Testing of materials

Materials are tested for the following properties:

• To assess numerically the fundamental

properties of ductility, malleability, toughness
etc.,
• To check chemical composition
• To determine suitability of a material for a
particular application.
• To determine the surface or surface defects in
raw materials or processed parts.
 Classification of tests
1. Destructive tests
 In destructive testing, the component or
specimen to be tested is destroyed and cannot
be reused.
 Example: Tensile test, impact test, torsion test
etc.,
2. Non-destructive tests
 In non-destructive test, the component or
specimen to be tested is not destroyed and can
be reused after the test.
 Example: Radiography, Ultrasonic inspection etc.,
 Types of destructive test
• Tensile test
• Compression test
• Shear test
• Fatigue test
• Creep test
• Hardness test
• Impact test
 Tensile test
• A tensile test of a material is performed on
ductile materials to determine the following
properties such as:
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Yield point or yield strength
iii. Tensile strength
iv. Percentage elongation
v. Percentage reduction in area
vi. Young’s modulus
 Testing procedure
• The tensile test is carried out on a bar of uniform
cross section through the gauge length.
• The specimen is mounted in the jaws of a testing
machine, then applied load is increasing gradually.
• The extension or elongation of the gauge length is
recorded continuously and finally a graph is drawn
between the stress and strain.
A Standard tensile specimen with circular cross section
Tensile testing machine
• An extensometer is an instrument or device by
which the change in length of specimen under
test can be measured.
Schematic illustration of how a tensile load produces an elongation and
positive linear strain .Dashed lines represent the shape before deformation,
solid lines represent the shape after deformation
Stress- Strain curve
 From stress-strain curve

• Point M : Limit of proportionality

• Point N : Elastic limit
• Point P : Upper yield point
• Point Q : Lower yield point
• Point S : Fracture point
 The various tensile properties are calculated, with the
help of stress-strain curve, using the following relation:
1. Stress(σ):
σ = load / Original cross sectional area
= F / A0
2. Strain(ε):
ε = change in length/original length
= (L-L0) / L0
Where,
L0 – Original length of bar before the load is applied
L – length of bar after load is applied
3. Ultimate tensile strength:

Maximum load
=
Original cross sectional area

4. Yield strength:
= Yield load
Original cross sectional area

5. Rupture strength:

Load at time of fracture

=
Original cross sectional area
6. Elongation:
(final length – Original length)
% of elongation = X 100
Original length

7. Reduction of area:
Original area – Area at fracture
% of reduction of area = X 100
Original length

8. Young’s modulus of elasticity(E):

E = Stress = σ
Strain ε
 Compression test

• The compression test is conducted in a

manner similar to the tensile test, except that
the load is compressive.
• In this brittle materials are suitable for
compression test
• Compression test is also conducted on a
universal testing machine.
The following equations are used to compute
compressive stress and strain:

1. Compressive stress(σ):
σ = load / Original cross sectional area
= F / A0
2. Compressive strain(ε):
ε = change in length/original length
= (L-L0) / L0
Where,
L0 – Original length of bar before the load is applied
L – length of bar after load is applied
• By convention, a compressive force is taken to
be negative, which yields a negative stress.
• Compressive strain is also negative because
original length(L0) is greater than final length
(L).
Schematic illustration of how a compressive load
produces contraction and a negative linear strain
Testing procedure:

• The specimen to be tested is fitted in between

compression plates of the universal testing
machine.
• Now the compression load is gradually applied
on the specimen.
• The corresponding reduction in length of the
specimen are recorded.
 Shear test
• Shear test is performed using a pure shear
force.
• The shear force is imposed parallel to the
upper and lower face of the body as shown in
the following figure.
• The shear stress is computed according to
τ = F / A0
Where, F- Applied shear force
A0- Area of shear
Schematic representation of shear strain γ
• Shear strain (γ) is defined as the tangent of
the strain angle θ.
shear strain (γ) = tan θ
• The ratio of shear stress to shear strain in the
elastic range is known as the shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity(G).
 Torsion test
• Torsion is a variation of pure shear, where in a
structural member is twisted in the manner of
the following figure.
• Torsional forces produce a rotational motion
about the longitudinal axis of one end of the
member relative to the other end.
 Where,
Ø – Angle of twist
T – Applied torque

Schematic representation of torsional deformation

• Example: Machine axle, Drive shaft and twist
drills.
• Torsional test are normally performed on
cylindrical solid shaft or tubes.
• A shear stress (τ) is function of the applied
torque, whereas shear strain (γ) is related to the
angle of twist(Ø).
• The following general torsion equation can be
applied within the elastic range:

τ = T =
GØ
r J L

Where,τ – Shear stress

r – Radius of cylinder,
T – Applied torque,
J – Polar moment of inertia,
G – Modulus of rigidity,
Ø – Angle of twist in radians,
L – Gauge length of the test piece.
 Fatigue test
• The fatigue properties of materials can be
determined from fatigue test.
• A schematic diagram of a rotating –bending
test apparatus, commonly used for fatigue
testing as shown in the following figure.
Schematic diagram of fatigue –testing apparatus for
making rotating-bending tests.
• The compression and tensile stresses are
imposed on the specimen as it is simultaneously
bend and rotated.
• A series of tests are conducted by subjecting a
specimen to the stress cycling at a relatively large
maximum stress amplitude(σmax)
• σmax is usually on the order of two thirds of the
static tensile strength.
• Then the number of cycles to failure is counted.
• This procedure is repeated on other specimens
at progressively decreasing max. stress
amplitude.
• The above data are plotted as stress (S) versus
the logarithm of the number of cycle (N) to
failure for each of the specimens.
S-N Curve for two different materials
 Creep test
• A typical creep test consists of subjecting a
specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant.
• Deformation or strain is measured and plotted
as a function of elapsed time.
• Constant stress test are employed to provide a
better understanding of the mechanism of
creep.
Creep testing apparatus
 Test procedure
• The installation for creep test is shown in the
previous figure.
• The specimen to be tested is placed in the
electric furnace.
• At the electric furnace, the specimen is heated
to the given temperature under the constant
load.
• The strain variation are measured with strain
gauge.
• The above test is repeated for three to four
specimen at each temperature under different
loads.
• The following figure shows the creep curve for
each specimen.
Influence of stress and temperature on creep behavior