ABSTRACT

In many industrial applications it is required to convert a fixed voltage dc source to a variable dc voltage source for which the dc-dc converters i.e, choppers are used .It is based on the principle of switching ON and OFF the dc input applied (or) chopping the applied dc input. The advantage of power MOSFET over SCR in chopper circuits is its fast switching speed , less switching losses ,and its positive temperature co-efficient of resistance. The proposed project deals with the design,fabrication and testing of control logic circuit for dc step down MOSFET chopper ,which is used for the speed control of D.C series motors in traction work . The principle of DC Chopper is to use electronic equipment-MOSFET-as switching,which can control the motor to have constant speed and torque, by controlling the armature pressure. Pulse Width Modulation uses Operation Amplifier to produce signals. For the result of the test it was able to control speed and torque of DC separately excited motor torque. In this project mainly the principle of monostable multivibrator is being used for firing the mosfet . The triggering for monostable multivibrator is provided by using the square wave generator . The variation of supply given to motor is provided by simply varying the resistance or capacitance .

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

MOSFETs are very near to perfect semiconductor switches, capable of switching high currents at high speeds. All modern low voltage controllers that are properly designed use them - and 4QD's controllers are no exception. MOSFETs are certainly the best devices for operation below 60v but above this voltage they become less perfect (they can handle less current) and somewhere above 100v, other types of technology (such as IGBTs or Thyristors) start to become a sensible alternative.

1.1.Monostable multivibrator circuit

When triggered by an input pulse, a monostable multivibrator will switch to its unstable position for a period of time, and then return to its stable state. The time period monostable multivibrator remains in unstable state is given by t = ln(2)*R2*C1. If repeated application of the input pulse maintains the circuit in the unstable state, it is called a retriggerable monostable. If further trigger pulses do not affect the period, the circuit is a nonretriggerable multivibrator.

1.2.Voltage-controlled oscillator
A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic oscillator designed to be controlled in oscillation frequency by a voltage input. The frequency of oscillation is varied by the applied DC voltage, while modulating signals may also be fed into the VCO to cause frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM); a VCO with digital pulse output may similarly have its repetition rate (FSK, PSK) or pulse width modulated (PWM).

1.3.ZENER DIODE
The Zener effect as embodied in the zener diode has many applications for control and regulation.

Zener Regulator
The constant reverse voltage of the zener diode makes it a valuable component for the regulation of the output voltage against both variations in the input voltage from an unregulated power supply or variations in the load resistance. The current through the zener will change to keep the voltage at within the limits of the threshold of zener action and the maximum power it can dissipate.

1.4.MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a device used to amplify or switch electronic signals. It is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both digital and analog circuits. The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor material and is accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET . When a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, the electric field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates a so-called "inversion layer" or channel at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion channel is of the same type P-type or Ntype as the source and drain, so it provides a conduit through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and makes it possible to control the current flow between drain and source.

Circuit symbols
A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending back into the same direction as the channel.

Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with JET symbols:

P-channel

N-channel

JFET

MOSFET enh

MOSFET dep

In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device, and in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of all the transistor.

MOSFET structure and channel formation

section of an NMOS without formed:OFF state

Cross Cross section of an NMOS with channel formed: ON state

A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode and a gate electrode. The MOSFET includes two additional terminals (source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The highly doped source and drain regions typically are denoted by a '+' following the type of doping. If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'n+' regions and the body is a 'p' region. As described above, with sufficient gate voltage, above a threshold voltage value, electrons from the source (and possibly also the drain) enter the inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region and the oxide. This conducting 4

channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can flow between the source and the drain. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'p+' regions and the body is a 'n' region. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for p-Channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a very small subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain. The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for nchannel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel.

1.5.Modes of operation
The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the terminals. For an enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET the three operational modes are:

Cut-off or Sub-threshold or Weak Inversion Mode. When VGS < Vth:

where Vth is the threshold voltage of the device. According to the basic threshold model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between drain and source. While the current between drain and source should ideally be zero when the transistor is being used as a turned-off switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold leakage.

