Chapter 2

Hardware
and software
 mainframe computers and super computers

Mainframe computers
A mainframe computer can have hundreds of
❖Mainframe computers are often referred to simply processor cores and can process a large number of
as mainframes.
small tasks at the same time very quickly.
❖They are used mainly by large organizations for
bulk data-processing applications such as censuses,
Chapter 2

industry and consumer statistics, and transaction

processing. A mainframe is a multitasking, multi-user
computer, meaning it is designed so that many
❖Most individuals tend to use personal computers,
laptops or tablets, but mainframes are much larger different people can work on many different
and have more processing power than these and cost problems, all at the same time.
considerably more to buy.
❖In the early days of computers, the central
processing unit was very large compared to modern- Mainframe computers have almost total reliability,
day computers and used to be housed in a steel
cabinet. being very resistant to viruses and Trojan horses.
Chapter 2

mainframe computers and super computers

 Characteristics of mainframe computers and
super computers
• Longevity • there are several factors threatening
❖ Mainframe computers have great longevity, or • their continued existence.
lifespans. • lack of experienced IT professionals who can
Chapter 2

❖ This is because they can run continuously for very maintain or program mainframes.
long periods of time and provide businesses with
security in the shape of extensive encryption in all • new technological developments, specifically
aspects of their operation. Cloud computing, which is accessible from
anywhere, thereby reducing the need to
❖ Governments, banking organizations and maintain expensive hardware within an
telecommunications companies still base their
business dealings on mainframes.
organization.
❖ Many of these computer systems have existed for • The solution may well be to combine the use of
decades and are still working well. mainframes with Cloud computing, thus giving
organizations the flexibility and accessibility of
❖ To shut them down then dispose of the hardware is the Cloud, while at the same time providing the
very expensive, as is the hiring of companies to
securely remove their data. processing power and security of the
mainframe.
 Characteristics of mainframe computers and
super computers
• RAS • Availability
• The term ‘RAS’ is frequently used when • This refers to the fact that a mainframe is
Chapter 2

referring to mainframe computers and stands available at all times and for extended periods.
for reliability, availability and serviceability.
• Mean time between failures (MTBF) is a
• Reliability common measure of systems, not just those
involving computers.
❖Mainframes are the most reliable computers
because their processors are able to check • even if the mainframe becomes unavailable
themselves for errors and are able to recover due to failure, the length of time it is
without any undue effects on the mainframe’s unavailable is very short.
operation.
• It is possible for a mainframe to recover quickly,
❖ The system’s software is also very reliable, as it even if one of its components fails, by
is thoroughly tested and updates are made automatically replacing failed components with
quickly to overcome any errors. spares.
 • RAS
• Serviceability
Characteristics • This is the ability of a mainframe to discover why a
failure occurred and means that hardware and software
of mainframe
Chapter 2

components can be replaced without having too great

an effect on the mainframe’s operations.
computers and • Security
super • In addition to their other characteristics, mainframes
have greater security than other types of computer
computers systems.
• Data security is considered to be the protection of data
from intentional or accidental destruction, modification
or disclosure
 Characteristics of mainframe computers and super
computers
• A mainframe has many layers of security • In addition to the use of supercomputers to
including: perform massive calculations, they may also
• user identification and authentication, although be used to store sensitive data such as DNA
Chapter 2

more and more systems are using multi-factor profiles.

authentication, which is a combination of two or
more of the following: a password, a physical • Most supercomputers use end-to-end
token, a biometric identifier or a time-restricted encryption, which means that only the
randomized PIN sender or recipient is able to decrypt and
understand the data.
• levels of access, which means that it depends on a
user’s level of security as to which sets of data
they can access
• encryption of transmitted data and data within
the system
• secure operating systems
• continual monitoring by the system for
unauthorised access attempts.
 Characteristics of mainframe computers and
super computers
•Performance metrics ❖Supercomputers use a different set of metrics.
As they are used mainly with scientific
❖The performance metrics of a computer are calculations, their performance is measured by
basically the measures used to determine how how many Floating point Operations can be
Chapter 2

well, or how fast, the processor deals with data. carried out Per Second (FLOPS).
❖The speed of a mainframe’s CPU is measured in ❖One petaflop is 1 000 000 000 000 floating point
millions of instructions per second (MIPS). operations per second.
❖Mainframes use a very large number of different ❖ Experts are already using the term exaflops,
instructions, with some being straightforward which are 1000 times faster than petaflops, and
and easy to carry out, while others can be more are expecting the first supercomputer to attain
complex and slower to process. this speed sometime in the current decade.
❖It is important that the comparison between the ❖The speed of the current
performance of one mainframe and another is
made by measuring how fast the CPUs are when • fastest supercomputer, at the time of
carrying out the same task.. publication, is 148 petaflops and even the tenth
fastest operates at 18 petaflops.
❖This is referred to as a benchmark test.
 Characteristics of mainframe computers and
super computers
Volume of input, output and throughput ❖ A supercomputer is designed for
❖ Mainframes have specialised hardware, called
Chapter 2

