
layers may be severed from mother plant and may be planted in the nursery under
shade.

Mound /Stool layering or stooling:

● The term stooling was first coined by Lynch in 1942. Mound layering is a method
where the shoots are cut back to the ground and soil or rooting medium is mounded
around them to stimulate roots to develop at their bases.

● This method is commercially used to propagate apple, pear, quince, currants,

gooseberry and other fruit crops. In stooling, the mother plant is headed back to 15
to 20 cm above ground level during dormant season. The new sprouts will arise
within 2 months.

● The sprouts are then girdled near the base and rooting hormones (IBA), made in
lanolin paste is applied to the upper portion of the ring, the concentration of IBA
depends on species but generally 3000 to 5000 ppm is commonly used.
 ● These shoots are left as such for two days for proper absorption of rooting hormone,
before they are covered with moist soil. Care should be taken to keep the soil heaps
moist all the times. It facilitates rooting in the stools.

● The roots in shoots may emerge within 30 to 40 days. However, the rooted shoots
should be severed from the mother plants only after 60 to 70 days and then planted
in the nursery.

Tip layering:

● It is the simplest form of layering, which often occurs naturally. It is a natural method
of propagation for black berries, raspberries etc.

● The tip of the shoots is bent to the ground and the rooting takes place near the tip of
current season shoot . The stem of these plants completes its life in two years.

● The tips of shoots are buried 5 to 10cm deep in the soil. Rooting in buried shoots
takes place within a month.

● The new plants (layers) may be detached and transplanted in the soil during spring.
Currants, gooseberries and rambling roses can also be propagated by tip layering
easily.

Precautions:

● The incisions should be given carefully

● The earthing-up should be done carefully

● The detached stools/ layers should be lined out properly for hardening and ensuring
saleable growth.
 Exercise 8: Practicing different types of grafting

Exercise: Practicing different types of grafting

Materials Required: Secateurs, grafting knife, scion wood, rootstock, wrapping material

Procedure: Before practicing any grafting method, the selection of optimum

size, thickness of root stock and scion is of prime importance. The sequential steps
involved in different methods are described as under:

A. Apical Grafting

Splice or whip grafting:

● In this method, it is essential that both the stock and scion should be of equal
diameter.

● For this , about one year old rootstock is headed back at a height of 20-25 cm from
the soil and a splice(diagonal) cut 2.5 to 6 cm long) is made at the distal end of the
rootstock with the help of a sharp knife.

● A similar slanting cut is made on the proximal end of the scion. The cut should be
smooth and the cut surface of both the rootstock and scion are bound together and
tied firmly with polythene strip.

● After the union has taken place, the rootstock above the union is lopped off
gradually.

● Sprouts arising below the grafting union must be removed at regular intervals to
divert flow of metabolites for the growth of scion only.

Tongue grafting

● It is modified form of whip grafting. It differs from whip grafting that a reverse cut is
made downward at a point about 1/3rd of the distance from the tip and should be
about ½ the length of first cut..

● To obtain a smooth-fitting graft, the cut should not split. The rootstock and scion is
then inserted into each other, with the tongues interlocking. It is important that
vascular cambium layer match along at least one side, preferably along both sides.

The lower tip of scion should not overhang the stock as there is a likely hood of the
formation of large callus knots. The use of scions larger than root stock should be
avoided.

● After the scion and rootstock are fitted together they are securely held by tying with
budding/grafting tape or polythene. This method gives better success because of
 better cambial contact between stock and scion due to formation of tongue.
Regular de-shooting of sprouts on stock is required to obtain better growth of scion.

Cleft-grafting (wedge or split-grafting)

● It is one of the oldest methods of field grafting. It is used to top work trees, either in
the trunk of a small tree or in the scaffold branches of a longer tree.

● In making the cleft-graft, a heavy knife is used to make a vertical split for a distance
of 5 to 8 cm down the center of the stub to be grafted.

● This split is made by pounding the knife in with a hammer. The branch is sawed off
in such a way that the end of the stub which is left is smooth and free of knots for at
least 15 cm.

● Two scions are inserted, one at each side of the stock where the vascular
cambium layer is located. The scions should be 8 to 10 cm long and 10-15 mm in
thickness and should have two or three buds.

● The side of the wedge which is to go to the outer side of the rootstock should be
slightly wider than the inside edge. When the knife is removed, a hard wooden
wedge is inserted to keep it open for the subsequent insertion of the scion.