,
where ID0 = current at VGS = Vth and the slope factor n is given by n = 1 + CD / COX, with CD = capacitance of the depletion layer and COX = capacitance of the oxide layer.

( Fig:1.1) (Characteristics of MOSFET) MOSFET drain current vs. drain-to-source voltage for several values of VGS Vth; the boundary between linear (Ohmic) and saturation (active) modes is indicated by the upward curving parabola

(Fig :1.2)
Cross section of a MOSFET operating in the linear (Ohmic) region; strong inversion region present even near drain

(Fig :1.3)
Cross section of a MOSFET operating in the saturation (active) region; channel exhibits pinch-off near drain

Triode Mode or Linear Region (also referred to as the Ohmic Mode) When VGS > Vth and VDS < ( VGS - Vth )
The transistor is turned on, and a channel has been created which allows current to flow between the drain and source. The MOSFET operates like a resistor, controlled by the gate voltage relative to both the source and drain voltages. The current from drain to source is modeled as:

where n is the charge-carrier effective mobility, W is the gate width, L is the gate length and Cox is the gate oxide capacitance per unit area. The transition from the

exponential subthreshold region to the triode region is not as sharp as the equations suggest.

Saturation Mode (also referred to as the Active Mode)

When VGS > Vth and VDS > ( VGS - Vth ) The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows current to flow between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher than the gate voltage, the electrons spread out, and conduction is not through a narrow channel but through a broader, two- or three-dimensional current distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the substrate. The onset of this region is also known as pinchoff to indicate the lack of channel region near the drain. The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain voltage and controlled primarily by the gatesource voltage, and modeled very approximately as:

The additional factor involving , the channel-length modulation parameter, models current dependence on drain voltage due to the Early effect, or channel length modulation. According to this equation, a key design parameter, the MOSFET transconductance is:

,
where the combination Vov = VGS - Vth is called the overdrive voltage. Another key design parameter is the MOSFET output resistance rO given by:

.
If is taken as zero, an infinite output resistance of the device results that leads to unrealistic circuit predictions, particularly in analog circuits. As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite inaccurate.

CHAPTER-2

CHOPPER
Earlier, a variable DC voltage was obtained from a fixed DC voltage by two methods: Resistance Control Method: In this method, a variable resistance is used in between the fixed-voltage DC source and the load. This method is still used in very few applications, but it is inefficient because of high-energy losses in the resistance. Motor-Generator Set Method: A variable DC output voltage is obtained by controlling the field current of the DC Generator. This system is still used in some industrial drives. Three machines of the same power rating are involved, and therefore the system is bulky, costly, slow in response, and less efficient. Nowadays, high power solid-state devices are available to make the solid state DC power converters practical and cost-effective for DC drives powered from DC source. These converters offer greater efficiency, faster response, smooth operation, minimal maintenance, smaller size, and lower weight and cost. There are two types of solid state DC-to-DC converters: Inverter Rectifier System: In the Inverter-rectifier system, the DC is first converted to AC, which is then stepped up or down by a transformer and then rectified back to DC. The conversion is in two stages, DC to AC and AC to DC and therefore is costly, bulky and less efficient. DC Chopper System: The DC chopper converts directly from DC to DC and is a relatively latest technology with good efficiency. It may be visualized as a DC equivalent to an AC transformer, because, in performing DC-to-DC conversion, its behavior is similar to that of a continuously variable turn-ratio transformer.

2.1.CHOPPER-FED D.C. MOTOR DRIVES

If the source of supply is d.c. (for example in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit system) a chopper-type converter is usually employed. The average output voltage could be varied by periodically switching the battery voltage on and off for varying intervals. The principal difference between the thyristor-controlled rectifier and the chopper is that in the former the motor current always flows through the supply, whereas in the latter, the motor current only flows from the supply terminals for part of each cycle. A single-switch chopper using a transistor, MOSFET or IGBT can only supply positive voltage and current to a d.c. motor, and is therefore restricted to quadrant 1 motoring operation. When regenerative and/or rapid speed reversal is called for, more complex circuitry is required, involving two or more power switches, and consequently leading to increased cost. This type of chopper is only suitable if the motor voltage is less than the battery voltage. Where the motor voltage is greater than the battery voltage, a 'step-up' chopper using an additional inductance as an intermediate energy store is used.