maximum processing power and

peripheral processors, that deal specifically with all
input and output operations, leaving the CPU to speed, whereas throughput is a
concentrate on the processing of data. distinct mainframe characteristic.
❖ This enables mainframes to deal with very large
amounts of data being input (terabytes or more),
records being accessed, and subsequently very
large volumes of output being produced.
❖ Modern mainframes can carry out many billions of
transactions every day.
❖ This large number of simultaneous transactions and
extremely large volumes of input and output in a
given period of time is referred to as ‘throughput’.
 Characteristics of mainframe
computers and super computers
•Fault tolerance
❖ Supercomputers have far more components
❖ A computer with fault tolerance means that it can
Chapter 2

continue to operate even if one or more of its

than a mainframe, with up to a thousand
components has failed. times more processors alone.
❖ It may have to operate at a reduced level, but does ❖ This means that statistically, a failure is more
not fail completely. likely to occur and consequently interrupt
the operation of the system
❖ Mainframe computers have the characteristic of
being fault-tolerant in terms of their hardware. While ❖ The approaches to fault tolerance are much
in operation, if a processor fails to function, the the same as those for mainframe computers,
system is able to switch to another processor but with millions of components, the system
without disrupting the processing of data. can go down at any time, even though it
❖ The system is also able to deal with software tends to be up and running again quite
problems by having two different versions of the quickly.
software.
❖ If the first version produces errors, the other version
is automatically run.
 Characteristics of mainframe
computers and super computers
•Operating system
❖ Supercomputers tend to have just one OS,
Chapter 2

❖ Most mainframes run more than one operating system Linux, but most supercomputers utilise
(OS) at any given time and the use of z/OS, z/VM®, and massively parallel processing in that they
Linux®
have many processor cores, each one with
❖ The OS on a mainframe divides a task into various sub- its own OS.
tasks, assigning each one to a different processor core.
❖ Linux is the most popular, mainly because it
❖ When each sub-task has been processed, the results are
recombined to provide meaningful output. is opensource software, that is, it is free to
use.
❖ This is called parallel processing and it is what makes a
mainframe far more efficient than a PC, which, despite
having more than one core these days, has a very limited
capability regarding parallel processing.
 Characteristics of mainframe computers and
super computers
•Type of processor •Heat maintenance
❖ Early mainframes had just one processor (the CPU), but ❖ Because of the large number of processors in both
mainframes and supercomputers, overheating
Chapter 2

as they evolved more and more processors were

included in the mainframe system and the distinction becomes a major problem and heat maintenance or
between the terms ‘CPU’ and ‘processor’ became heat management, as it is often called, has to be
confused. implemented.

❖ One major mainframe manufacturer called them ‘CPU ❖ However, recent developments in mainframe
complexes’, which contained many processors. technology involving more powerful hardware
mean the overheating issue has resurfaced.
❖ The number of processor cores found in a mainframe is ❖ More powerful systems produce more heat. What
now measured in the hundreds. were considered to be a relatively cheap option –
❖ By contrast, supercomputers have hundreds of air cooling systems – are becoming more complex
thousands of processor cores. and more expensive to use in more powerful
systems.
❖ Unlike mainframes, modern supercomputers use more
than one GPU or graphics processing unit..
 Mainframe computer uses
•Census
❖ Mainframe computers play a vital role in the
daily operations of many organizations. • Census is a term that, when used alone, normally
refers to a population census.
❖ Finance companies, health care providers,
insurance companies energy providers, travel • A population census is an official survey of the
Chapter 2

people and households in a country that is carried

agencies, and airlines all make use of out in order to find out how many people live there.
mainframes.
•Industry statistics
❖ the greatest use of mainframes is in the
banking sector, with banks throughout the • Industry statistics are statistics that are recorded
world using mainframes to process billions of regarding trends in different industries, such as
those that process raw materials, make goods in
transactions. factories, or provide services.
❖ The key benefit of mainframes is their ability • They can include the number and names of
to process many terabytes of data, which is businesses, the number of employees and wages
very useful when carrying out batch paid.
processing.
• Some businesses in certain sectors of industry need
❖ Mainframes are also used in other areas mainframes to process the vast amount of data
such as censuses, industry statistics, which helps to identify their major competitors.
consumer statistics, and transaction
processing.
 Mainframe computer uses
Chapter 2
 Supercomputer uses
❖ The first use of supercomputers was in national •Quantum mechanics
defence, for example, designing nuclear weapons
and data encryption. • Quantum mechanics is the study of the
behavior of matter and light on the atomic
❖ Supercomputers have become important in the
Chapter 2

and subatomic scale.