● The graft should be thoroughly waxed to prevent wilting of the scion. The scion
starts growing after 2 to 3 months of grafting.

● The right time for cleft grafting is the later part of the dormant season or just before
the start of active growth. Walnut, hazelnut, pecan nut and grapes are propagated
by this method.

Wedge grafting (saw-kerfs grafting)

● It is performed in late winter or early spring before the bark begins to slip.

● A sharp, heavy, short bladed knife is used for making a V-wedge in the side of the
stub or stock about 5cm long. Two cuts are made, coming together at bottom and
as for apart at the top as the width of the scion.

● These cuts extend about 2 cm deep into the side of the stub. The base of the scion
is trimmed to a wedge shape exactly the same size and shape as the opening.
With the two vascular cambium layers matching the scion is tapped downward
firmly into place and slanting outward slightly at the top so that the vascular
cambium layers cross.
● After all scions are firmly tapped into place, all cut surfaces including the tips of the
scion, should be waxed thoroughly. It is called raw-kerf because the cuts in the side
of the rootstock can be made with a saw rather than the sharp knife.

B. Side Grafting Methods

Side veneer grafting:

● This method is used for grafting small potted liner plants such as seedling of
deciduous trees, shrubs and fruit crops.

● A shallow downward and inward cut from 1 to 11/2 inches long is made. At the base
of this cut, a second short inward and downward cut is made, inserting the first cut,
so as to remove the piece of wood and bark.

● The scion is prepared with a long cut along one side and very short one at the base
of the scion on the opposite side.

● These scion cuts should be of the same length and width as those made in the
rootstock so that the vascular cambium layers can be matched as closely as
possible. After inserting the scion, the graft is tightly wrapped with polythene sheet
strips.

● After the union has healed, the rootstock can be cut back above the scion in gradual
steps.

Approach grafting Methods

● The characteristic feature of approach grafting is that two independent,

self-sustaining plants are grafted together. After the formation of union, the top of
rootstock plant is removed above the graft and the base of the scion plant is
removed below the graft.

● Generally, it is performed with one or both of the plants to be grafted growing in a

container.

● Rootstock plants in containers may also be placed adjoining an established plant

which is to furnish the scion part of the new grafted plant. It must be performed in the
season when growth is active and rapid healing of the graft-union will take place. The
important methods are:

a.) Spliced Approach Grafting:

● In this method both scion and stock should be of same thickness. A splice of
4-5cm bark and wood is removed both from stock and scion.

● The cut on both the partners should be of same size and should be smooth too.
The cut surfaces of stock and scion are bound together with some suitable tying
material and waxed properly.

● The stock above the union and scion below the union are cut after sometime, when
proper union has taken place. It may be necessary to reduce the leaf area of the
scion if it is more than the root system of the rootstock can sustain.

b.) Tongue approach grafting:

● The tongue approach graft is the same as that of the spliced approach
grafting-except that after the first cut is made in each stem to be joined, a second
 cut downward on the stock and upward on the scion is made, by providing a thin
tongue on each piece.

● By interlocking these tongues tightly, a closely fitted graft union can be obtained.

c.) Inlay approach grafting

● The inlay approach grafting may be used if the base of the rootstock plant is
considerably thicker than that of the scion plant.

● A narrow slot, 7.5 to 10 cm long is made in the bark of the rootstock plant by
making two parallel knife cuts and removing the strip of bark between. This can be
done only when the rootstock plant is actively growing and the bark slipping.

● The slot should be exactly as wide as the scion to be inserted. The stem of the
scion plant, at the point of union, should be given a long shallow cut along one side,
of the same length as the slot in the rootstock plant and deep enough to go through
the bark and slightly into the wood.

● This cut surface of the scion branch should be laid into the slot cut in the rootstock
plant and held there by nailing with two or more small, flat headed wire nails.

● The entire union must then be thoroughly covered with grafting wax. After the union
has healed, the rootstock can be cut off above the graft and the scion below the
graft.

3. Repair Grafting:

Inarching:

● Inarching is similar to approach grafting in that both rootstock and scion plants are
on their own roots at the time of grafting.

● It differs in that the top of the new rootstock plant usually does not extend above the
point of the graft-union as it does in approach grafting. Inarching is used to replace
roots damaged by cultivation equipment, rodents or diseases.