Performanceofchopper-fedd.c.motordrives We know that the d.c. motor performed almost as well when fed from a phase-controlled rectifier as it does when supplied with pure d.c. The chopper-fed motor is, if anything, rather better than the phase-controlled, because the armature current ripple can be less if a high chopping frequency is used. Typical waveforms of armature voltage and current are shown in Figure 2.1(c): these are drawn with the assumption that the switch is ideal. A chopping frequency of around 100 Hz, as shown in Figure 2.1, is typical of medium and large chopper drives, while small drives often use a much higher chopping frequency, and thus have lower ripple current. As usual, we have assumed that the speed remains constant despite the slightly pulsating torque, and that the armature current is continuous.

Figure 2.1Chopper-fed d.c. motor. In (a) the transistor is 'on' and armature current is flowing through the voltage source; in (b) the transistor is 'off' and the armature current freewheels through the diode. Typical armature voltage and current waveforms are shown at (c), with the dotted line representing the current waveform when the load torque is reduced by half.

The shape of the armature voltage waveform reminds us that when the transistor is switched on, the battery voltage V is applied directly to the armature, and during this period the path of the armature current is indicated by the dotted line in Figure 2.1(a). For the remainder of the cycle the transistor is turned 'off ' and the current freewheels through the diode, as shown by the dotted line in Figure 2.1(b)then the current is freewheeling through the diode, the armature voltage is clamped at (almost) zero. The speed of the motor is determined by the average armature voltage, (Vdc), which in turn depends on the proportion of the total cycle time (T) for which the transistor is 'on'. If the on and off times are defined as Ton = kT and Toff = (1 - k)T, where 0 < k < 1, then the average voltage is simply given by Vdc = kV (2:1)

from which we see that speed control is effected via the on time ratio, k. There are twomethods-forit: 1.Constant-FrequencySystem: f=l/T, the chopping frequency (and hence the chopping period T) is kept constant and the Ontime Ton is varied. This may be called Pulse-Width Modulation. 2.Variable-FrequencySystem: The chopping period T is varied, and either (a) On-time Ton is kept constant or (b) Off-time Toff is kept constant. This may be called Frequency Modulation. The frequency has to be varied over a wide range to provide the full output voltage range. So, filter design for frequency modulation is difficult. Secondly, the possibility of interference with signaling and telephone lines is greater. Thirdly, the large Off-time at low output voltage will make the current of a DC motor load discontinuous. The constant-frequency system with pulse-width modulation is thus the preferred scheme for chopper drives.

2.2.Performance of chopper-fed d.c. motor drives

Turning now to the current waveforms shown in Figure 2.1(c), the upper waveform corresponds to full load, i.e. the average current (Idc) produces the full rated torque of the motor. If now the load torque on the motor shaft is reduced to half rated torque, and assuming that the resistance is negligible, the steady-state speed will remain the same but the new mean steady-state current will be halved, as shown by the lower dotted curve. We note however that although, as expected, the mean current is determined by the load, the ripple current is unchanged, and this is explained below. If we ignore resistance, the equation governing the current during the 'on' period is V = E + L(di/dt), or di/dt = (1/L)(V - E) (2:2)

Since V is greater than E, the gradient of the current (di/dt) is positive, as can be seen in Figure 4.13(c). During this 'on' period the battery is supplying power to the motor. Some of 10

the energy is converted to mechanical output power, but some is also stored in the magnetic field associated with the inductance. The latter is given by 1/2Li2, and so as the current (i) rises, more energy is stored. During the 'off' period, the equation governing the current is 0 = E + L(di/dt), or di/dt = -E/L (2:3)