field of scientific research, particularly quantum
mechanics. • It attempts to describe the properties of the
constituent parts of an atom, such as
❖ They have also become essential for weather electrons, protons and neutrons, and how
forecasting they interact with each other.
❖ There are now many other uses of • The Juqueen supercomputer in Germany,
supercomputers, one of which is drug research. now decommissioned, was used by a team of
physicists to calculate the difference in mass
❖ Another field where supercomputers are used is between a neutron and a proton as well as
genetic analysis. Finding the genes that make predicting the make-up of dark matter.
humans susceptible to disease has always been
very difficult.
❖ Here, we will focus on three uses of
supercomputers: quantum mechanics, weather
forecasting and climate research.
 Supercomputer uses
•Weather forecasting •Climate research
❖ Weather forecasting is based on the use of very • This is an extension of the use of IT in
complex computer models. weather monitoring.
❖ Data from the sensors at weather stations • Climate is measured over a much longer
Chapter 2

around the world is input to the model and timescale.

then many calculations are performed.
❖ Records of previous weather conditions have • The data collected over several decades
also been collected over a very long period. can be used to show the trends of
❖ Using the past weather readings, the computer different variables over time. For
examines similar patterns of weather to those example, the levels of nitrogen dioxide,
being experienced at the moment and is able to sulphur dioxide and ozone are monitored
predict the resulting weather. to determine air quality. Rivers are
❖ Variables such as atmospheric pressure, monitored, measuring different variables
humidity, rainfall, temperature, windspeed and such as temperature, pH, dissolved
wind direction are recorded using computerised oxygen, turbidity (the cloudiness of the
weather stations around the world. water caused by minute particles being
present), and water level.
 Activity
Chapter 2

• State two purposes of mainframe • Explain why MFLOPS are used

computers instead of MIPS as a performance
• Give two examples of uses of super measures for supercomputer
computer
• State what is meant by RAS in
relation to mainframe computers.
• Explain why colder parts of the world
are favoured choice as a location for
many data centers.
 Advantages and disadvantages of mainframes and
supercomputers
•Advantages of mainframe computers
• Most organisations that use mainframes
•
Chapter 2

Mainframes are very reliable and rarely have would find it exceptionally difficult to
any system downtime. This is one reason why transfer all the data they have stored on
organisations such as banks use them. their current mainframe to an alternative
• Most other systems do fail at some point and system.
then have to be rebooted or restarted, as most • Because of a mainframe’s ability to run
people who use laptops or PCs will know. different operating systems, it can cope with
• In addition, hardware and software upgrades data coming in a variety of database formats
can occur while the mainframe system is still which other platforms would find
up and running. problematic.

• Mainframes are getting faster and more • Mainframes have stronger security than
powerful every year and are completely other systems with have complex encryption
outperforming PCs, laptops and other devices. systems and authorisation procedures in
place.
• Mainframes can deal with the huge amounts
of data that some organisations need to store
and process
 Advantages and disadvantages of mainframes
and supercomputers
•Disadvantages of mainframe computers •Advantages and disadvantages of supercomputers
• Mainframes are very expensive to buy and can only be • Supercomputers are the fastest data processing
Chapter 2

afforded by large organisations such as multinational computers but are also the most expensive to buy and
banks. install.
• There is also a high cost for the personnel required to • Most supercomputers have one operating system,
run and maintain them. whereas mainframes can have more than one.
• Large rooms are required to house the system, which is • Supercomputers are less fault tolerant than
not needed with other systems. mainframes meaning they are less likely to recover as
quickly in the event of the failure of one component,
• As mainframes become more advanced, the cooling and are down more often than mainframes, although
systems needed become more expensive to install and not as often as some other systems.
run.
• Supercomputers use massively parallel processing,
• Many organisations are migrating to Cloud-based which makes them more powerful compared to the
services so they do not have to buy their own system parallel processing of mainframes, and much more
or hire the expertise required. powerful than PCs which have far fewer processor
• The software required to run mainframe systems is cores than mainframes or supercomputers.
more expensive to buy than using the Cloud.
 Compilers
• Most software that runs on computers is
System software in machine code, which is stored in
binary form within the computer.
• Machine code consists of the
instructions that computers understand
• System software refers to the and each instruction is actually a number
Chapter 2

programs that run and control a written in binary.

computer’s hardware and
application software. • Unfortunately, programmers who write
the software for computer users find it
• Examples of system software are difficult to use machine code for
compilers, programming purposes.
• interpreters,
• linkers, • In the early days of computing it was felt
• device drivers, necessary to develop languages which
• operating systems and programmers could understand and was
• utilities. close to their use of everyday language.
 System software
•Some of the early high-level languages developed • LISP (List Processor) was also an early high-level
included: language. In LISP simple statements often start
• FORTRAN (Formula Translation) was the first high- with the mathematical operator, such as (+ 2 4)
level language to be developed. It was very technical which would calculate 2+4. LISP was used
Chapter 2

and mathematical in nature. extensively in the early years of AI but apart from
• FORTRAN is rarely used these days, but still remains its use in association with CAD, it is rarely used
popular for simulating large physical systems, such as today.
the modelling of stars and galaxies. • Most high-level language programming for
• COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was modern-day systems is done using languages
developed not long after FORTRAN to help such as C++, C#, Visual Basics or Pascal, among
businesses. others.
• Unlike FORTRAN, which relied on mathematical • These have largely replaced the other languages
equations, COBOL tended to use simple expressions, mentioned above.
such as SUBTRACT money FROM account GIVING
balance, rather than an equation like bal=acc-mon. • However, the development of all these high-level
languages led to the need for software which
could translate a program written in high-level
language into the machine code that computers
could understand.
 System software
❖ A compiler is software (a program) that processes •Interpreters
statements written in a highlevel programming language
and converts them into machine language or code that a ❖ An interpreter translates the high-level
Chapter 2

computer’s processor understands and Can execute.