● It can be used to very good advantage in saving a valuable trees or improving its
root system.

Seedlings (or rooted cuttings) planted beside the damaged tree, or suckers arising
near its base are grafted into the trunk of the tree to provide a new system to
supplement the damaged roots.
● The seedlings to be inarched into the tree should be spaced about 10-15 cm apart
around the circumference of the tree if the damage is extensive.

● The seeding of compatible species is planted around the tree during dormant
season and graft when active growth commences in early spring. Inarching will
enhance growth of uninjured older trees.
 ● A thin slice of bark (6-10 cm in length) at about 20 cm above the ground level is
removed from the stock with a sharp knife. A similar cut is made in the scion.
Thus, the cambium layers of both stock and scion are exposed.

● These cut are brought together and tied firmly with the help of polythene strip. After
the successful union, stock above and scion below union are lopped off gradually.

● In low rainfall areas, it should be done with the onset of rains, while in regions of
heavy rainfall; it should be done soon after the rainy season is over, provided
temperature does not fall below 150C.

Bridge Grafting

● Bridge grafting is basically not a method of propagation but a form of repair grafting
only in plants, which have been damaged either by frost, rodents or insects.

● It may, however, be kept in mind that bridge grafting is only helpful if the trunk is
damaged but the root system of the plant is healthy.

● In this method first, the damaged portion of the stock is cleaned and the irregular
edges of the girdled area are cut evenly.

● The scion of desired variety is inserted in such a way that it is attached at both
upper and lower ends into the living bark. Similarly, it is important that scions be
inserted right side up to ensure the polarity.

● The exposed injured wood must also be covered otherwise; it may serve as an
entry channel for decaying organisms.

Bracing:

● Bracing is a form of natural branch grafting that is used by fruit growers to

strengthen scaffolding limbs of a tree in order to support the load of the fruit crop. In
this method two strong, young lateral shoots from the limbs are to be braced.

● A rope or electrical cord is used to temporarily brace the larger limbs. The weaved
smaller shoots, which will naturally graft, are tied with waxed string or poly tape to
keep them together.

Precautions :

● Scion wood should have 3-5 buds.

● Wrapping of grafts should be performed carefully to avoid air entry at the point of
grafting

● Grafted stock should be irrigated at regular intervals

● De-shooting of sprouts below graft union should be done as the sprouts appear

● The wrapping material should be removed when it gets tighten

 Exercise 9: Practicing Different Types of Budding

Exercise: Practicing different types of budding

Materials Required: Secateurs, budding/grafting knife, scion wood, rootstock, wrapping

material

Procedure: Methodology followed in different budding techniques is described as under:

Methods of budding:

Chip Budding:

● Chip budding is done in early spring, summer or autumn. In chip budding a chip of
bark and wood is removed from the smooth surface between the nodes of the
stock.

● A chip of similar size and shape is also removed from the bud wood of the desired
cultivar. For which a 2-3cm long downward cut is made through the bark and
slightly into the wood of the stock.

● Then a second cut of about 2.5cm is made so that it bisects the first cut at an angle
of 30-45O and the chip is removed from the stock. Similarly a chip of bud is
removed from the bud-wood, ensuring that the bud is in the middle of chip.

● The bud chip inserted in the stock in such a way that cambium of the bud chip
should have direct contact with the cambium of the stock. It is then tightly wrapped
with some wrapping material like polythene strip, leaving the bud uncovered.

● The bud may sprout after 3-4 weeks and afterwards the wrapping material should
be removed. When the bud starts growing, the stock may be cut propagated by this
method.

Shield or T-budding:

● As the name indicates shield is the shape of the bud and ‘T’ is the shape of cut
given on the rootstock.

● It is the most common method of budding used by nurserymen worldwide. For

shield budding one year old rootstock seedlings of 25-35 cm height and 2-2.5 cm
thickness is selected. The bark of seedlings should slip easily.

● The selected bud of desired cultivar is inserted 15-20cm above the ground level
and is tied with a polythene strip.
● For performing budding operation, a “T” shaped cut is made on the selected portion
of the stock with the help of a sharp budding knife. The incision should be given
through the bark not the wood.

● The two flaps of bark are loosened with the help of budding knife. The healthy bud
is removed from the bud wood by cutting shallowly about 5-6 mm below and 2-3cm
above the bud.

