INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS

EE-218

1- INTRODUCTION
1.1 - Feedback Control.
1.2 - Levels of Control Engineering
1.3 - Process-Control Principles.

2- MAJOR SPECIFICATIONS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

2.1 - Introduction to Instrumentation.
2.2 - Units, Standard and Definitions.

3- MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURES.
3.1 - Pressure Principles
3.2 - Pressure Units
3.3 - Absolute Pressure and Gauge pressure.
3.4 - Methods of Pressure Measurement.

4- MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL.
4.1 - Methods of Level Measurement.

5- MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE.
5.1 - Units.
5.2 - Expansion Thermometers.
5.3 - Methods of Temperature Measurements.

6- MEASUREMENT OF FLOW.
6.1 - Units.
6.2 - Methods of Flow Measurements.

7- MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY.
7.1- Introduction.
7.2 - Methods of Viscosity Measurements.

8- MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY.

9- STUDY OF OTHER CONTROL COMPONENTS.
- Comparators and error detectors
- Transducers (Electric – Pneumatic and Electro-magnetic).
- Amplifiers (Electronic – Pneumatic and Hydraulic).
- Actuators (Pneumatic – Electric and Hydraulic).

10- LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS:

- Pressure measurement.
- Temperature measurement.
- Level measurement.
- Demonstration of different control components.

1- INTRODUCTION
1-1 Feed-back Control

Automation (
 ) is used in many engineering systems. It is used to improve
(  ) the operation of devices(  ) to do functions ( ) that can never
be done by human operator (  ) because of the required:
• Speed ( ), Precision ( ), Power ( ) and economical operation
(  !"# ).
Modern ($ ) automation started with the invention (% & ) of steam engine.
Example of early automatic control mechanism is the speed governor (
'), as
shown in figure (1.1).

Set point

Fuel (steam)
To engine

Figure (1.1) Speed control system.

Most early automatic control systems were self-operating ( ( !)), which means that
there is no external source of power (*+,& ) is required to drive (!"#) the
controller. A simple example is the float-controlled valve ( -) * -.
'
 ) to
control the water level, as shown in figure (1.2).
In modern controllers, we use electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic transmission (!) of
signals to control the process.


 Float Output

Valve

Supply

Figure (1.2) Water level control

• Advantages of Automation
a- Fuel saving “due to efficient operation” (!"# 01'  * 2-).
b- Reduced maintenance, because of efficient operation and timely warning of
defects. (!* 3-.  ( - !"# 01'    !+)
c- Personal saving, less number of individual ( 2 ) is required () 2-).
c- Improved environment ( !"# 4-), watch keeping in a comfortable
() control rooms.
e- Increased safety, the degree of human error is less
.!5 #. 6*& 5 3  
• Disadvantages
1- Increase first costs.(- 4' )
a- Extra components ( 7-').
b- More sophisticated ( &), reliable (!* !+) and expensive (,8)
components and devices (5) are employed (
& ).
c- Skilled persons ( !) are required to install (9') and test (.& ) the
components.
d- High degree of design work (! - ,+ 7 ).
2- Increased running costs(!"# 4  ), as extra () costs are
involved to provide(: 71;5)
a- Power required to operate the controls.
b- Staff education costs ((
+) 4'.
c- Extra maintenance (2; =  ) may be required.

/
1.2 Levels of Control Engineering

Application of control engineering in marine field has increased steadily (  7 

) during the last few years. The levels vary between very simple system to most
complicated ()) and sophisticated systems ( &5). These levels are:

1- Centralized (') instrumentation in the engine room. (Display)

2- Data logging and alarm systems (ON -OFF Control)
1- Remote automatic control.
4 - Computer application.

1.2.1 Centralized Instrumentation in the Engine Room.

Initially ( .) instruments were distributed ( ?-
) all around the engine
room. Watch keeping engineers (- ,), in addition to attending (  - ) the
maneuvering platform (- =$5) had to do a periodic round (--) to check the
operation of various machinery (1+& 7 ) ).
1.2.2 Data Logging and Alarm Systems.
The next logic step is to put these instruments in a separate air conditioned control
room (1'
' 28).
The system provides (:):-
• Centralized display.
• Recoding.
• Alarming.
• Remote control.
Important variable ( 7 " ) such as temperature, pressure, level etc. are
scanned and monitored (= - @&
). Also remote control of the maneuvering
valve (-
 ) may be provided ( ' ).
ON -OFF normal operation is indicated by an alarm system which gives visual and
audible (-- 0) signal in the important parts of the ship such as the bridge,
control room, engineer's accommodation (# '5 ), etc…
1.2.3 Automatic Control
Fully automated engine rooms are developed (7-*) to reduce (!+) the number of
crew. In a so called “unmanned watch". The night watches are completely unattended.
In the day work the crew carries the maintenance work. The crew is considered (.))
as stand-by (,* ) in case of an emergency (A -*+).

>
1.2.4 Computer System for Ship Applications (
)
A ship may be provided with computer, which performs (9
-) many functions
such as:-
- Automatic control of the engine room.
- Navigation (. ).
- Cargo handling (# !- )(load master).
- Ship management…(1   )..etc.

1.3 Process-Control Principles (Johnson)

In process control, the basic objective ( ,0 D" ) is to regulate(

) the value
of some quantity. To regulate means to maintain (,+2 ) that quantity at a desired
value ( ) regardless of external influences (& 7 $   D".). The
desired value is called the setpiont (.-+*  ).
The control process may be manual control or automatic control.

1.3.1 Manual Control (

  )

Consider the liquid level control process shows in figure (1.3).

The objective is to regulate the level at a desired value, the set point H. the level, is
called the controlled variable.
The main parts of the process are:-
- A tank with sight glass S ( .).
- A valve to change the output liquid flow (!0 :2) by the human.

Qin

Sight glass ( . )

h
H

Qout

Figure (1.3) Manual level control

B
 The human measures the actual level h in the sight glass and compares () it with

the set point H. if h > H, the human opens the valve to increase the output flow Qo, the
water level h lowers till (,) h =H. If h < H, the human closes the valve to decrease

the output flow Qo, and allow the level h to rise till h =H. So by continuous monitoring
( . ) of the sight glass the human can bring (!) ?*) the water level h to

the set point H.

1.3.2 Automatic Control

To provide automatic control (,
' (1), the system is modified (@-*
) as

shown in figure (1.4), the human is replaced by (F+ !) the following devices:-

- Sensor: To measure the water level and generates (,*)) a signal S that represents

( .) , ) that level.

- Controller: It compares the set point H with the actual level h and generates a control
signal u to change the valve opening via an actuator.
- Actuator: Is connected to the valve by a mechanical link.