language program one statement, or line, at
❖ In other words, it translates a high-level language program a time into an intermediate form, which it
called source code into an executable file called object
code. then executes.
❖ The compiled program is then run directly without the ❖ It continues translating the program until
need for the compiler to be present. the first error is met, at which point it stops.
❖ Although compilers translate the whole program as one
unit, ❖ This means that errors are located by the
programmer, exactly where they occur.
❖ A compiler produces a list of error messages after it has
translated the program. These cannot be corrected ❖ An interpreter has to do this conversion
without going back to the source code.
every time a statement is executed.
 System software
❖ The interpreter has to be resident in
memory in order for the program to be
executed.
❖ An interpreted program can be transferred
between computers with different operating ❖ Interpreters just run through a program
systems because it remains in the form of line by line and execute each command.
source code, but it needs to be translated in ❖ As a result, another benefit of using an
each computer it is moved to.
Chapter 2

interpreter is that only a few lines of the

❖ This takes more time than with a compiler, but program need to be in memory at any
it means that the program can be distributed one time, saving memory space.
regardless of the processor or operating system
(OS) of the computer. ❖ There are other benefits of using
❖ The computer that it is transferred to must interpreters, such as they help
have a suitable interpreter however; if the programmers when they are developing
interpreter needs to be supplied together with programs.
the program, the overall process is more
complicated than with a compiler. ❖ This means that interpreters can be
❖ Unlike with a compiler, translation occurs at
used during program development
the same time as the program is being allowing a programmer to add a few
executed. lines at a time and test them quickly.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
interpreters
compared withcompilers
Advantages of interpreters Disadvantages of interpreters
While a program is being compiled, if it is a major The execution process is slower for an interpreted
application and takes a long time, the programmer has program
Chapter 2

to as each statement must be translated before

wait, doing nothing, before they can correct any execution, whereas once a program has been
errors. With an interpreted program the programmer compiled it executes all in one go. The time it takes to
can correct errors as they are found. compile a program can be long but once it is compiled
it does not have to be translated, which compares
favorably with an interpreted program which has to be
translated every time it runs.
Debugging is easier with an interpreter as error With an interpreted program, the source code must
messages always be available, which can lead to software
are output as soon as an error in a statement is copyright infringement or intellectual property rights
encountered, which gives the programmer the being at risk. With a compiled program, the source
opportunity to correct the error there and then. With code has been translated and machine code is difficult
a compiler all the error messages are output at the to understand and
end of the process and errors can be difficult to locate alter.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
interpreters
compared withcompilers
Advantages of interpreters Disadvantages of interpreters
Compiling a program uses more memory than
interpreting
Chapter 2

it as the whole program must be loaded before

translation,
whereas with an interpreter only a few statements of
the
program have to be in memory at any given time. This
means that small pieces of code can be tested to make
sure they work before continuing with the rest of the
program.
 System software
❖ In short, a linker is used to combine different
modules of object code into one single
executable code program.
•Linkers ❖ It could be that a large program can only be
compiled in small parts because there may
❖ A linker, or to give it its full name a link not be enough RAM to hold the whole
editor, is a system program that combines program and the compiler program
object files or modules that have been
Chapter 2

created using a compiler, into one single ❖ The parts of the program can be stored on
executable file. backing storage and then, one at a time,
each part is brought into RAM and compiled.
❖ Most programs are written in modular form.
❖ The resulting object code is then saved to
❖ That is to say, a number of programmers, the backing storage.
write separate pieces of code, or modules
that form the required program when
combined, which has the advantage of
saving time than if one person wrote the
whole code although it is still possible for
one person to write all the modules.
❖ If there is an error only that module has to
be corrected.
 System software
•Device drivers
❖ A device driver is a small program
•Linkers that enables the operating system
(OS) and application software to
❖ When all the parts have been compiled, the communicate with a hardware
compiler is no longer required to be in RAM, device.
all the pieces of object code can be brought
Chapter 2

back into RAM and the linker can be used to

combine them into the complete program.
❖ One example is a printer driver
which acts as an interface between
❖ An advantage of using linkers, therefore, is the OS (or any application software
that programs can be written in modules that is running) and the printer.
which requires less RAM so saving money.
❖ This, in effect, allows the user to
have control of the device.
❖ Other devices which need drivers
are sound cards, monitors, mice,
SSDs, network cards, keyboards, disk
drives and many other items of
hardware.
 System software
• Operating systems
❖ An OS is system software that manages
•Device drivers computer hardware and software resources
❖ This, in effect, allows the user to have as well as interacting with device drivers.
control of the device.
❖
Chapter 2