● This shield piece containing a bud is inserted in the “T” cut made on the rootstock.
The shield should be covered by two flaps of the bark, but bud should be exposed.
The buds are pressed firmly, fitted into the “T” cut and finally tied with polythene
strip.

● When bud healing process is over, the bud may attain height of 15-20cm, the
remaining portion of the stock is cut to about 10-15cm above the bud.

● Plants with thin bark, with sufficient flow of the sap like apple, pear, peach, plum
and apricot, cherry, rose and citrus are propagated by this method.

Patch budding:

● In case of patch budding a rectangular patch of bark is removed completely from

the rootstock and replaced with a patch of bark of the same size containing a bud
of the cultivar to be propagated.

● It is slower and difficult to perform than T-budding. It is widely used in thick-barked

species, such as walnuts and pecans and rubber tree, where T-budding gives poor
results due to poor fit around the margins of the bud-particularly the top and bottom
. It is usually done in late summer or early fall, but can be done in spring also.

● In patch budding, the stock and scion should preferably of same thickness
(20-25mm). First a rectangular piece of bark (25mm long and 10-15cm wide) is
removed from the stock and a similar patch, containing a bud is removed from the
scion by making two horizontal cuts above and below the bud and then two vertical
cuts connecting the horizontal cut.

● After removing the patch, the bud should fit tightly at the top and bottom. It is then
wrapped with polythene strip, keeping the bud uncovered.

● The wrapping material should hold the bark tightly and cover all the cut surfaces to
prevent free entry of air or water. After the bud starts sprouting, the stock above the
bud union may be cut off step by step.
● In addition to pecan nut and walnut, mango, rubber plant, aonla, jackfruit and jamun
are also propagated by this method.

Ring or annular budding:

● In this type of budding, a complete ring of bark is removed from the stock and it is
completely girdled. A similar ring of bark containing a bud is removed from the bud
stick and is inserted on to the rootstock.

● The thickness of stock and scion should be same size. It has been utilized in ber,
peach and mulberry because the newly emerged shoots from the heavily pruned
plants are capable of giving such buds for budding, which can be easily separated.
 In this method since the stock is completely girdled and if the bud fails to heal in,
the stock above the ring may eventually die.

Forket budding:

● In forket budding, the stock is prepared by giving two vertical cuts and a transverse
cut above the vertical cuts to join them.

● The bark is removed carefully along the cuts, so the flap of bark hangs down. The
scion is prepared in a fashion similar to patch budding, having the size similar to
cuts made on the stock. The scion is then slipped into the exposed portion of the
stock and the flap is drawn over the inserted bud patch.

● It is then tied with a suitable wrapping material. After successful growth of bud, the
portion of stock above union is removed carefully.

Flute Budding:

● In flute budding, the bark patch from the stock is removed in such a way that it
almost completely encircles the stock except with a narrow bark connection
between the upper and lower cuts on the stock.

● A similar patch of bark is removed from bud stick containing a healthy bud. The
shield containing the bud is then inserted in the vacant area of the stock; the shield
should fit tightly on the stock. It is then wrapped with suitable wrapping material,
leaving the bud uncovered.

● The other procedure is same as in patch budding. Because of presence of a

narrow connecting strip of bark on the stock, it remains alive even if the bud fails to
sprout.

I-budding:

● In I-budding the bud patch is cut in the form of a rectangle or square, just as for
patch budding. With the same parallel–bladed knife, two transverse cuts are made
through the bark of the rootstock.

● These are joined at their centre by a single vertical cut to produce the shape of
letter-I. The two flaps of the bark can then be raised to insert the bud patch beneath
them. A better fit may occur if the side edges of the bud patch are slanted.

● In tying the I-bud one should ensure that the bud patch does not buckle outward
and leave a space between the rootstock. I-budding is the most appropriate when
the bark of the rootstock is much thicker than that of the bud stick.

● In such cases, if the patch buds are used, considerable paring down of the bark of
the rootstock around the patch would be necessary.

Micro-budding:

● Micro-budding is used successfully for propagating citrus particularly in Australia. It

is similar to “T” budding except that the shield (bud piece) utilized is thin and tiny
like “T-budding”; the micro budding is also not done under aseptic conditions.
 ● The petiole is cut off just above the bud and then bud is removed from the bud stick
by a flap cut just underneath the bud.