Qin
Sensor Controller

h Actuator
H

Qouti

Figure (1.4 ) Automatic level control

E
 1.3.4 Process Control Block Diagram (
' -,-  **& ).

Each element ( ) in the system is represented by a block as show in figure (1.5).

The basic elements are:-

- Process: The tank and the liquid.
- Sensor: Measures the level and converts (+-.
-) it into an electrical or pneumatic

(*-"; = -@) signal.

- Error detector: (6*& 4#') A part of the controller to compare the set point H

with the actual level h.

- Controller: A decision ( ) making device, it generates a control signal.

- Actuator: ((1 ) The final control element, the device ( ) that has a direct

(#. $6) on the process and changes the controlled variable to bring it to

(- , H") the set point .

Set Error Control signal actuating signal actual output

point detector

+ Controller Actuator Process

-

Sensor
Feedback signal

Figure (1.5) Control system block diagram.

G
 2 SPECIFICATIONS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
(J 5 71 -)
2.1 Introduction to Instrumentation

The great progress (

 ) in automatic control systems was accompanied (.-  ')

by an increased importance (@5 ) of instrumentation. Instruments are used to

measure the process variables. The measured value is indicated () as a signal, which

may be mechanical, electrical, pneumatic……etc.

This signal is used for display ( .), recording, alarming and for controlling the system

variable to the desired value. System variables that may be measured are pressure,
temperature, level, flow, viscosity, position, velocity …etc.
The instrument used has to be accurate (:), sensitive (J), reliable (!* !+)

and capable (,+) to operate for long time in the marine environment (. 4- ).

Namely (!$), vibration ( @ ), salt (-+ ), corrosive atmosphere (!'K ,+  -)

and temperature variation (").

Instruments include (,+ !#) the following:

- Sensor : ()#) It detects (4#') the system controlled variable (temperature) and

produces a signal proportional to (? 9) it, this signal may be:

Electrical – pneumatic or mechanical movement ( = ), for example the pressure is

sensed by (F. J) a bourdon tube, or bellows.(*"; 7 )#+$5)

- Transducer (# !-) It changes the signal received (!.) from the sensor into an

amplified (.') electrical output, a mechanical movement or a pneumatic signal.

2.2 Units, Standards and Definitions (4) ،)

 ،J 7 -)
The field of process control has many sets of units, standards and definition to
describe its characteristics (- L -& 4 -).

I
 2.2.1 Units
Two systems of units are commonly (!) ?0#) used:

- The international system of units, SI units, Kg – meter – second.

- The English system of units, pound – foot– second.

Quantity S I units English Units

Length Meter m Foot ft

Mass Kilogram kg Pound lb
Time Second s Second s
Current Ampere A Ampere A
o o
Temperature Kelvin K Centigrade C
o
Plane angle Radiant rad Angle

Force Newton N Pound lb

Pressure Pascal Pa Pound /inch2 psi

COMPARISON

Length Mass Pressure

1 meter = 3.28 ft
1 ft = 12 inch 1slug = 14.59 kg 1 bar = 100 KPa
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1lb = 1 bound = 14.5 psi
1 mile = 1.6093 km = 0.4536 kg 1atm = 760 torr
1 Nautical = 1/ 0.54 = 1.01325 bar
mile(knot) = 1.852 km

Note : N/m2 = Pascal =1kg / m s2.

Knot (Kn) sea mile =1 foot/sec.

M
Example 2.1. Find the number of feet in 5.7 m
1m = 3.28 feet 5.7 x 3.28 = 18.698 = 18.7 ft.

Examole2.2 Express: 6 ft in meters 6/3.28 = 1.829 meter

Example 2.3. Find the mass in kg of a 2 lb object.

We first find the mass in slugs, 1slug = 32.17 lb

2
m = 2
= 0 . 062 slugs
32 . 17 ft / s

1kg = 0.0685 slugs

1 kg
∴ m = 0.062× = 0.062 (14.59 −) = 0.905kg
0.0685 slug

Standard Prefixes () )

Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Centi C 10-2
Mili m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Femto f 10-15

Example 2. 4. Express the time 0.0000215 sec. and the power 3,781,000,000 watt
in standard prefixes.
0. 0000215 = 2, 1.5 x 10-6 = 21.5 µ sec.
3,781,000,000 = 3.781 x 109 w = 3.781 Gw

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2.2.2 Standards

Two standards are used in control systems, for electric systems we use a range of
electric current, and for pneumatic systems we use a range of pressure. These signals
are used to transmit variable information (" 7-+) ! ) to and from the control

room, for example as shown in figure (2.1). Current is used to transmit measured
variable to the control room, and air pressure is used to transmit feedback signal ( #=

') (" ) to a valve to change the flow.

I 4- 20 mA I
Sensor to
Sensor current V
converter
I to V

I I
Plant Control room

P p V
Valve Actuator
V to P

Figure (2.1) Current and pneumatic pressure signals.

Current signal
The most common ( & $' ) transmitting signal is 4 to 20 m A.

For example, to represent a temperature range 20 o C to 120 o C.

20 o C is represented by 4 m A
120o C is represented by 20 m A

Sensor to R
Sensor current I
converter

RL (0-1000 Ω )

Figure (2.2) Current signal transmission is independent of the line resistance

Note:
Current is used instead of ( .) voltage because the system is then less dependent on
(O+  !5) the load and the line resistance as shown in figure (2.2).

Example 2.5
A temperature range 20 o C ÷ 120 o C is represented by 4 to 20 mA. What current will
results from 66 o C?. What temperature does 6.5 mA represents?
Solution
Develop a linear equation between temperature and current
I = m T + Io
We have two point of this linear relation I

20 oC 120 oC
IO
4 mA 20mA
T

Solving we can calculate the values Io , m .

4 mA = ( 20 o C) m +Io
20 mA = ( 120 o C) m +Io
Subtracting the first equation from the second equation we get
16 mA = (100 o C) m
So that m = 0.16m A/ o C. Then we find Io:
Io = 4 mA – (20 o C) (0.16 mA/ o C) Io =0.8 mA
Thus, the equation relating current and temperature is
I = ( 0.16 mA / o C ) T + 0.8 mA
Now answering the questions is easy. For 66 o C we have
I = (0.16mA/ o C) 66 o C + 0.8 mA= 11.36 mA
For 6.5 mA we solve for T:
6.5 mA = (0.16mA / o C)T + 0.8 mA, for which T= 35.6 o C.

Pneumatic signals

The range of the Pneumatic signals for SI and English units is as following:
SI units 20 ÷ 100 KPa (0.2÷ 1 bar)
English units 3 ÷ 15 psi


2.2.3 Definitions (4))

The following expressions (7P*  ) are used to describe ( .)+) the

performance (= Q ) of the process control elements, {Error, Transfer function, Range,
Span, Accuracy, Sensitivity, Resolution, Linearity, Arithmetic mean, Standard
deviation}.