❖ Other devices which need drivers are sound Some of the device drivers are separate to
cards, monitors, mice, SSDs, network cards, the OS, but are often included by the
keyboards, disk drives and many other provider of the OS.
items of hardware.
❖ The OS acts an interface between the user
❖ The device driver, which is, after all, a piece
of system software, performs the same and the computer, as well as supplying
function as translating software. important utilities for managing the
❖ So, application software such as a word computer.
processor sends information to a driver ❖ A utility program is a type of system
saying what it wants the hardware to do;
software that assists users in controlling or
❖ the device driver understands this and maintaining the operation of a computer, its
then tells the hardware what it needs to do.
devices or its software.
 System software
❖ The OS allocates a particular part of RAM for
each program, whether it is an application,
system software or a utility that is running.
•Operating systems
❖ It needs to make sure that instructions and
❖ The OS also acts as an interface data from one program do not spread into
between an application program and
another program’s memory allocation,
Chapter 2

the computer hardware, so that an

application program can communicate otherwise data can get corrupted and the
with the hardware. computer could crash.
❖ To sum up, an operating system ❖ Another of the main functions of an OS is to
interacts with application software, manage data input and output.
device drivers and hardware to manage
a computer’s resources, such as the ❖ To do this, it needs to be able to respond to
processor, RAM, storage space, and input devices in order to receive and manage
peripherals. that data.
❖ One of the major functions of an
operating system is to manage the
computer’s memory.
 System software
❖ A typical error might be that a user, when
they are trying to save their work, types in a
symbol that is not allowed in the file name,
•Operating systems such as /. The OS will output a message
❖ The OS manages the storing of files on, saying that it is an invalid file name and will
as well as the loading of them from, not resume until the user takes action.
Chapter 2

backing storage.
❖ In general, it is the operating system’s
❖ It knows the names of each file and responsibility to handle the security of the
exactly where they are stored on the
hard disk, tape, pen drive or SSD. system.
❖ It also keeps a record of any empty ❖ When a user wishes to shut down the
spaces on the medium so that it knows computer, the OS has to safely close all
where new files can be stored. software running on the computer.
❖ Another responsibility of the OS is to ❖ It then shuts itself down bit by bit before
display error messages to the user finally sending a signal to the power
should an error occur which requires
the user to intervene. management hardware to turn off the power.
 Utility Software
•The need for utility •programs that deal with file handling.
software
❖ Without utility software, the
Chapter 2

❖ Utility software is a type of system software

that is needed to help maintain a computer computer would not function
system. properly.
❖ A basic set of utility programs is often
supplied with the OS, most of which help to ❖ Utility software is required to
manage files and their associated storage manage the allocation of computer
devices. memory in order to improve the
❖ However, users can sometimes feel the computer’s performance and so
need to get additional utilities which that users cancustomise the
perhaps the OS does not possess.
appearance of their desktop.
❖ Much of the work a computer does
revolves around the use of files of data so it ❖.
is no surprise that it needs a number of
 ❖Each surface is divided into
Utility Software several tracks and each track is
divided into sectors.
❖The tracks are in the same
•Types of utility software position on each disk.
•The structure of hard disk storage
❖The track on the top platter
Chapter 2

❖ A hard-disk drive consists of several platters

(individual disks) with each side (surface) of together with the tracks exactly
the platter (top and bottom) having its own below it, form a cylinder.
read–write head.
❖ The read–write heads move across the ❖Data is written to the platters
platters, floating on a film of air and, when starting with the outside track.
they stop, they either read data from or
write data to the surface. ❖ When a cylinder has been filled
❖ They never touch the disk surface and each with data, the read–write heads
surface is used to store data. move toward the centre of the
❖ The platters are stacked one above the disk.
other and spin together at the same speed.
 Utility Software
• Types of utility software
Chapter 2

• The structure of hard disk storage

• They write data on each of the second tracks
until the second cylinder is full.
• The diagram just shows one track out of the
many that would be on the disk.
• There are normally 512 bytes of data in a
sector.
• Operating systems normally deal with data
in blocks. A block can consist of one, two,
four, eight or more sectors.
• .
 Utility Software
❖ Low-level formatting prepares the actual
structure of the disk by dividing the disk into
cylinders and tracks and then dividing the
•Types of utility software tracks into sectors.
•Formatting ❖ This type of formatting is usually carried out by
❖ Disk formatting is the configuring of a manufacturers rather than individual users.
Chapter 2

data storage medium such as a hard disk ❖ There are at least two drawbacks:
or SSD for initial use.
❖ after erasing all the files, it would be
❖ It can be performed on a disk that almost impossible to restore them
already has files on it, but all those files
would be erased. ❖ if done repeatedly, it would shorten the
life of the medium.
❖ Disk formatting is usually carried out on
a new disk or on an existing disk if a new ❖ When high-level formatting is carried out, it
OS has to be installed. does not permanently erase data files but
deletes the pointers on the disk that tell the
❖ There are two levels of formatting: low- OS where to find them.
level formatting and high-level
formatting.
 Utility Software
❖ Unlike low-level formatting, the files
are retrievable. One benefit of disk
•Types of utility software formatting is that it can remove
•Formatting
viruses.
•Disk defragmentation
Chapter 2