● Thus, only the buds are utilized in micro-budding. In stock an inverted “T” cut is
made and the tiny shield containing the bud is inserted in it and later tied with a thin
plastic tape. The tape may be removed soon (15-20 days) after the healing has
taken place.

Precautions:

● The bud to be used as scion should be mature.

● Wrapping of bud union should be performed carefully to avoid air entry at the point of
union.

● Budded stock should be irrigated at regular intervals

● De-shooting of sprouts below bud union should be done as the sprouts appear

● The wrapping material should be removed when it gets tightened.

● In case of chip budding in fall season the bud grafts should be protected from chilly
winter in cold arid conditions
 Exercise 10 : Maintenance of Nursery Records

Exercise: Maintenance of nursery records.

Materials required: Registers, chronological operation record, nursery map

Procedure(s):

● Some records are essential if nurseryman is to plan his nursery for remunerative
returns and establish as a reputed enterprise.

● A nursery planner should know how long it takes to lift saplings or how much seed is
required, or how much cuttings he can accommodate in a glasshouse or how much
scion wood is required for grafting a particular plot of nursery.

● There must be specific register for specific selected activities to keep day to day or
pedigree or operation records in nursery.

● These records are required by law to satisfy inspecting authorities, tax calculation,
detect or discourage theft in case of big nurseries. The important aspects for which
maintenance of record is necessary are as under:

● Progeny orchard record: The exact map of progeny orchard is drawn in a

register, which depicts the date of plantation, source of mother orchard plants,
layout record of different fruit varieties. The addition or deletion of any variety
needs to be recorded chronologically. The quantity of scion wood taken from
individual mother plant should also be recorded, so as to quantity the volume of
cuttings per plant and total strength of mother plants required to be maintained
to cater the demand/need of particular nursery or nurseries.

● Nursery layout record: The layout plan of nursery plots crop wise, and within
crop variety wise, mentioning direction of plots starting or ending. The plots
should also be labeled with tags or field plates, if there is no risk of theft. This
helps in ensuring the proper record along with date of budding/ grafting, days
taken to sprout etc.

● Cultural operations record: The record of different operations such

as stratification of seeds, date of sowing, date of germination, farm operation
such as record of spray dates, date of budding /grafting , fertilizer application
and dose applied. Any other foliar spray including insecticides, fungicides,
growth regulators and nutrient sprays etc.

● Disposal register: The record of salable plants left after thorough inspection is
maintained in this register. The record is maintained crop wise, variety wise,
 which will tell us the expected out come from the nursery and help in
accounting purposes.

● Advisory/visitor register: The suggestions of experts invited to address specific

problem should be recorded in this register, with his own hand. The record of
visitors should be maintained with specific remarks and feedback from the field.
Some of the valuable remarks of experts and experienced nurserymen can be
put in practice.

Precautions:

● All registers should be issued through Inventory Register, so that record of number
of registers maintained is known.

● The specific information should be recorded.

● Nurserymen should not be bias in recording specific problem

Exercise 11: Nutrient Management and Plant Protection Measures in Fruit
Nursery

Exercise: To demonstrate application of nutrients and plant protection measures in fruit

nursery.

Part-I Application of nutrients

Materials required: Specific fertilizer, or nutrient source, hoeing tools, spraying

equipments, weighing machine (balance).

Procedures:
The choice of method of application of nutrients to the nursery plants depends on
the nutrients and their ability to be effectively absorbed, effect on soil environment,
equipment availability and the relative cost of nutrients. Three important methods of
application are:

● Surface application: The required quantity of fertilizer is weighed and applied in band
along the rows. It is an effective and efficient method for the application of nitrogen,
because nitrogen fertilizers move into the root zone with the downward movement of
water. However, direct surface application is not advised for the application of
phosphorous, potassium and other nutrients because they may get fixed on the
exchange complex.

● Sub-surface application: Addition of the fertilizers into the soil by surface application
is the most effective method of application of nutrients that are fixed (P&K etc) on the
exchange complex or are slow to move into the soil solution. The manures/fertilizers
are incorporated into the soil prior to planting the nursery.

● Foliar application: Nutrients can be applied through foliar application immediately,

after the symptoms are observed. For nursery plants, foliar application is more
effective because nutrients are absorbed at faster rates and wastage of nutrients
can be avoided. The nutrients should be applied in the morning or late evening hours
by using some wetting agents like Tween-20, Titron-X-100 etc. in the solution, as
these help to absorb the nutrients even more effectively.