(1) Error:
The error is most important quantity in control system. It is the difference between
the actual and the measured value.

True value − measured value

% Error = × 100
True value
The smaller the error the higher the accuracy ( )

(2) Transfer function (‫)دا ا‬

It describes the relationship between ( . P) ) the input and output for the device.

Device
x Input K y output

The relation is: y=Kx

(3) Range (J )

The region (* ) between the maximum and the minimum limits (- ) of the

measured quantity. e.g. from 0 to 150 or from 90 o C to 120 o C.

Example 2.6
A temperature sensor has a transfer function of 5 m V / °C, with an accuracy of ± 1%.
Find the possible range (!  ) of the transfer function.

Solution
The transfer function error will be (± 0.01) (5m V/°C) = ± 0.05m V/°C.
The transfer function range is 4.95 to 5.05 m V/ °C.

(4) Span
The difference between the upper & lower range.
e.g. Range 20 to 200 psi Span = 180 psi
Range 50 to 150 volt Span = 100 volt

/
(5) Accuracy
This term expresses (  .)) the closeness (9) of the device reading with the
true value. Accuracy is expressed in several forms (1+& !'#6..) ).
i- Measured variable: the accuracy is ± 2 º C in some temperature measurement.
Thus there would be an inaccuracy of ± 2 º C in any value of temperature measured.
ii- Percentage of the instrument Full-scale (FS) reading: Thus an accuracy of
± 0.5% FS in a 5-volt full-scale range meter would mean the inaccuracy in any
measurement is ± 0.025 volts.
iii- Percentage of instrument Span: Thus, an accuracy of ± 3% of pressure range
20 to 50 psi the accuracy would be (± 0.03) (50 -20) = ± 0.9 psi.
iv- Percentage of the actual reading. Thus, for a ± 2% of a voltmeter reading. For a
reading of 2 volts, we would have an inaccuracy of ± 0.02 x 2 = ± 0.04 volts.

Example 2.7

A temperature sensor has a range of 20 o C to 250 o C. If the measured temperature is

55 o C (reading). Calculate (9 ) the error if the accuracy is:

(a) ± 0.5% FS, (b) ± 0.75% of span, and (c) ± 0.8% of reading.
What is the possible temperature in each case? ( !' ,2 +    ,@ ).

Solution
Using the given definitions, we find:
a. Error = (± 0.05) (250 o C) = ± 1.25 o C.
The actual temperature is 53.75 or 56.25 ° C.
b. Error = (± 0.0075) (250 – 20) ° C = ± 1.725 ° C.
The actual temperature 53.275 or 56.725 ° C.
c. Error = (± 0.008) (55 °C) = ± 0.44 °C.
The actual temperature is 54.56 °C or 55.44 °C.

Example 2. 8.
Suppose ( 5 D1.) a reading of 27.5 mV results from the sensor used in example (2.6),

where the transfer function range is 4.95 to 5.05 mV/ °C. Find the temperature that
provides (9.) this reading.

>
Solution
Because the range of transfer function is 4.95 to 5.05 mV/ °C, the possible temperature
for the reading of 27.5 mV is:

1
(27.5m V) = 5.56°C
4.95 mV/ °C

1
(27.5m V) = 5.45°C
5.05 mV/ °C

This means that ( ‫ )ه ا أن‬the temperature is 5.45 °C or 5.56 °C.

(6) Sensitivity
Is a measure of the instrument output change to the input change. The value of the
sensitivity is generally indicated by ( #) the transfer function. Thus, when a

temperature transducer (") transfer function 5 mV/ ° C, the sensitivity is 5 mV/ °C.

High sensitivity is desirable ( ) in an instrument because a large change in output

for a small change in input implies that ( ‫ )ل‬easy measurement.

Example 2.9 An instrument has an accuracy ± 0.5% F.S, is used to measure a

resistance from 0 to 2500 Ω. What are the possible readings of 397 Ω resistance?
Solution: The error ± 0.5% of F.S = ± 0.5 x 10-2 x 2500 = ± 12.5 Ω.
the possible readings will be: 397 ± 12.5 Ω i.e. (384.5 or 409.5) Ω.

(7) Resolution ( !)

Slider

Windings

The resolution is the minimum measurable value of the input variable. A good
example is a wire-wound potentiometer, where the slider (  ‫ )ا‬moves across
windings to vary ( ‫و‬#‫ا‬$%) resistance. If one turn of the winding = ∆ R ohms,
minimum resistance change is ∆ R, we say that the potentiometer resolution is ∆ R. This
is often expressed as (‫ ك‬#( ) # #)#) percentage of the full-scale range.

B
Example 2.10
A force is measured in a range of 0 to 150 N with a resolution of 0.1% FS. Find the
smallest change in force that can be measured.
Solution
Because smallest change in force that can be measured = the resolution = 0.1% FS

The resolution = (0.001) (150 N) = 0.15 N.

In some cases, the resolution of a measurement system is limited by the sensitivity of
the signal conditioning circuit ((# 0P 0 . In this case, the resolution can be

improved ( ') by using better conditioning circuit.

Example 2.11
A sensor has a transfer function of 5 V/ °C. Find the required voltage resolution of the
signal conditioning if a temperature resolution of 0.2 °C is required.

Solution
A temperature change of 0.2 ° C will result in a voltage change of:
5 mV/ °C x (0.2 °C) = 1.0 m V
Thus, the resolution of the signal conditioning circuit is 1.0 m V.

(8) Linearity (*& )

The relation ( . P) ) between the output and the input of the measuring device must

be linear that is (,).), for each value of the input variable there is only one value of

the output variable. This is represented by a straight-line equation.

R = m T + Ro (2.1)
Where
T = measured input.
m = slope of straight line.
Ro = measured value at T = 0.
R = measured output.

E
Example 2.12
A sensor resistance changes linearly from 100 to 180 Ω as temperature changes from
20 ° C to 120 ° C. find a linear equation relating resistance and temperature.

Solution
Using equation (1.2) as a guide, the desired equation would be of the form:
R = m T + Ro
To find the two constants. m and Ro , substituting in (* +%#) equation.
100 Ώ = (20 o C) m + Ro
180 Ώ = (120 o C) m + Ro R(output)
Subtracting (-% ‫د‬# ‫ح ا‬/) the two equations.
80 Ώ = (100 o C) m m = 0.8 Ω / o C RO
Then, from the first equation we find
100 Ώ = (20 o C) (0.8 Ώ/ o C) + Ro Ro = 84 Ώ
The equation relating resistance and temperature is: T(input)

R = 0.8 T + 84

Statistics (70  =)

The confidence ($ ) in the value of a measured variable can be

improved by the use of statistical analysis (,0  !+ ) of
measurement.