❖ high-level formatting is carried out, it

does not permanently erase data files ❖ Defragmentation software is used to
but deletes the pointers on the disk that
tell the OS where to find them. organise the data on the disk by
moving the data blocks around to
❖ These pointers are in a File Allocation
Table which is stored on the disk and bring all the parts of a file together so
contains where the file starts and the they are contiguous.
length of the file.
❖ As a result, data retrieval is made
❖ High-level formatting is typically done to easier and quicker.
erase the hard disk and reinstall the OS
back onto the disk drive.
 Utility Software
❖ It can also attempt to keep smaller
files which belong in the same folder
•Types of utility software or directory together by reorganising
•Disk defragmentation other files.
❖ With fragmented files it takes longer for •Data compression
Chapter 2

the read–write heads to move over the

surfaces to find all the different ❖ Data compression is the modifying of
fragments of files than if the data is held data so that it occupies less storage
in sequence.
space on a disk.
❖ In addition, the software provides
additional areas of free space and more ❖ It can be lossless or lossy.
storage capacity.
❖ Sometimes it is impossible to bring all ❖ Lossless compression is where, after
the blocks of data belonging to a file compression, the file is converted
together, but the software will move as back into its original state, without
many blocks together as possible
the loss of a single bit (binary digit) of
data.
 Utility Software
•Types of utility software ❖ Lossy compression permanently deletes
data bits that are unnecessary, such as the
•Data compression
background in a frame of a video which
Chapter 2

❖ When the lossless compression software might not change over several frames.
sees a repeated sequence of bits it replaces
❖ Lossy compression is commonly used with
the repeated sequences with a special
images and sound, where the loss of some
character which indicates what is being
repeated and how many times. data bits would have little effect.
❖ An advantage of data compression is that it
❖ This type of compression is normally used
means data can be transmitted more
with spreadsheets, databases and word-
quickly over a network or the internet
processed files,
❖ where the loss of just one bit could change
the meaning completely
 Utility Software
❖ There are disadvantages however,
such as the fact that data
•Types of utility software compression software uses a lot of
computer memory during the
•Data compression compression process.
Chapter 2

❖ Another advantage is that it saves ❖ Another disadvantage is that the

storage space on a disk or SSD. process of loading or opening a
❖ Consequently, administrators spend compressed file takes a lot longer
less money and less time on storage. than opening the original.
❖ It also allows the streaming of high ❖ Also, lossy compression causes a
definition (HD) videos which would slight lowering of the quality of the
ordinarily occupy a great deal of resulting sound and video files.
bandwidth and memory.
 Utility Software
•Types of utility software ❖ Most back-up software allows different
types of back-up, not just a full back-up.
Chapter 2

•Back-up
❖ Back-up software is a program that is used to ❖ An incremental back-up is one where only
keep copies of files from a computer or copy the data that has been added or changed
the content of a server’s backing storage. since a specific date and time is backed up.
❖ The back-up is an exact duplicate of the files. ❖ Back-ups can take a long time to carry out
and require a certain amount of storage
❖ It can be used for restoring the original files, space,
should the original files become corrupted or
deleted, accidentally or deliberately. ❖ However, this can lead to difficulties when
❖ Backup software allows the user to select the restoring what may well be several back-
time and type of back-up they want and how ups.
regularly the back-up is to take place.
 Utility Software

•Types of utility software •Anti-virus

Chapter 2

❖ anti-virus software can be a program or set of

❖ It can identify the start and end of programs whose function is to detect and
file markers on the disk and reset remove viruses.
the pointers accordingly. ❖ It monitors a computer in a bid to prevent
❖ If, however, data has already attacks from many types of malware
(malicious software) such as viruses, worms,
overwritten part of the file it will be Trojan horses, adware and many more.
extremely difficult, if not impossible,
❖ It is important to keep anti-virus software up
to retrieve any of the data from the to date because new viruses and other types
file. of malware appear at frequent intervals and
older versions of anti-virus will not detect
these.
 Utility Software
•Types of utility software
❖ There are different methods employed
by the anti-virus software to detect
Chapter 2