Precautions:

● The nutrient quantities must be calculated and weighed exactly.

● The basal applied nutrients should be mixed thoroughly.
● For foliar spray, the nutrient source should be dissolved properly.
 Part-II Application of plant protection chemicals in the nursery

Materials required: Specific pesticide, spraying equipment, sensitive balance and water.

Procedures:

● The nursery plants being tender in nature are more prone to be infested by
insect-pests and disease and may cause considerable loss. Some of major
insect-pests include scales, thrips, white flies, beetles, mealy bugs, mites, leaf
eating caterpillars, leaf miners, cutworms, snails and slings.

● The common diseases are damping off, powdery mildew, leaf spots, blights and
dieback etc.

● Damping off is caused by many fungi but Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhozoctonia and
Botrytis are major casual fungi. It usually appears shortly after the emergence of
seedlings. The main symptoms of this disease are the girdling of the seedling stem
near the soil surface.

● The prevention of these diseases, insect-pests and environmental factors can be

made in following ways.

Disinfestations:

● It is the process of removing organisms from the seed surface. The chemicals used
to disinfect the seeds are ethyl alcohol, calcium hypo chloride and mercuric chloride.

● In general, 50 percent ethyl alcohol, 2 percent calcium chloride and 0.01 percent
mercuric chloride concentration are used.

● The duration of treatment varies from 5 to 30 minutes, depending on size and type of
the seed. Prolonged soaking should be avoided as it affects germination. After
treatment the seeds are washed with tap water and immediately sown in the
nursery.

Disinfection:

● It is the process to eliminate seed borne diseases. Hot water treatment is most
effective disinfection treatment. In this treatment dry seeds are kept in hot water (50
to 55oC) for 10-30 minutes, depending upon the kind of seeds and type of pathogen.

● Seeds should be stirred continuously and temperature and duration of treatment

should be monitored precisely.
 ● The seeds are spread in thin layers after the treatment and sun or air drying is
followed and sown afterwards. Seeds can also be treated with mercuric chloride and
formaldehyde. Nowadays, aerated steam is used commercially.

● This involves precise control on temperature and vapour flow rate, where injury to
seeds is minimum.

Precautions:

● Precise control of time and duration of treatment is necessary.

● Seed viability may be lost if not done properly.

● Injury to seed coat or embryos should be avoided.

● Proper drying is required before storage or sowing.

● Protection: Treatment of seed with different chemicals to protect from pathogens is

protection. It includes dry seed treatment and wet seed treatment.

● Dry seed treatment: In this method, seeds are thoroughly shaken with chemical
in a rotating seed duster for some time, so that chemicals stick properly to the
surface. Commonly used chemicals are Brassicol, Captan, Agrosan-G,
Ceresan, Thiram and Dithane M-45.

● Wet treatment method: In this method seeds are immersed in the liquid
suspension of t chemical for specific time. Continuous stirring is required so
that chemicals do not accumulate at base. After treatment, seeds are dried in
sun or shade.For the control of common insect-pest and disease of nursery
and their management is listed in the following table:

Common insect-pests and diseases of nursery and their management:

A. Insect Management
pests

Scales Single spray of Rogor or Metasystox (0.05 percent) is quite effective.

Repeat it after 15 days interval. Crude oil spray is also useful for
controlling the scales.

Thrips Two sprays of Metasystox or Rogor (0.05 per cent) at fortnightly

interval on new growth reduces the population of thrips considerably)

Mealy bugs ● Collect and destroy the adults.

● Soil raking in December-January to kill the pupae.
● Spray Dimethoate (0.05 per cent) on the crawling insects during
February-March
● Use Ostico sticky bands on the trunks of the mother plants.

White flies Spray Phosphomidon (0.02 percent) or other systemic insecticide in

the early stages of infestation.

Mites Give two sprays of Acaricides like Dicofol(0.05 per cent) and Wettable
Sulphur (0.2 per cent) at fortnightly intervals.
Leaf eating Spray Sevin/Carbaryl (0.1 per cent) at the first appearance of the
caterpillars caterpillars. Neem oil (1 per cent) is also effective.

Cut worms ● Use light traps for catching the adults.

● Use poison baits consisting of Malathion (0.1 per cent) , wheat
bran and jaggery.
● Spray Malathion or Quinalphos (0.05 per cent) before the
expected attack of the worms)

Leaf miners Two sprays of Metasystox or Rogor (0.05 per cent) at fortnightly
interval on newly emerged growth flushes are sufficient for controlling
the population of leaf in the nursery.