9- Arithmetic Mean (,. *- )

The average value is important in process control. For example, to control the
temperature in a process. The temperature might be measured in 10 locations, the
average tempperature is calculated and used in the control loop.
The arithmetic mean of a set (-) of n values, x1, x2, x3, ……, xn is defined by the

equation:

x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + ......... + xn
x = (2 . 2 )
n
Where:
x= arithmetic mean.
n= number of measurements.

G
 x1, x2, …, x n measured values.
We use the symbol ∑ to represent a sum of numbers.

x=
∑x 1
(2 .3 )
n
Where:
∑xi symbol for a sum of the values x1, x2,… xn

10 -Standard Deviation () 4  )

It is insufficient (,2' 8) to know the value of the arithmetic mean of a set of
measurements to interpret the measurements properly ( *. 7  .)+),
it is necessary to know something about how the values are spread out (!- #) about
the mean value. ASlthough ( 5
8) the mean value of the set (50, 40, 30, 70) is 47.5
and the mean value of the set ( 5, 150, 21, 14 ) is also 47.5, the second group of
numbers is obviously (T; - ) far more spread ( # $' 5) out about the mean
value 47.5 as shown in figure (2.4).

47.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

47.5

0 5 14 21 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 150

Figure (2.4) The values spread out about the mean value.
The standard deviation is a measure of this spread.
Given a set of n values x1, x2…., xn, the standard deviation is defined according to the
equation:

I
 d 2
+ d 2
+ d 32 + ..... + d 2
σ = 1 2 n
n − 1

Where:
d 1 = x1 − x
d 2 = x 2 − x
d n = x n − x

or, using the summation symbol

σ = ∑ d i2
n − 1 (2.5)

Of course, the larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the numbers from the
mean value.
The standard deviation of the previous measurements:
For the measurements 50, 40, 30, 70. the mean value is 47.5

And the standard deviation is (50− 47.5)2 + (40− 47.5)2 + (30− 47.5)2 + (20− 47.5)2 / 3
6.25+ 56.25 . + 306.25+ 506.25= 21.47

For the measurements 5,150,21,14, the mean value is also 47.5 .

(5 − 47.5)2 + (150− 47.5)2 + (21− 47.5)2 + (14− 47.5)2 / 3

but the standard deviation is
806.25 +10506.25+ 702.25+1122.25 = 68.645

Example 2.14
If the readings of an unknown coil were 20, 21, 22, 19, 18 Henry. Find the actual
value of the coil.
Solution:
20 + 21 + 22 + 19 + 18
Arithmetic mean L = 5
= 20 Henry

Arithmetic mean L = 20 H.
The deviations generally will be d = L - L
d1 = L1 - L = 20 - 20 = 0
d2 = L2 - L = 21 - 20 = 1
d3 = L3 - L = 22 - 20 = 2 L

M
 d4 = L4 - L = 19 - 20 = -1
d5 = L5 - L = 18 - 20 = -2

The standard deviation

σ =
∑ d 12
=
(1 )2 + (2 ) + (− 1 ) + (− 2 )
2 2 2
= 1 . 58
n −1 5 −1

9 - The random error 0 .6σ

= = 0 .424
n
10 - The actual value = mean value + random error.
= 20 ± 0 .424

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3- PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The measurement and control of fluid pressure is common in industrial processes.
3.1 Pressure Principles
F
The Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area P=
A
• Gas pressure:
Is the force per unit area exerted on the walls of the container that holds it.
• Liquid pressure:
Is the force per unit area exerted on the container it contained, (greatest on the bottom
and zero on a top). The pressure is static when the fluid is not in motion, when the fluid
moves, its pressure is dynamic pressure.

3.2 Pressure Units

SI English - Torr = 133.3 Pa: Is used for very

2
Pascal Pa psi ( lb / in ) low pressure in vacuum systems.
6.895 KPa 1 psi

- 1 Atmosphere (Patm) = 101.325 KPa = 1.01325 bar

= 14.7 psi => 760 mm Hg.
- 1 bar = 100 KPa

3.2.1 Measuring the Atmospheric Pressure.

The Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure as shown in figure (3.1)
Mercury is a practical liquid; it reads h =760 mm height at sea level.
The tube is immersed (") in the liquid container, thereby filling with the liquid, and
then withdrawn ( ,+ 9
$ ) to the required position, the liquid will fall in the tube
leaving evacuated space (U 2) above it. Vacuum

Figure (3.1 ) Barometer



3.3 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure (Head pressure)

- Absolute pressure
Is the pressure relative to the complete vaccum.
- Gauge pressure:
It is the plant pressure relative to atmosphere.

Absolute pressure
Gauge pressure

Atmosphere pressure
due to the atmosphere
of the gas.
Complete vacum (zero pressure)

Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmosphere => Pabs. = Pg + Patm

Head pressure is often used to express the static pressure of liquid in tank or pipe. The
pressure at a point in tank is produced by (  V ) the weight of liquid above this point.

i.e.
weight of liquid volum × ρ × g ρ ghA
P = = = = ρ gh
Area A A
Where:
P Pressure Pascal
ρ Specific density kg / m3
g Gravity constant 9.8 m / s2
h Head of liquid meter
h

Example 3.1

Calculate the height of the liquid in a Barometer if the atmospheric pressure

Patm=101.325 KPa and the liquid is as follows:
a) Mercury specific density ρ =13600 kg/m3.
b) Water specific density ρ =1000 kg/m3.
Solution

Pressure = ρ g h
a) 101.325 =13600 x 9.81x h hhg= 0.76 m
b) 101.325 =1000 x 9.81x h hw= 10.33 m


Example 3.2
A tank holds water (= F.) with a depth 7 feet. What is the pressure at the tank bottom

in psi, and Pa ?. ρw = 103 kg/m3

Solution.
h = 7ft = 7 x 0.3048 = 2.1 m
P = ρgh = 103 x 10 x 2.1 = 21 KPa , and as 1 psi = 6.895 KPa
= 21/ 6.895 = 3 psi

3.4 Methods of Pressure Measurement

A pressure sensor measures pressure; the pressure measurement in process control
may be used for pressure display, or pressure control.

Pressure display (*"; .)

In order to display the pressure value, two approaches (9-+5) are used:

A- By balancing the pressure (*";  -) due to a liquid column in manometers.

B- By acting on elastic area (  T* ,+$6.) such as bourdon tube, etc.

