Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles-

A new storage and transportation system for

Smart Grid
Tushar M wadghule#1
MET’s Institute of Technology – Polytechnic, Bhujbal Knowledge City, Adgaon, Nasik, Maharashtra, India.
#1#3
*2
Matoshri college of Engineering and Research Centre, Nashik, Maharashtra, India
1
[email protected]

I. INTRODUCATION
Abstract-- Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) will be an
integral part of smart grids in the near future. Due to excessive usage of fuels and the continuously
Reduction in green house gas emissions, increase in oil depleting amount of these resources, reduction in green
prices and dependency on foreign oil are major house gas emissions, increase in oil prices and dependency
incentives to the development and deployment of Plug- on foreign oil a newer option has emerged in the past few
in hybrid electric vehicles. As fossil fuels prices climb years, the plug in HEV (PHEV). The only difference
higher, the search for alternative modes of between a standard hybrid and a PHEV is an increase in the
transportation intensifies. Several solutions have been capacity of the battery pack, a connection to charge from an
proposed: increase fuel economy of current vehicles, electrical outlet, and modifications to the power electronics.
expand use of ethanol, enlarge the current hybrid PHEVs have a new advantage of running in all-electric-
electrical vehicle fleet, create a hydrogen fuel cell mode for longer distances, typically 30-60 miles, and could
vehicle, or create a more effective electric vehicle. One become a new source of energy storage for the bulk power
other possible solution is the transformation of current grid. HEVs charge their batteries from the car’s internal
hybrid electric vehicles into larger capacity plug-in combustion engine or regenerative breaking and deplete
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). PEVs are already their energy while the car is stationary or during
growing in popularity as a low emission mode of acceleration. This method is referred to as charge-
transport versus conventional petroleum based vehicles. sustaining since the batteries will maintain a set state of
The plug-in hybrid electric vehicle fleet is charge, typically 70% - 80%. The major change in a PHEV
expected to increase the base electric load and add is the use of a charge-depleting strategy where the car
constraints on the reliable operation of a power system. batteries will be steadily used while driving to maximize
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles offer the power grid a fuel efficiency and the state of charge will decrease over
flexible load, known as vehicle to grid mode of time, typically as low as 30%. The car will also be
operation, capable of contributing to power system connected to the power-grid while not in use to provide
operations by supplying ancillary services. Pluggable energy to the batteries from the grid and/or provide support
hybrids provide a completely new way to store mass to the grid in emergency situations. During PHEV charging
amounts of energy from the power grid. With larger time, the plug-in vehicle more than doubles the average
battery storage, the PHEV has the ability to run in all- household load. Hence, for PHEVs, a major concern is the
electric mode for Commuters, switch to conventional impact on the grid, since they can be plugged in for
gasoline engine for longer trips, and provide support to charging at any point in the distribution network regardless
the power grid needed in emergency situations. This of time. The PHEV will be always close to the energy
paper describes the economic implication of charging demand, and efficiency of stored energy in EV´s batteries is
the vehicle or sending power back to the utility in brief, potentially significantly higher than the energy stored in
advantage of PHEV for grid, impact of PHEV on grid. hydrogen and in fuel cells hydrogen cars. Moreover the
A new parking facility as an energy exchange station hydrogen cars have just limited capacity to provide
called “Smart Garage” and Smart Metering for PHEV ancillary services to the grid in comparison to EV.
is also discussed.