We note that during the 'off' time the gradient of the current is negative (as shown in Figure 2.1(c)) and it is determined by the motional e.m.f. E. During this period, the motor is producing mechanical output power which is supplied from the energy stored in the inductance; not surprisingly the current falls as the energy previously stored in the 'on' period is now given up. We note that the rise and fall of the current (i.e. the current ripple) is inversely proportional to the inductance, but is independent of the mean d.c. current, i.e. the ripple does not depend on the load. To study the input/output power relationship, we note that the battery current only flows during the 'on' period, and its average value is therefore kIdc. Since the battery voltage is constant, the power supplied is simply given by V(kIdc) = kVIdc. Looking at the motor side, the average voltage is given by Vdc = kV, and the average current (assumed constant) is Idc, so the power input to the motor is again kVIdc, i.e. there is no loss of power in the ideal chopper. Given that k is less than one, we see that the input (battery) voltage is higher than the output (motor) voltage, but conversely the input current is less than the output current, and in this respect we see that the chopper behaves in much the same way for d.c. as a conventional transformer does for a.c.

InputFilter
The chopper is an electronic On-Off switch. When it is on, supply current and motor current are the same. When the chopper is Off, motor current flows through the free-wheeling diode, and the supply current is zero. The chopper therefore produces chopped current for the supply. The supply current therefore has very high harmonics, which will produce undesirable effects, such as source voltage fluctuation, signal interference, supply distortion, ucidilional healing and so on. A simple capacitor filter will reduce ripple from the supply current. The capacitor will provide the ripple current of the chopper, and only the average current is drawn from the supply. The high peak power demand from the supply is thus eliminated. In practice, however, instead of using only a large capacitor filter, an L-C filter is used to reduce the size of the capacitor. The filter inductor has the additional function of providing transient isolation between supply and load during a short-circuit condition. .Torque-speed-characteristicsandcontrolarrangements Under open-loop conditions (i.e. where the mark-space ratio of the chopper is fixed at a particular value) the behaviour of the chopper-fed motor is similar to the converter-fed motor

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.When the armature current is continuous the speed falls only slightly with load, because the mean armature voltage remains constant. But when the armature current is discontinuous (which is most likely at high speeds and light load) the speed falls off rapidly when the load increases, because the mean armature voltage falls as the load increases. Discontinuous current can be avoided by adding an inductor in series with the armature, or by raising the chopping frequency, but when closed-loop speed control is employed, the undesirable effects of discontinuous current are masked by the control loop.

2.3.Application The chopper drives concept now finds a lot of applications other than in battery operated vehicles like glass industries, fertilizer industries and tyre manufacturing industries. Continuous process plants, where the motor should not stop even for a fraction of a second, use chopper DC drives with DC motor as a load drive system along with DC power source comprising of battery charger and battery on float conditions. This becomes an efficient and cost-effective solution for process needs. This becomes a reliable, simple and cost-effective alternative against the alternative of UPS system with AC drives and AC motor package. The same concept is being used in glass industries for a) Lehar drives for pulling the semi liquid glass sheet, b) for rolling machine (with 4 drives under synchronization with master-slave controls), which draws glass sheet from furnace, and which becomes a replacement for complex servo gearbox.

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CHAPTER-3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND ITS DESCRIPTION

Q1 BS170 V1

15V DIODE_VIRTUAL

R5 V4 15V 100kohm V2

D1 8 U1 DIODE_VIRTUAL R1 10kohm 4 VCC RST 7 3 OUT 6 DIS 2 5 THR TRI CON GND 1 C2 LM555CN
A

XSC22 G B T

D2

15V

C1 0.001mF 4 U2

S1 A

C4 2 0.001uF 3

0.01uF 6 7 1 5 741 V3 R2 1.86kohm DC_MOTOR_ARMATURE L1 10H

R3 15V 4.7kohm R4 4.7kohm C3 0.1uF

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3.1.Circuit description
a) OP-AMP : An operational amplifier is basically a very high gain,direct-coupled amplifier with high input impedence and low output impedence.It has one or more differential amplifiers forming the input stage.The input stage is generally followed by a buffer or level transistor ,and an output stage.The output stage mainly consists of a push-pull complementary amplifier. The block diagram of a typical OP-AMP is as shown.