A - Manometers
U- type manometer
A manometer is the simplest device for measuring static pressure, as shown in
figure (3.2), the fluid used may be water or mercury.
The difference in level h is an indication of (,+#) the gauge pressure Pg.

Pat
P1
Scale

J - h
Datum
L

A a

Figure (3.2) U- Type Manometer

/
Volume decrease = AL = Volume increase = ah.
ah
AL = ah L=
A
ah
Pressure in right limb (  % ( ) P = ρg ( h +L) = ρg ( h + )
A
a
The main equation of manometer is: P = ρgh ( 1+ )
A
Several types of manometers are used which are easy to use and more sensitive, such as:
• Well type manometer.
• Inclined type manometer.

Well- Type Manometer

Well type manometer is shown in figure (3.3).

For this type the area A >> a.
Hence, the pressure is P1 =Pat+ ρgh

Scale Pat
P1

A a

Figure (3.3) Well -Type Manometer

Notes:
* When the 2nd limb is open it measures the gauge pressure.
* It is filled with water for low pressure measurements.
* It is filled with mercury for high pressures measurements.

Inclined (!0) Type Manometer

In this type a small pressure difference can be read more accurately. In this case the
scale is increased for a given head as shown in figure (3.4).

>
 P1
P2

h
L Datum
∆h

θ
Figure (3.4) Inclined -Type Manometer

h = L sin θ
P2 - P1 = ρ.g.h = ρ.g L sin θ

Example 3.3
The left hand limb of a U – tube mercury manometer is connected to a static airflow
pressure 102 KPa. The right hand limb of the manometer is open to the atmosphere.
Given that: Patm=101 KPa, ρHg = 13600 kg / m3 and ρw = 1000 kg / m3.
a) What is the height difference in the U – tube limbs ? Calculate the height difference,
if the mercury is replaced by water.
b) If the U- tube is replaced by an inclined manometer at an angle 20o and the liquid is
water. What is the reading on the manometer scale?
Solution
a) Pair = Patm + ρ.g.h

1.02 x 105 =1.01x 105 + 13600 x 9.81 hHg hHg =7.5x10 -3 m

As this pressure is too small to measure accurately, the mercury is replaced by water.
1.02 x 105 =1.01x 105 + 1000 x 9.81 hw hw = 0.102 m = 102 mm
This height can be measured accurately.

b) Using inclined manometer

Pair = Patm + ρ.g.L sin θ.
1.02 x 105 =1.01x 105 + 1000 x 9.81 L sin θ L=298 mm.
Longer length of the manometer liquid on an inclined manometer can be measured more
accurately.

B
B- By Acting on Elastic Area
Most pressure sensors used in process control, converts (!-) the pressure into a
mechanical displacement (  =) using elastic area, then this displacement is converted
to a pointer (#) movement via a link (! - % () , quadrant (J ?.) and a gear
(J) arrangement as shown in figure (3.5). The elastic element can be Bourdon tube,
diaphragm, bellows or capsules.

The Bourdon Tube.

A specially constructed tube partially flattened and coiled (2-1+- 0 *) to convert

the pressure to displacement. The tube is made of stainless steel or phosphoric bronze to
stand corrosion (!'K - 5 + !." 9+  - 5 -1-1 -.  ) ).

Bourdon tube is coiled in different shapes C, spiral (,-+) or helical ( ) shapes.

Scale

Bourdon tube
Moving end
Gear
Quadrant Link

Fixed end

P
Measured pressure

Figure (3.5) The Bourdon Tube.

Advantages Disadvantage
High accuracy Susceptibility to shocks
Low cost Variations
Simple structure Susceptibility to hystresis
Wide range

E
The Diaphragm
A diaphragm likes a spring and therefore it extends until (, ) a force is
developed (- -) to balance the pressure difference force.
A pressure P1 and P2 are applied on the sides of a diaphragm, the net force (+  - )
is F = (P1 -P2) A
Where
A diaphragm area m2
P1, P2 pressure N/m2
P1 > P2

Link

P1 P2

Figure (3.6) Diaphragm

The displacement of the diaphragm causes the pointer deflection as before.

Diaphragms are used to measure relativity (.) law pressures.

The Bellows
It is made of phosphoric bronze & stainless steel. The device converts the pressure
difference into mechanical displacement, much like the diaphragm, except that the
bellows displacement is much more straight - line expansion (0%1 23 * ‫)! د‬.
Bellows are more sensitive and accurate than Bourdon tubes.

Bellows

P1 Link

P2

Figure (3.7) The Bellows

The Capsules
Capsules are much more sensitive and accurate than any other type (0.1% accuracy,
while it is 0.5 % for Bourdon tube, the pressure is applied from outside the capsules,
while the capsules are evacuated and sealed ( ' ). When measuring the differential
pressure, applied from out side, other pressure from inside it

G
 Gear Scale

Quadrant

Evacuated space

Figure (3.8) The Capsule

ON-OFF Control ( Pressure Switch)

This type of control is used when it is required to control the pressure between upper
and lower limits. For this purpose a pressure switch shown in figure (3.9) is used.
A pressure sensing element (bellows) converts the measured pressure into a torque T1,
which acts on the beam such that T1= P A L1, this torque balances the torque exerted
by (- 4!#‫ )ا‬the set point spring T2 , T2 = K Y L2. To control a compressor pressure, for
example, if the pressure is less than the upper limit, the micro switch is OFF, the
compressor operates, and the alarm is OFF. Once the pressure exceeds the upper limit,
the micro switch is ON, the alarm goes ON and the compressor stopped.

Set point Alarm

N.O.

Scale Spring
N.C.

Compressor
L1
Micro switch

Stopper L2

Bellows

Measure pressure

Figure (3..9 ) The Pressure Switch.

I
 Pressure Continuous Control (negative Feed-back Control)
To keep the pressure at a certain preset value (  ) is very important in the
industrial processes, namely chemical, medical or food processes. In order to implement
this type of pressure control (
'  %- (@ (1-), a device called “Sensor” is
employed (
&) to measure and generate a signed proportional to this pressure. This
signal may be electrical current in the range 4 -20 mA or pneumatic pressure in the
range 3 -15 psi .
Generally, the sensor is composed ( -') of two parts:

Elastic element (   ), which converts the pressure into mechanical
displacement, such as Bourdon tube, Diaphragm, Bellows, Capsules etc., as shown in
figure (3.10).

Transducer (# "), which changes the mechanical displacement into:

- Electrical signal via (!P& ) LVDT or Strain Gauge.
- Pneumatic signal via Pilot valve.

Pressure Signal
Elastic Element Transducer

4 -20 mA
Bourdon tube Potienomter 3 -15 psi
Bellows LVDT 0.2 -1 bar
Diaphragm Pilot Valve 20-100 KPa
Capsules

Figure (3.10 ) General Construction of Pressure Sensor

Electrical Pressure Sensors

(i) Linear Variable Differential Transformer LVDT.