Key word- Plug in hybrid vehicle, Hybrid electric vehicle,

smart grid, vehicle to grid, Ancillary Services, Smart
garage, Demand side management, Outage management.
 II. THE TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES III. VALLEY FILLING APPROACH

In common usage, electric vehicle refers to an automotive Electric infrastructure is designed to meet the electricity
vehicle in which the propulsion system converts electrical demands most of the times. The system reaches its
energy stored chemically in a battery or other power source maximum capacity only 5% of the time in the year. If this
into mechanical energy to move the vehicle. There are three system is utilized optimally it can provide enough power if
types of electric vehicles in current market: battery electric 73% of the nation’s vehicles are to be replaced by their
vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel-cell electric plug in counterparts (PHEVs). In order to achieve this
vehicles. target Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has
put forth the concept of Valley Filling. The various plant
A. Battery electric vehicles type categories are the nuclear plants, Coal fuelled plants,
Battery vehicles store energy electrochemically in the Natural gas combined and conventional steam plant,
batteries, with lead-acid currently cheapest but with nickel conventional hydro power plants, renewable energy
metal-hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion, and lithium-metal generation plants and the peaking plants. These plants are
polymer batteries becoming more competitive due to longer used at various points depending on the demand. Nuclear
cycle life, smaller size and lower weight. Operationally, power plants are used as a base load plant while coal
they plug in to charge their batteries and unplug to drive. fuelled plants have capabilities to ramp up and down
Battery vehicles must have grid connections for charging, generation. The difference between the above methods for
so the incremental costs and operational adjustments to add generating the load requirements and the capacity of the
V2G are minimal. Because of the increased duty cycle, grid can be utilized for charging the PHEVs. Figure 1 show
electric-vehicle batteries can deliver 85% of their charge the existing generation by the plants as well as the capacity
without damaging the batteries or shortening their useful of the system.
life.