viruses.
❖ One such method is signature-based
detection, which is based on recognising
existing viruse and heuristic-based
detection method, sometimes referred
to as static heuristic, was devised
whereby a program is decompiled
❖ Behavioural-based malware detection,
sometimes referred to as the dynamic
heuristic method, looks for abnormal or
suspicious behaviour,
 Custom-written software and off-the-shelf
software
❖ There are reasons why it would want
to do this.
•Custom-written software ❖ For example, it may need databases
❖ This is software which has to be to be designed which require
specialist programming skills.
Chapter 2

specially written for a particular task

and is developed for a specific ❖ It may also need a website to be
company or business. created which it wants to have
❖ If the company with the new tailored to its own needs.
computer system is a large company, ❖ Once the software is written, the
it might want to employ a company will own it and may be able
programmer to write software to sell it to other companies.
specifically to solve a particular
problem or provide for a specific
need.
 Custom-written software and off-the-shelf
software
❖ Such programs may provide features
that many users want, such as text
•Off-the-shelf software editing, accounting functions and
❖ This is software which already exists and
mail merge.
is available straight away, ready for use. ❖ The drawback is that in trying to cater
Chapter 2

❖ If the company with a new computer for a wide range of users, there may
system is a smaller company, it may turn be a substantial number of features
to one of the large software companies that the purchasing company does
that already produce business software
packages, not need, such as trigonometric
functions or engineering functions.
❖ for example invoicing software,
accounting software, payroll software
and other programs which are available
to all businesses, organisations and the
general public.
 Advantages and disadvantages Custom-
written
Advantages software
of custom-written and off-the-shelf
software softwaresoftware
Disadvantages of custom-written
Custom-written software is designed The customer will have to pay the programmers
specifically for the task and will meet all the to write the programs which have to be written
customer’s requirements. specifically for the task and this will cost more
Chapter 2

It will not need to be adapted, unlike off-the- than if they were buying off-the-shelf software.
shelf software, which may be difficult to adapt
to the particular use the customer requires.
If the software does not quite meet what the Because there will only be one programmer or
customer wants, alterations to the software can a small team of programmers, customers may
be find it difficult to get support if anything goes
made by the programmer who is readily wrong. With off-the-shelf software, there are
available. likely to be internet forums or websites to help
users, as well as telephone helplines with
operators who will be experienced with all sorts
of queries other customers have made.
 Advantages and disadvantages Custom-
written
Advantages software
of custom-written and off-the-shelf
software softwaresoftware
Disadvantages of custom-written
Off-the-shelf software may have some features It can take a long time to develop the software
which are not necessary for the customer, but since the programmers will be starting from
custom-written software will not have any scratch, whereas off-the-shelf software is
Chapter 2

unnecessary features. Off-the-shelf software available immediately because it has already

may not have all the functions the customer been written.
needs, but the programmer will make sure
these are included in custom-written software.
The programmers will know what the current There may be more bugs in custom-written
computer system is and will be able to make software as it may not have been tested as
sure that the software is compatible with it, thoroughly. Off-the-shelf software is usually
unlike off-the-shelf software which may not tested rigorously so it is highly unlikely that
necessarily be compatible with the hardware or there will be any bugs in it and it will have
operating system currently being used. been used many times already, so any bugs that
were present will have been discovered and
removed.
 Advantages and disadvantages Custom-
written
Advantages software
of custom-written and off-the-shelf
software softwaresoftware
Disadvantages of custom-written
The customer will own the copyright of the
custom written software and so be able to sell
it to others and have extra income. With off-
Chapter 2

the-shelf software even if they adapt it,

customers cannot sell it as this would infringe
the software company’s copyright.
 User interfaces
❖ users should be able to predict what
will happen if they take a certain
❖ A user interface is the means by which action, for example if a button on a
the computer system interacts with the user interface looks like a button in
user. real life (such as the on/off button on
Chapter 2

❖ It enables the user, with the help of a computer),

input devices, to communicate with the
computer and then, via the OS, ❖ a user should be able to press it and
communicate with a piece of software or get a response.
any output device.
❖ The four major interfaces are the
❖ A good user interface is one which
allows the user to perform thi ❖ command line interface,
communication without encountering ❖ graphical user interface,
any problems; ❖ dialogue interface and
❖ it needs to be user-friendly It should also gesture-based interface.
be intuitive
 User interfaces
❖ advanced users.
❖ Most individuals use a graphical user
•Command line interface interface (GUI) when communicating
❖ The command line interface (CLI) is a with their computers.
means of interacting with a computer
Chapter 2

using commands in the form of ❖ However, even within a GUI it is still

successive lines of text. possible to access a CLI.
❖ Normally, a prompt appears on the
screen to which the user responds by
typing a command.
❖ The output from the computer could be
to produce a list or take some other
action
❖ This type of user interface is rarely used
today except by software developers,
system administrators and more
 •Graphical user interface User interfaces
• A user can double-click on an icon,
• There was a need for a less inefficient means which could represent a file, a folder
of communicating with the computer, which
resulted in the creation of the GUI. or an application, and open it.
• Instead of typing in commands, the GUI used • A right click on a two-button mouse
windows, icons, menus and pointers, opens a menu.
Chapter 2