This sensor uses a Bourdon tube as the elastic element and LVDT as the transducer.
The pressure causes a mechanical displacement of the free end of C- type Bourdon
tube, this will change the core position.
The LVDT operation. (Bourdon + LVDT page 272 Dally)
The schematic diagram is as shown in figure (3.12). When the pressure is zero, the
core is in the middle position between the two coils, the voltage across the two coils are
the same but of opposite sign, the LVDT output voltage Vout = V1 - V2 = 0.
When a pressure applied, the core moves up, its linkage (*. ) with coil 1 is greater
than coil 2, hence V1>V2 and the output Voltage Vout is proportional to the applied
pressure.

M
Note: Commercial LVDT can sense a displacement of 2 mm. It is reliable (!* !+),
stable and excellent for static or quasi static (7.$ F.# - 5 7.$) pressure measurement, its
limit freq. ≤ 10 HZ.
Secondary
Winding 1
Core
Vout =V1- V2

Supply

Core displacement
Primary
winding Secondary
Winding 2

Figure (3.12) Linear Variable Differential Transformer LVDT

(ii) Strain Gauge SG ( 0.2 mm –102 mm)

This type is used for low and middle pressure range measurements 0 -30,000 psi.
The design of the SG must be very long to give a large enough resistance, it is made of
foil (fine wire), so that it does not resist the applied strain, it also must responds to strain
(. $ 6) only in one direction as shown in figure (3.13).

The normal SG resistance is 60, 120, 240, 350, 500 and 1000 Ω.
The resistance and volume of the strain gauge wire before applying the measured
pressure are given by:

ρ Lo
R o =
A o
∴ volum V = L o A o = ( L o + ∆ L )( A o − ∆ A )
Where:

Ro Resistance of the wire

Lo Length of the wire
ρ Specific resistance
V Volume of the wire
Ao Cross section area of the wire

Because both length and area have changed, the resistance will also change.

/N
 L o+ ∆L Lo + ∆L
R =ρ =ρ
Ao − ∆ A L o Ao / Lo + ∆ L
(L + ∆ L )2 ρ
( )
R = ρ o = L 2o + 2 L o ∆ L + ∆ L 2
Lo Ao Lo Ao
ρLo
2
2 Lo∆L ∆ L2
R = (1 + + )
Lo Ao L 2o L 2o
 Lo ∆L   ∆L 
R = ρ  1 + 2  = R o  1 + 2 
 Ao Lo   Lo 
∆L
∆R = 2Ro
L
∆ L
This means that the stain convents directly into a resistance change
L
Sensitive Direction

R1 R2 Dummy SG
+

Supply a Vout b Insensitive

_ Direction Active SG

Dummy SG Active SG
R3 R4

Applied force
Figure (3.13) Strain Gauge Connection Diagram.

∆R / R
Strain .Gauge . Factor GF =
strain
In the following table, an example of the Strain Gauge Factor G.F values of some
materials.

Material Strain Gauge Factor G.F

Nickel chrome 2.2
Nickel copper alloy 2.1
Phosphor bronze 1.9
Semi conductor(silicon) -50 up to -200

/

The bridge output voltage Vout = Va -Vb
Vs R3 V s R4
Va = and Vb =
R1 + R3 R2 + R4

 R3 R4 
Vout = Va − Vb = Vs  − 
 R1 + R3 R2 + R4 
Let the resistances are R1= R2= R3= R4= R0
 The measured pressure P =0 Pa
No change occurs in the strain gauge resistance i.e R4 = R0
 R0 R0 
Vout = Va − Vb = Vs  −  = 0 volt
R
 0 + R 0 R 0 + R 0 

 The measured pressure P >0 Pa

The strain gauge resistance i.e R4 = R0+∆R
 R0 R0 + ∆R   1 1 + ∆R / R0  (2 + ∆R / R0 ) − 2(1 + ∆R / R0 )
Vout = Vs  −  = Vs  −  = Vs  
 R0 + R0 R0 + R0 + ∆R   2 2 + ∆R / R0   2(2 + ∆R / R0 ) 
As ∆R/R0 <<1
 (2 + ∆R / R0 ) − 2(1+ ∆R / R0 )  − ∆R / R0  V
Vout = Vs   = Vs   = − s ∆R / R0 .
 2(2 + ∆R / R0 )   4  4

Vs
Vout = − strain × G.F
4
This output voltage is also called the offset voltage.

Example:
A strain gauge of 350 Ω with a gauge factor G.F =2.03 is used in a Wheatstone bridge.
A strain of 1450 µ m/m is applied. Find the voltage offset if the supply voltage Vs=10 v.

Solution:
Given: Ro = 350 Ω
G.F. = 2.03
Strain = 1450 µ m/m
Vs=10 v
The offset voltage is:
Vs 10 −6
Vout = − strain × G.F = − x1450 x10 × 2.03 = − 0.00735875v = −7.35875 mv
4 4

/
(iii) Piezo Electric Crystal
Piezo Electric Phenomina, when a Piezo electric materials, such as quartz or barium
titanate, when a crystal of these materials are subjected to (‫ض‬%! #) a pressure, a
charges polarization occurs (‫ت‬#9: ‫ب‬#/%‫ث اﺱ‬9) on the crystal surfaces, and when the
crystal surfaces are coated (/$!) with metal electrodes (?‫ب ﻥ‬#/A ‫)أ‬, we obtain an
output voltage as shown in figure (3.14). The output voltage is: q=VC
Where:
C Capacitance of the crystal.
q Charge developed on the crystal surface.
V Output voltage.
The se crystals are used in the following application: Sonar, Microphone and piezo fans.

+
Metal-coated plates

++++++++++++
Crystal ---------------- Vout

– _

Figure (3.14) Piezo electric crystal

Pneumatic Pressure Sensors

The elastic member output displacement acts on the pilot value such that the
pneumatic pressure output is proportional to the applied pressure.
A Bourdon tube free end is connected to a valve in pneumatic system, which enables it
to control the air supply pressure as shown in figure (3.15) and figure (3.16).

Air supply

Pressure Pneumatic output

Elastic Element Pilot Valve

Figure (3.15) GeneralConsruction of Pneumatic pressure sensor

//
 Bourdon Tube

Free end

Air supply Output to pilot valve

Fixed end

Measured pressure P

Figure (3.16) Pneumatic Pressure Sensor.