B. Hybrid electric vehicles

A hybrid has one power system with large energy storage

and a second with high power output and discharge-
recharge capability— for acceleration and regenerative
braking. Contemporary hybrid vehicles use an internal
combustion (IC) engine whose shaft drives a generator. A
small battery buffers the generator and absorbs regenerative
braking. The battery and generator power one or more
electric motors that drive the wheels; possibly in
conjunction with direct shaft power from the IC engine. A
hybrid electric vehicle has more than one source of power.
The first hybrid vehicle is credited to an Italian, Count
Felix Carli. In 1894, Carli constructed an electric-powered
tricycle that had a system of rubber springs which could
release a short burst of additional power when needed.
Fig.1 Valley filling concept showing margins between
C. Fuel- cell electric vehicles installed system capacity and system load. It also shows various fuel
generation margins
In this electrochemical device, the reaction between a fuel,
such as hydrogen, and an oxidant, such as oxygen or air,
converts the chemical energy of the fuel directly into IV. VEHICLE TO GRID (V2G) CONCEPT
electrical energy. The fuel cell is not a battery and does not
store energy, although the fuel cell also has two electrodes In the vehicle to grid (V2G) concept, parked PHEVs when
separated by an electrolyte. When fuel cells are the primary plugged in can either be charged or can provide power to
power source in a hybrid vehicle, batteries provide the grid. The vehicle can provide power to the Grid by
secondary power. Fuel cells do not provide immediate charging the battery whenever the brake is applied and later
output during a cold start. Until the fuel cells reach providing this power to the Grid during the peak times.
operating temperature, which may take about 5min, a Two cases can be considered in which (i) charging or
battery pack supplies the power for initial start-up and supplying power to the grid shall take place only once or
vehicle movement. (ii) This cycle can take place any number of times. Case (i)
would result in the increase in the net power while in case
(ii) the net profit would increase, but the net power would
decrease because of reduction in efficiency due to multiple
charging and discharging cycles. This happens because the
efficiency drops at the charger (which charges the battery
of the vehicle) as well as the inverter (which provides the
power to the grid). To implement such a concept the design
of the Energy Storage Unit (ESU) would be a very
important part as it would improve overall quality,
efficiency, reliability, cost effectiveness, and flexibility of Table 1.PHEV battery requirement
the electric utility system. Energy Storage Units (ESUs)
connected to the power grid can mitigate this problem this A. Nickel Metal Hybrid Battery
helps improve the efficiency and reliability of the power
grid and helps stabilize the power generation rate to a more A five cars field test, performed by EPRI, have proven that
cost effective value. Moreover, ESUs can be employed to Nickel Metal Hybrid (NiMH) batteries lifetimes exceed
store energy produced by intermittent sources like solar and five years and are expected to meet the 130,000 – 150,000
wind energy, to be used during peak demand hours. ESUs mile vehicle life time requirements due to improvements in
used in the power grid have been stationary units such as charge acceptance and retention at high temperatures.
batteries, flywheels and ultra capacitors. For V2G however, NiMH technologies still faces significant
implementation, three elements are required: 1) power challenges before reaching large scale deployment due to
connection for electrical energy flow from vehicle to grid, the battery relatively large weight and volume and
2) control or logical connection, needed for the grid insufficient power/energy performance compared with
operator to determine available capacity, request ancillary alternative solutions.
services or power from the vehicle, and to meter the result,
and 3) precision certified metering on board the vehicle. B. Lithium Ion Battery
For fuelled vehicles (fuel cell and hybrid), a fourth element,
a connection for gaseous fuel (natural gas or hydrogen), For the same specifications, Li-Ion batteries are
could be added so that on board fuel is not depleted. In considerably lighter than NiMH ones. But, although Li-Ion
relation to V2G, the plug-in hybrid has a grid connection batteries meet the requirements of PHEV batteries, deep
for its transportation function and a large enough battery to cycling capabilities of these batteries are yet to be proven.
provide V2G from the battery alone. The plug-in hybrid The major challenges with Li-Ion batteries are high capital
can provide V2G either as a battery vehicle (that is, not cost, energy and temperature management, and, at this
using the IC engine when doing V2G), or as a motor- stage of development, absence of field validation data
generator (using fuel while parked to generate V2G proving deep cycle capabilities.
electricity). All these fuel cell vehicle, Hybrid vehicle and
plug in hybrid electric vehicle can generate clean AC power There are different levels of battery chargers depending on
at power levels from10kW to 200kW. When connections the application and the connection. Charger types include
are added to allow this electricity to flow from cars to residential charger (typically single-phase or phase-to-
power grid, we call it "vehicle to grid", or V2G. The V2G phase) and rapid charger. The latter allows unidirectional
vehicles for distributed energy applications can provide power flow and will not be discussed further in this work.
voltage and frequency regulation, spinning reserves, and Table.2 displays operating electrical range of different
electrical demand side management. If used in large types of PHEV battery chargers. For residential charger
numbers, V2G vehicles have the potential to absorb excess applications, full charge is to be achieved within 6 hours.
electricity produced by renewable sources, such as wind However, for higher energy capacity batteries, longer
power, when the grid is operated at low load conditions. periods may be required. The charger must be safe,
Studies show that V2G vehicles could be a significant convenient and efficient. Table 3. Summarizes the
enabling factor for increased penetration of wind energy. residential charger requirements. Operational requirements
include battery temperature management, cooling,
V. PHEV battery technology and battery converter control, communication means, diagnostic
Charger requirement capabilities, vehicle lifetime durability and a user friendly
interface.
Energy storage capacity of current PHEV batteries may fall
in the range of 15-20 kWh for a 60 km all electric driving
range. PHEV batteries are required to have high power
capability and high energy density. Typical battery
requirements for PHEV applications are shown in Table 1
 also be charged using regenerative braking of the large
motor/generators. There is no provision to charge the
batteries externally.