Circuit symbol
7 1 5 U1 3 6 2 4 741

where 1-offset null.2-inverting input.3-noninverting input4- -vcc.5- offset null6-output..7-+vcc.8-dummy pin Characteristics of an ideal OPAMP The voltage gain is infinity. The input impedence is infinity. The output impedence is zero. The bandwidth is infinity. When equal voltages are applied at the two input terminals ,the output is zero. There is no change in the characteristic features ,with changes of temperature.

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3.1.a.Square wave generator :

R3 100kohm

V1

15V C1 2 6 3 7 1 5 741 V2 4 U1
IO1

0.001uF

R1 15V R2 4.7kohm 4.7kohm

Description :
Square wave outputs are generated when the op-amp is forced to operate in the saturated region. That is , the output of the op-amp is forced to swing repetitively between positive saturation +Vsat and negative saturation Vsat , resulting in square wave output. This square wave generator is also called a free-running or astable multivibrator . The output of the opamp in this circuit will be in positive or negative saturation ,depending on whether the differential voltage is negative or positive ,respectively. Assume that the voltage across capacitor C is zero volts at the instant the dc voltages +VCC and VEE are applied . This means that the voltage at the inverting terminal is zero initially .At the same instant ,however ,the voltage v1 at the noninverting terminal is a very small finite value that is a function of the output offset voltage V ooT and the values of resistors R1 and R2. Hence Vid which is equal to V1 drives the output of the op-amp to its positive saturation +VSAT.With the output voltage of the op-amp at +VSAT , the capacitor C

15

starts charging toward +VSAT through resistor R . However ,as soon as the voltage across capacitor C is slightly more positive than V1 , the output of the op-amp is forced to switch to a negative saturation, -VSAT . V1 = (R1 / R1+R2) (-VSAT) With output at +VSAT , voltage V1 at the noninverting input is V1 = (R1 / R1+R2) (+VSAT) The time period T of the output waveform is given by T=2RC ln ((2R1+R2)/R2) In practice, each inverting and non- inverting terminal needs a series resistance RS to prevent excessive differential current flow because the inputs of the op-amp are subjected to large differential voltages . The resistance RS used should be 100k ohm or higher.

3.1.IC 555 timer as monostable multivibrator

A monostable multivibrator produces a single pulse whose width can be controlled,since the pulse duration depends upon the circuit elements viz resistance and capacitance.By varying the time constant RC,it is possible to have any desired pulse width,as required by practical considerations .A monostable multivibrator is also termed as one shot,since it produces only one pulse for each trigger input pulse. A monostable multi has two output stages : one stable state and one quasi stable state.In the absence of an external excitation,the multi is in the stable stage.When a negative triggering pulse is applied,the multivibrator switches from the stable to the quasistable state.It remains in this quasi- stable state.It remains in this quasi-stable for a specific duration,depending on the circuit time constant and reverts to the original stable state,without any external triggering.However an external triggering voltage is necessary to switch the multi from stable to quasi stable state. Conditions to be satisfied are: The triggering pulse must be a negative pulse. The pulse-width of the trigger pulse must be less than the desired pulse width of the output voltage. The amplitude of the negative going trigger pulse must be greater than 1/3 vcc. The capacitor voltage increases exponentially during charging. The capacitor voltage drops to zero intantaneously as a result of short-circuit of the capacitor.