Current to Pressure converter (I /P converter)

This converter translates the 4 -20 mA current to 3 -15 psi signal. This is done by
using force balance principle in nozzle/ flapper system.
The current through a coil produces a force F that pushes the flapper (#) up and

closes the gap of the nozzle. A higher current produces higher force and hence higher
pressure. The position of the flapper relative to (! ..) the nozzle are designed such

that 4 -20 mA gives 3-15 psi signal as shown in figure (3.17)

x1 x2
Lever
b c
Nozzle Pivot
Force F
Bellows

P2
Air supply

Figur (3.17) Current to Pressure converter

P2
15psi

15psi

Force

/>
4 LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
Liquid level measurements are commonly employed in several marine
applications such as steam drum water boilers, tanks of fuel, oil etc.
The level measurement may be classified as: level display, level ON-OFF control and
level continuous control.

4.1 - Methods of Level Measurement.

o Level display

A - Sight glass:
The tank, equipped with a sight glass with a float, such that the liquid in the tank can
be seen directly. As show in figure (4.1).

Sight glass

Float

Figure (4.1) Sight glass

B - Dip-tube (Bubbler) (71 -):

This is a simple and reliable (!* !+) method for measuring the level of water, oil
and fuel in ship tanks.
A dip tube is inserted (J" ) in the tank, air under pressure is adjusted to be slightly
greater than the hydrostatic pressure at the end of the dip tube which is equal to ρgh, so
that a bubbles (72) will go out from the tube, in this case the air pressure indicated by
the pressure gauge Pg will equal to ρgh, where h is the liquid level as shown in figure
(4.2).
Note:
The gauge can be calibrated ()) to read level, volume or height of the liquid in the

tank.

/B
 Dip tube

Rota meter

Air supply

Pressure gauge
Air valve

Figure (4.2) Dip tube (Bubbler).

C -Whessoe tank gauge: This is a mechanical method used during loading, unloading
and ballasting operations to provide continuous level display on ship board. It consists
of stainless steel tape ( *# ) with a float at its end, while the float moves up and down,

it causes the rotation of the drum spindle which drives( - 9.) an AC transmitter

motor which generate (-) an electric signal, this signal is measured to display the

level.

Repeater
Spindle
Cable
Deck Alarm

Float Control room

Guide

Figure (4.3) Whessoe tank gauge

Note: In marine applications, a tape with load and white scale is used also to measure
the fuel level in (heavy oil storage tank).

/E
o ON-OFF Level Control (Level Switch)

To control-alarm the liquid level between maximum and minimum levels, a level
switch is used. It consists of:
- Micro switch equipped with (9 -) permanent magnet of same polarity.
The micro switch has two set of contacts (7P  -), as shown
in figure (4.4).

i- Normally close contact NC, through which a pump is fed to fill the tanks.
ii- Normally opened contact NO, when the level reaches its maximum value the
float changes the state of the micro switch, the NO contact feeds the alarm circuit
and the pump stops.
This technique is used in level control in the tanks of boilers, purifiers and slugs oil
separators.

Micro switch contacts

Permanent magnets

Stainless steel float

Figure (4.4) Level switch for ON-OFF control.

o Continuous Level Control

A level sensor is used to produce an electric or pneumatic continuous signal, which

is proportional (? 9) to this level; this signal is used in automatic level control. The

sensor may be mechanical, electrical, and ultrasonic or using the principle of pressure
measurement if the density of liquid is known.

/G
Mechanical:
The float is connected by a linkage to potentiometer or LVDT core as shown in
figure (4.5). Using LVDT is more accurate.

LDVT output

Figure (4.5) LDVT output

Electrical:
In this case, two concentric (' ) cylinders are contained in a liquid tank.

This device acts like two capacitors in parallel, one with dielectric constant of air (≈ 1)
and the other with that of the liquid. Thus the variation (") of liquid level causes the

variation of the electric capacitance (.' ) ), as shown in figure (4.6).

To AC bridge
R Cair
Tank shell
concentric AC supply
cylinders

R Cliquid

Rectifier

Oil Separator
7 ! 2 Output signal

Figure (4.6) Capacitance output

The total capacitance is:

C = Kεo A / d

/I
Where:
K = Dielectric constant

εo = Permitivity = 8.85 pF / m (,.' (1 !))

A = Plate common area.

d = Plate separation.
The change of capacitance is detected by an A C bridge as shown in figure (4.6).

Example 4.1. The level of alcohol is to be measured from 0 to 5 meters using a

capacitive system, given that:
For alcohol K = 26 for air K = 1
d = 0.5 cm
A = Π RL = Π (5.75 cm x 5 m ) = 1.806 m2
Solution.

For air C = 1 x 8.885 pF / m x 1.806 m2 / 0.005 m

= 3196 pF = 0.003 µF
For alcohol C = 26 ( 0.0032 µF ) = 0.0832 µF
The range is 0.0032 to 0.0832 µF

Ultrasonic:
The use of ultrasonic to measure level is favored (!;1) because it does not involve

(!# ) placing any device in the tank also no moving parts. This technique may be

external or internal. as shown in figure (4.7).

The external technique is better suited to solid-material level measurement as shown in
figure (4.7) a .
In both cases the measurement depends on the reflection time of the ultrasonic pulses
from the surface.
2d v×t
v= , d=
time 2
Where:
d The distance between the transmitter and liquid surface.
t The pulses traveling time.
v The known velocity of the ultrasonic pulses.

/M
 Signal
Conditioning

Transmitter Receiver

a- External b- Internal

Figure (4.7) Ultrasonic level measurement.

Example 4.2. For the outer type ultrasonic level system shown below, find the liquid
level given that:
* h + d = 2m
T R
* The time t = 2 X 10-3 sec.
* The speed of signal is 350 m/sec.
Note: The sound speed 340 m/sec.
h+ d
Solution:
2d 2d
v= = 350 =
t 2 × 10− 3
∴ d = 0.35m ∴ h = 2-0.35 = 1.65m

Note:
For measuring liquid level it is also possible to use the known relation between the
pressure at the bottom of the tank and the liquid head and liquid density.
Pressure (P) =density (ρ) x level head(h)x(g).
Differential pressure transmitter cell D/P cell
An output pneumatic signal is obtained from the cell which is proportional to head of
liquid in the tank.

>N
5 - TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Industrial temperature regulation (
) is important and becomes more with the
advance (-*) of technology.
5.1 Units
The range between the freezing and boiling points of water at a pressure of one
atmosphere (101,3 KPa) is divided in different scales, Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale
and Absolute scale.
- Celsius scale o C has 100 divisions between these points.
- Fahrenheit scale o F has 180 divisions between these points.
- Absolute scale (Kelvin) o K = o C + 273.15 o K

0 100 divisions 100 o C Centigrade

32 180 divisions 212 oF

Absolute +273.15 100 divisions +373.15 o K

zero

To convert from (  !-+) Fahrenheit scale to Celsius scale use the formula:

T ( oF) = 32 + 9/5 * T ( oC)

T ( oC) = 5/9 * [ T ( oF) – 32 ]

Note The temperature -273.15 value is the zero thermal energy, i.e. no molecular
vibration. ( Absolute zero)

Example 5.1 Given temperature of 144.5 o C, express this temperature in:

a- Kelvin o K.
b- Fahrenheit o F.