Table2. Different Levels of PHEV Battery Chargers

Fig.2 Typical EV configuration

Table3. Residential Charger Electrical Requirement

VI.PHEV and HEV configuration

Recent studies show that if PHEVs replace one-half of all

vehicles on the road by 2050, only an 8% increase in
electricity generation (4% increases in capacity) will be Fig.3 Typical HEV configuration
required. Most of the electric vehicles that are of plug-in
type, utilize on-board battery chargers to recharge the
batteries using utility power. The simplest form of a plug-in
electric vehicle is shown in Fig.2 this configuration consists
of a battery system and a motor controller that provides
power to the motor, which in turn supplies power to the
wheels for traction. Many of today’s EVs use a permanent
magnet electric motor that can also act as a generator to
recharge the batteries when the brakes are applied. During
regenerative braking, the motor acts as a generator that
provides power back to the batteries and in the Process Fig.4 Typical HEV configuration
slows down the vehicle. Friction brakes are used when the
vehicle must be stopped quickly or if the batteries are at full
charge. The components that make up a typical HEV For plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, batteries are charged
include a battery pack, motor controller, motor/generator, when they are not being driven. This is normally
internal combustion engine, and transmission and driveline accomplished through a utility connected AC-DC converter
components. The primary power electronics include a DC- to obtain DC power from the grid. The batteries can also be
AC motor controller which provides three-phase power to a charged directly from a solar resource using a DC-DC
permanent magnet motor. The typical HEV is shown in converter or from a wind source using an AC-DC
fig.3 design uses two permanent magnet motors/generator, converter. Energy flow is unidirectional as power is taken
one of 10kW and the other of 50kW. The battery is from the utility to charge the battery pack. The battery
connected to a booster and inverter before feeding to the voltage for most converted PHEVs are maintained at the
motor/generators. The power electronics are bidirectional same level as the original design (typically 200-500 VDC)
and used for both charging the battery and powering the and battery modules are added in parallel to increase the
motors. The motor/generators and gasoline engine feed into energy capacity of the battery pack, thus allowing the
a planetary gear set. The system operates in a continuously electric motor to run more often than the original HEV
variable transmission (CVT) mode where the gear ratio is design. Some of the PHEV conversion companies include:
determined by the power transfer between the battery, CalCars Energy CS, Hymotion, Electrovaya, and Hybrids
motor/generators and gasoline engine. The batteries can Plus, and most of them use lithium batteries.
 components: energy efficiency (EE) and demand response
VII. BENEFITS OF USING (DR). EE is designed to reduce electricity consumption
PHEV’S IN POWER SYSTEM during all hours of the year; DR is designed to change
onsite demand for energy in intervals and associated timing
It is expected that V2B operation will improve the of electric demand by transmitting changes in prices, load
reliability of the distribution system, provide extra control signals or other incentives to end-users to reflect
economic benefits to the vehicle owners, and reduce the existing production and delivery costs. By cooperative
home or building electricity purchase cost based on the activities between the utility and its customers to utilize
demand side management (DSM) and outage management DSM, it will provide the benefits to the customer, utility,
(OM) programs with customer incentives. and society as a whole, which is summarized in Table1