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Circuit diagram:

V3 15V C2 R5 3.9kohm

0.001mF C3

D1 R6 1N4385GP10kohm

0.01uF U2 C4 0.1uF 8 4 VCC RST 7 3 OUT 6 DIS 2 THR TRI 5 CON GND 1

LM555CN

Once triggered ,the circuits output will remain in the high state until the set time tP elapses .The output will not change its state even if an input trigger is applied again during the interval tP .However ,the circuit can be reset during the timing cycle by applying a negative pulse to the reset terminal 4 .The output will then remain in the low state until a trigger at 2nd pin is again applied . Often in practice a decoupling capacitor (10 micro farad) is used between +VCC (pin 8) and ground (pin 1) to eliminate unwante voltage spikes in the output voltage waveform .Sometimes ,to prevent any possibility of mistriggering the monostable multivibrator on positive pulse edges , a wave shaping circuit consisting of R,C 2 ,and diode D is connected between the trigger input pin 2 and VCC pin 8 . The values of R and C2 should be selected so that the time constant RC2 is smaller than the output pulse width tP .

17

Calculations :

Consider the charging of the capacitor . Since the capacitor voltage Vc increases exponentially. Therefore we have : Vc=V(1-e-t/RC ) , where V= maximum charging voltage. When the capacitor voltage has reached the value 2/3 Vcc.: W e have Vc=2/3Vcc . Also V=Vcc Therefore 2/3Vcc=Vcc(1-e-t/RC ) or 2/3 -1 =e-t/RC or 1/3=e-t/RC Therefore t = -RCloge(1/3) =-RC (-1.0986) or t = 1.1RC [ R in ohms , C in Farads and t in seconds ]. The pulse width of the output waveform is given as Ton =1.1 RC . RC is the time constant .

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CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES & RESULTS

4.1.Hardware implementation

19

20

Closer view of circuit

21

CRO waveforms :

22

4.2.Results 1)
s.no o/p R C Ton

Theoritical & practical comparisions

Theoritical Vo = 15v 1.21K ohm 0.1 micro farad 1.1RC=1.1*1.21k*0.1u=0.1331ms Practical Vo=14v 1.21K ohm 0.1 micro farad 0.08 ms

2) Theoritical & practical comparisions at different R value

s.no o/p R C Ton Theoritical Vo = 15v 1.44K ohm 0.1 micro farad 1.1RC=1.1*1.44k*0.1u=0.1584ms Practical Vo=14v 1.44K ohm 0.1 micro farad 0.123 ms

4.3.a.Speed variation
Rated speed : 2420 rpm On varying pot speeds achieved are : 2391 rpm, 2294 rpm, 1279 rpm, 990.0 rpm, 476.1 rpm..and so on .

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CONCLUSIONS
The chopper can replace the resistor commonly used in series with the armature of DC motors for speed control. Therefore, it can be used in battery operated vehicles and applications where energy saving is a prime consideration. Choppers used in subway cars also reduce tunnel heating. Choppers can also provide regenerative braking of the motor and return the energy back to the supply. This results in energy saving for transportation systems with frequent stops. Choppers therefore find wide application in transaction system all over the world. Choppers are successfully used in BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) system in San Francisco and in subway cars in Toronto and Montreal. Choppers are also used in other applications such as interurban and trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift strucks and minehaulers. The chopper control is also dropping in speed nature as in phase control system for DC motor. However, the drop in speed is less for chopper control than for phase control because of the nature of the supply voltage, which does not change with time. Secondly, the region of discontinuous motor current operation can be reduced with the chopper control by increasing the chopping frequency or time constant of the motor circuit (i.e., adding an inductor in the motor circuit). Choppers are most likely to be used in future electric vehicles for speed control as well as braking.Nowadays,these also find lots of applications in continuous process plants like glass, fertilizer and tire manufacturing industries.Afew good features of the chopper drives are: smooth control, high efficiency, fastresponse, regeneration.

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REFERENCES

1. Power Electronics Circuits , Devices & Applications - RASHID M.H

2. Power Electronics - P.S.BHIMBRA 3. Linear Integrated Circuits -D.ROY CHOWDARY & SHAILJAIN
4.Operational Amplifiers & Linear Integrated circuits RAMAKANT

. 5. Power Electronics - VEDAM SUBRAMANYAM

K.GAYAKWAD

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