collectively known as a ‘WIMP’ interface, to

carry out commands, such as • By moving the mouse, the pointer
• opening, deleting, and moving files. can be moved up and down through
the menu and then an option can be
• Technically speaking, a WIMP interface is selected by clicking on it.
only a subset of GUI and requires input
devices such as a keyboard and mouse,
whereas other types of GUI use different
input devices such as a touchscreen.
 •Dialogue interface User interfaces
• The computer or device responds
with spoken words after the required
❖ A dialogue interface allows a user to
communicate with a computer or device using text has been converted into speech.
their voice. • It requires the device to learn the
❖ The computer is able to use speech- way the speaker talks by asking the
recognition software to convert the spoken user to repeat certain sentences until
Chapter 2

word into commands it can understand.

it has ‘learnt’ the way they speak.
❖ Many cars have such a system whereby the
driver is able to control their phone or radio • It can, however, become quite
without touching them. capable of understanding simple
❖ Laptops and PCs often come with voice control commands.
these days.
• Noise in the background while the
❖ The user is able to load and run software
packages and files by speaking into a user is speaking and the ability to
microphone and saying the commands. recognize only a limited vocabulary
can cause problems.
 •Gesture-based interface User interfaces
❖ Examples of these are the pointing of
a finger, nodding the head, or a wave
❖ A gesture-based interface is designed to of the hand.
interpret human gestures and convert these
into commands. ❖ These types of gestures can be
❖ Gestures can be made with any part of the understood by a computer.
Chapter 2

body, but it is usually the face or hand that ❖ First of all, a camera in conjunction
makes the gestures the computer can with an infrared sensor detects the
interpret.
movements being made in front of it.
❖ An example of where this type of interface is
used is in ‘smart’ homes where a gesture can ❖ The computer, using a special type of
turn on the lights, for example. software, searches through all the
gestures it has stored in a database to
❖ In this area of IT, a gesture can be said to be
any physical movement, large or small, that match it with the input.
can be interpreted by a computer. ❖ Each stored gesture is linked to a
specific command which is then
executed after the gesture has been
matched.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
different
❖ Users with disabilities may not be able to types
❖ Despite this potential advantage of a
hold a mouse or click it, so a GUI may not dialogue interface, if there is any
be suitable for them. They may of user
not be interface
background noise when the user is
able to type using a keyboard, so using a speaking, the computer might
CLI would also be inappropriate. They may misunderstand what is being said,
not be able to control the movement of which is not a problem when using
Chapter 2

their limbs accurately, so a gesture-based the other types of interface.

interface would be unsuitable. In this
instance, then, a dialogue interface would
be the best type of interface for them to
use, although people with different
disabilities may favour a different type of
user interface.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
❖ Some types of user interface different
would be types ❖ In terms of accuracy, a GUI is better
inappropriate for hygienic reasons. If a user than gesture-based or dialogue
was, for example, involved in theof
fooduser
service interface
interfaces. A gesture may not point
industry, then touching a mouse, keyboard or exactly at an icon whereas a mouse
touchscreen may be inadvisable while can be more accurately controlled,
working, so a GUI or CLI would not be suitable and voice inputs can be
Chapter 2

for them. However, they would be able to

make gestures and speak, so a gesture-based misunderstood by the speech
or dialogue interface would be a sensible recognition software.
choice for them. ❖ CLIs and, to an extent, dialogue
❖ On the other hand, certain gestures could be interfaces require the user to learn a
misunderstood by the computer, particularly if lot of commands, whereas GUIs and
the user has made them without realising, and gesture-based interfaces are more
some gestures in certain cultures might be user-friendly and reasonably
judged to be inappropriate.
intuitive.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
❖ However, CLIs tend not to different
change over types ❖ Gesture-based and dialogue
time and once a user is familiar with one, interfaces also tend to be more
of touser
they do not have to relearn how use a interface
expensive to develop than CLIs or
changed version. GUIs do tend to develop even GUIs.
and the user has to learn how to use the ❖ Some situations require the use of
new version, which can take time. dialogue interfaces for safety
Chapter 2

❖ Generally, the more advanced the type of reasons. A driver in a vehicle may
interface, and this not only means GUIs wish to play a particular piece of
but also includes gesture-based and music using their in-car
dialogue interfaces, the faster the entertainment system. To select it
processing is and the greater the storage using a GUI or a gesture would
space required to store the interface require taking a hand off the steering
software compared with a CLI. wheel, which could be dangerous,
whereas using their voice through a
dialogue interface would not.
 Examination-style questions
1. Mainframe computer manufacturers often
refer to RAS. Explain what is meant by the
term ‘RAS’. [3]
2. Explain how high-level language is translated
to run on different computer systems. [5]
3. Describe the terms: [4]
Chapter 2

a) a sector
b) b block
c) c track
d) d c ylinder.
4. Explain what is meant by custom-written
software. [3]
5. Describe the features of a command line
interface. [4]