Benefits of operating PHEV as distributed storage-

A. Electric Utility Benefits

The stored battery energy can be used to serve a portion of

the local demand on a feeder thus contributing to peak
shaving. Secondary advantages of peak shaving include
reducing transmission congestion, line losses, delay
transmission investments and reduce stressed operation of a Table2.DSM benefits for customer utility and society.
power system. In a deregulated market, load serving
entities purchase electric energy through long-term In the V2B option, the owners will plug in their vehicles
contracts with generation companies and short-run spot during the day at their final destination for a given time
electricity markets. During periods of high demand or peak frame. As an example, this may be either at their workplace
load periods, the electricity prices reach their highest. Peak (central business district) or at the place of their study
shaving applications of PHEV fleet reduces the cost of (university). The destinations, either parking lots or parking
electricity during peak periods. The avoided electricity garages, are assumed to be equipped with a bi-directional
purchase could be used to develop incentive programs to charger and controller. The parking facility should allow
promote the purchase of PHEV and their use for grid either charge or discharge mode for the car batteries when
support applications. PHEVs offer the power system with a necessary. The idea is that the parking facility can offer an
flexible controllable load and could provide load aggregation service for charging the batteries when the
levelization during off-peak periods. building demand is lower than its peak load and discharge
the batteries to partially supply the building to reduce the
B. Ancillary Services peak demand during a high demand. This mode will be
considered as DSM by V2B. Considering the electricity
The ability of PHEV to provide ancillary services leads to a rate when the vehicle batteries were charged is lower than
more stable operation of the power system, a reduction in when the batteries are discharged, the battery storage may
the operation of protection relays and possibly a reduction be used to offset high cost during the peak demand.
of the impact of some contingencies. Although these
services can be attributed to improving social welfare, the B. Outage Management (OM)
extended service of demand will increase the yearly load
payment. PHEV can either be deployed as a power supply Another important benefit of V2B is using the battery
or as a load in order to regulate the frequency. energy storage in BEVs/PHEVs as an emergency back-up
power for the commercial facility/building, which increases
the reliability of the power supply for that load An outage
Benefits of operating PHEV for vehicle owners- is typically caused by several unplanned events and a
timely detection and mitigation of such situations is a real
A. Demand Side Management (DSM) concern for the utility. Outage management system helps
the operators to locate an outage, repair the damage and
For electric utility, DSM is defined as “the planning, restore the service. Outage management must be performed
implementation, and monitoring of distribution network very quickly to reduce outage time. Recently completed
utility activities designed to influence customer use of project proposes an optimal fault location scheme which
electricity in ways that will produce desired changes in the will help the operator to find the faulted section very
load shape”, which includes peak clipping, valley filling, quickly. In this paper we will focus mainly on the
load shifting, strategic conservation, strategic load growth, restoration strategy under an outage.
and flexible load shape [8]. However, for utility end-user
(customer), DSM is often understood to include two
 PHEV drivers have two options: proceed to final
a) Outage beyond the distribution system: destination directly or park at the smart garage and walk to
the destination along walking links. Drivers in
These may be caused by generator failure, fault in transportation network select parking garage based on the
transmission line or substation busbar. Usually spinning location and financial incentives (less parking fee), which
reserves are kept for these circumstances. PHEVs can be a can be modelled as traffic assignment problem. Demand of
candidate solution for spinning reserves (as the traditional smart garage (number of parked BEVs/PHEVs) calculated
fastest acting spinning reserve generators are highly costly from the traffic assignment problem would vary by the
while PHEV qualifies for fast response with lesser cost). location and incentive of the smart garage.

b) Outage in distribution system:

These may be caused by fault inside the distribution system

and can be mitigated by precise spatial adjustment of
PHEV generation that may be fed locally during and after
outage. To propose the restoration strategy where PHEV is
used to mitigate an outage condition, we need to correlate
the information about events (where the fault is located and
how the impact will propagate) and the location of the
storage. The restoration strategy can be executed in the
following steps:

1) Detect a fault;
2) Estimate the location of the fault;
3) Analyze the amount of generation required and the
availability of BEV/PHEV that can provide an alternative
generation support in the vicinity of the faulted area until Fig.5 Simple transportation with Smart Garage
the faulted section is repaired.