Snails and ● Hand picking and destruction is the most effective method.
slugs ● Spray of common salt (2 percent) is very useful in controlling
snails and slugs.
● Use Metalaldehyde pallets.

B. Diseases

Damping off Treat seeds before sowing with ceresin, Thiram or Agrosan @ 2 g per
kg seeds.
Spray Captan or Bavistin (0.2 per cent) in the nursery.

Powdery Give one prophylactic spray of Karathane or Calixin or Wettable

mildew Sulphur (0.2per cent). Repeat it again if cloudy weather persists for a
longer period.

Blights A single spray of Dithane Z-78 or Bavistin (0.2 per cent) is very
effective to check blight disease in the nursery plants

Leaf spot Give a single spray of Dithane Z-78 or Bavistin (0.2 per cent)

Dieback ● Prune the dead portion of plant.

● Apply Blitox or Bordeaux paste to the cut portion.
● Spray Benlate (0.2 per cent ) as soon as the symptoms become
visible.
 Exercise 12: Uprooting/digging, Labeling and Packing of Nursery Plants

Materials required: Digging/uprooting tools, labels, sphagnum moss, markers, wrapping

material (Hessian cloth)

Procedure(s):

Uprooting/digging of nursery:

● To avoid the damage to the roots, it is advisable to irrigate nursery, 3-4 days before
the actual date of lifting the plants. The lifting of (evergreen spp.) saplings should
however be avoided in case if there is heavy rain in the rainy season because earth
ball does not form properly if soil is too wet.

● To achieve high rate of yield survival of evergreen tropical or subtropical fruit plants
like mango, guava, citrus and litchi etc. these should be uprooted with a ball of earth.

● In case of deciduous plants like peach, plum, apricot, apple, pear, grapes, walnut,
hazelnut, pecan nut, cherry, Kiwifruit and almond etc. can be lifted bare rooted.

Inspection of nursery plants:

● The uprooted nursery plants should be inspected by the team of experts for thorough
check up for parameters like infestation of diseases, attack of insects, healthy root
system and other pomological attributes. The unhealthy saplings should be
discarded before packing and storage of seedlings.

Labeling of nursery plants:

● After thorough inspection, the saplings should be labeled crop wise and variety wise
with the help of zinc labels, plastic labels or wooden labels for proper identification
and labeled sale of nursery plants.

Packing of nursery plants:

● After uprooting and labeling, the saplings should be properly packed. The bare rooted
nursery plants of deciduous species should be placed with moist sphagnum moss
and wrapped in hessian cloth to avoid drying of roots.

● The saplings should be wrapped with moist grass or rice straw before putting in
polyethylene bags and then kept in baskets.
 ● The strawberry runners and vegetable seedlings are first packed in moistened moss
grass and kept in hessian cloth bags or in basket for long distant transport.

Packing materials:

● The different packing materials used for packing of nursery plants are hessian cloth,
sacking cloth, paddy straw, dried grasses and plastics etc.

● The hessian cloth is derived from the best jute, whereas sacking cloth is made from
raw grade jute fibre
● Different plastic material includes low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density
polythene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP) and nylon etc.

Precautions:

● While uprooting nursery plants, damage to root system should be avoided.

● Plants offered for sale should be uniform and true to type

● No negligence in inspection of nursery plants.

● The packing of nursery plants should be done carefully to avoid drying of root
system.
 References and Additional Reading Material

Reference Books:

1. Hartmann, H.T., Kester D.E., Davis, F.T and R.L Geneve (2010) Plant
Propagation: Principles and practices (8th Edition)

2. Sharma, R.R and Srivastav M (2004):Plant propagation and nursery

management (First Edition) International Book Distributing Co.

3. K.K.Nanda and V.K. Kochhar (1985). Vegetative propagation of plants .

Kalyani Publisher- New Delhi-Ludhiana .

4. Bose ,T.K.Sanyal, D and Sandhu, M.L.(1998) Propagation of Horticultural

crops. Naya Prakash Publishers , Kolkatta .

5. Hartman,H.T. and Beutel, A(1979).Propagation of temperate zone fruit

plants. Leaflet, California, Agri. Expt. Sta. California.

Website URL:

6. http//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/plant propagation