C. Peak power

Peak power is typically generated by power plants that can

be switched on for short periods. Since peak power is
typically needed only a few hundred hours per year, it is
economically sensible to draw on generators that are low in
capital cost, even if each kWh generated is more expensive.
V2G peak power may be appropriate for this purpose. The
required duration of peaking units can be 3–5 h, which for
V2G is possible but difficult due to on-board storage
limitations. Vehicles could overcome this energy-storage
limit if the vehicles are aggregated, or if there were Fig.6 Demand of Smart Garage for the day
refuelling. Electric vehicles can afford power in peak
period while consume power in off-peak period. This action Electric power capacity of smart garage is estimated based
can reduce the difference between the maximum and on demand of smart garage. Demand of smart garage
minimum of the power load. building is not constant. Generally, the demand of smart
garage building during the day would be higher than during
VIII. Smart garage and charging Charging/Discharging the night, similar to the demand structure for a conventional
Infrastructure for PHEV garage as shown in Figure6. Due to the versatility, electric
power capacity needs to be defined in two parts: for
Commercial and public parking garages in a central periodic service and for continuous service as in Figure 6.
business district (CBD) provide thousands of parking The available electric power estimated based on the
spaces for commuters and visitors. After penetrating the demand of smart garage can be used for determining the
conventional vehicle market, owners of PHEVs will be support service that can be provided during outage
using these parking garages, which may provide an management and demand side management in vehicle-to-
aggregated service to act as an electric power source or building (V2B) mode.
storage. Fig.5 shows a simple transportation network with
smart garage building. As a smart garage is constructed,
 practice, it would be no difference for the DSOs which
IX. IMPACT OF PHEV ON THE DISTRIBUTION GRID technology is implemented, as they are allowed to have a
fair rate of return in a cost plus mechanism. With this
Uncoordinated charging of the batteries of PHEVs has a no mechanism, the DSOs are not strongly pushed towards the
negligible impact on the performance of the distribution use of the most efficient technologies. The tariffs and the
grid in terms of power losses and power quality. Both performance of the grid are more important in a price cap
power quality and power losses are represented in Table.3 mechanism. The realization is favourable if the smart
for three cases: without PHEVs, uncoordinated and metering system helps a significant deferral of grid
coordinated charging. The power quality is given as the investments compared to the enhancement of the grid.
average of 1000 samples of the maximum load, voltage
drop and line current for the IEEE 34-node test feeder XI. FUTURE SCOPE
during winter season for a penetration degree of 30%. The
power losses are the ratio of the power losses to the total PHEVs have the prospect of entering to the electrical grid,
load. With respect to uncoordinated charging, the but whether they ever do so in large numbers will depend in
coordination of the charging reduces the power losses. part on their relative economics compared with more
Power quality is improved to a level which is similar to the conventional transportation choices as well as their impact
case where no PHEVs are present. Because the extra loads on utility economics, which likely would affect the prices
for charging PHEVs remain in the case of coordinated charged for their fuel (plug-supplied electricity) and
charging, additional losses are still higher. The coordination arrangements made by utilities to accommodate their
of the charging can be done by a smart metering system. recharging. The economics for both the prospective vehicle
The distribution grid must be enforced to cope with the owner and the electric utility are promising and that more
increased loads and voltage drops caused by charging detailed analysis could more completely identify and
PHEVs if this coordination system is not applied. Both evaluate opportunities. Moreover, as volatile renewable
scenarios will introduce extra costs for the distribution power sources such as wind and solar enter the generation
system operators and eventually for the customers. mix, batteries of PHEVs have the potential to interact with
the grid as distributed storage to help maintain network
reliability and increase the capacity factors of these
renewable power sources.

XI.CONCLUSION

PHEV play a major and important role to integrate

transportation, power system and communication
Table3 .Power Quality and losses for Grid
infrastructure. PHEV allow customer to charge their
vehicle from grid as well as from renewable energy system
X. SMART GRID’S SMART METERING FOR PHEV
such as wind and solar which shows flexibility for
consumer. As a component of smart grid, it can provide
A smart metering system must be implemented to control
ancillary service (including spinning reserves and
the coordination and communication between the PHEVs
regulation) and peak power; PHEV are expected to
individually, the distribution system operator and the
significantly increase in numbers over the next few years.
transmission system operator (TSO). The vehicles could
From various aspects, the advantages, the scheme and the
also be grouped and represented by a fleet manager to
simulation modes, this paper reviews the contents of PHEV
communicate with the DSO and TSO. Smart metering will
and its influence, advantage, impact on the power system.
lead to opportunities to make PHEVs a controllable load, to
Future enabling technologies in the area include
apply the vehicle-to-grid concept and to combine PHEVs
communication between the vehicle and the energy
and renewable energy. This technology is available for
management centre bidirectional charging units and bi-
implementation, but capital investments by the utilities are
directional meters (on board or off board) , intelligent on
necessary. For the implementation of smart metering, also
board power management unit and intelligent energy
other incentives, such as real-time pricing and integration
management centre. All of the above technologies will be
of renewable energy, are important. Less grid enforcements
an integral part of the future vision of the smart grid.
are necessary with the coordination system. The maximum
load is lower because the vehicles are not charging if the
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