Solution
a- T(o K ) = T(o C)+ 273.15 = 144.5 + 273.15 = 417.65 o K
b- T(o F) = 32 + (9/5) T (oC ) = 32 + (9/5) X 144.15 = 292.1o F

>

5.2 Expansion Thermometers ( 7 -$ )
In the expansion thermometers solids, liquids or gases are used as sensing elements.

5.2.1 Expansion of Solids.

The increase in length Lo of a solid rode when heated from temperature To to
temperature T is given by the relation:
L = Lo + α Lo (T-To) = Lo (1+α ∆T)
Where:
α the coefficient of linear expansion (/‫ د ا‬%‫ ا‬#).
∆T the temperature change (T-To).
α Brass = 19 X 10-6 1/ oC
α Invar = 1.5 X 10-6 1/ oC Invar (‫ ﺡ‬64% – E‫ ﻥ‬36%)

5.2.2 Expansion of Liquids

The volumetric expansion (,  ) of liquids is given by:

VT = VO ( 1+β ∆T )
Where:
VT, Vo Volumes after and before expansion.
β Coefficient of volumetric expansion ( F9‫ د ا‬%‫ ا‬#).
∆T Temperature change.

Liquid Temperature measuring range

Mercury (freezing point) – 38 to 550 o C
Alcohol – 80 to 70 o C

The temperature measurement may be classified as (,

):

• Temperature display,
• ON -OFF control and
• Continuous control.

>
5.3 Methods of Temperature Measurements
Temperature Display
The temperature can be displayed:
• Locally (,);-) at the process by:

- Liquid in glass thermometer.

- Bi-metallic strip thermometer.
• Remote temperature display by filled system thermometer.
- Liquid filled.
- Vapor filled.
- Liquid filled.
Locally temperature display:
(i) Liquid in glass thermometer.
The most common used liquid is mercury, β of Hg is 8 times β of glass, the
expansion of Hg up the capillary tube indicates the temperature in the range of –38 o C
to 550 o C, the space above the Hg is filled with nitrogen or CO2 to suppress the boiling
of the Hg (‫ن‬#$‫ درﺝ ا‬I*).
Alcohol is also used in the range of – 80 o C to 70 o C.
(ii) Bi-Metallic Strip ( ‫ ﻥ دوﺝ‬9‫ )ﺵ‬Thermometer
A Bi-Metallic Strip is formed of (- ‫ن‬E%!) two metals:
Copper (high thermal coefficient) + Invar ( low thermal coefficient).
This strip is formed into a helical (‫ )ﺡوﻥ‬coil, when heated it defects (KE‫ ﺵ‬$%) and
causes the pointer reading in the range from – 40 o C to 320 o C, as shown in figure (5.1).

Pointer Temp scale

Temp Scale
Gears
Capillary tube
Helical
Bimetal strip

Bulb
Sensing head
Hg

Figure (5.1) Bi metal strip thermometer Liquid Thermometer

>/
Remote temperature Display

There are 3 types, which can be used for remote display, alarm or temperature
control. All involve (,+ !#) the use of a bulb (W1 ) at the sensing end, and a
capillary tube ()# .-. 5 ) connecting the bulb to on elastic element (Bourdon tube,
Bellow, etc), which responds to pressure change due to temperature variation as shown
in figure (5.2).

- Liquid Filled Thermometer (Mercury).

The length of the capillary tube up to 15 meter without compensation.
The range from -39 o C to 520 o C.
- Vapor pressure thermometer
Similar in construction to the steel type thermometer filled with mercury. It is
completely evacuated, and filled with volatile liquid (* !0) as alcohol.
The range from – 10 o C to 300 o C.
The length of the capillary tube up to 60 meter.
- Gas filled thermometer
Also has the same construction, the bulb probe (J ) is evacuated and filled with
nitrogen or Helium under high pressure, the temperature change causes gas pressure
change at the Bourbon tube. The measuring range from – 193o C to 600 o C.
The capillary tube length < 2m to reduce the error due to running through different
temperature areas (1+& :* ,2   4P&  V 6*& !+).

Scale

Bourdon tube

Gear

Quadrant Link

Bulb filled with:

Liquid
or Vapor
or Gas

Figure (5.2) Remote Temperature Display

>>
Temperature ON - OFF Control

Using a Bi-metal strip and micro switch to control temperature within upper- lower
limits. This type is applied to control the temperature of:
Iron (J.P  -'), Air-condition, and Heaters.

The principle of operation is as shown in figure (5.3).

Where:
Metal A is Brass, the expansion coefficient is 19× 10-6 m / o C
Metal B is Invar (36 % Ni + 64 % Fe), the expansion coefficient is 1,5× 10-6 m / o C

Heater
Micro Supply
B Switch Alarm

A
Heater
Micro Supply
Switch Alarm
B

Figure (5.3) Temperature ON -OFF control.

- Temperature Continuous Control

A temperature sensor is used to produce a signal, electric, or pneumatic proportional

to this temperature. This signal is used for automatic temperature control. The sensors
are:
1- Gas filled Pneumatic
2- Resistance Temperature Detector RTD Electric
3- Thermocouple T/C Electric
4- Thermistors Electric

>B
1- Gas Filled Thermometer

A measuring bulb is filled with Helium, Nitrogen --- etc. Using the flapper nozzle
Differential Pressure (D/P) cell, the output of the sensor is a pneumatic signal. The
pressure of the gas in the bulb changes with temperature variation. An output pneumatic
pressure is obtained from the DIP cell proportional to this variation, as shown
in figure (5.4). The main disadvantage is that the gas can slowly diffuse through the
metal bulb (,) W1  9) with time.

Air supply D/P Air output 3 to 15 psi

Cell

Gas filled bulb

Figure (5.4) Gas filled thermometer.

2- Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (High degree of linearity than T/C)

The sensor consists of a resistant wire wounded around a mica frame. Operation
depends upon the change of the wire resistance when subjected to temperature change.
The resistance at a temperature T o C is given by:
RT = Ro ( 1 + α ∆T )
Where: ρ L
RT R=
A
RT Resistance at T o C. Nickel
o
Ro Resistance at 0 C.
Platinum
∆T Temperature change. Ro
α Temperature coefficient.

Temperature T o C.

>E
 The wire may be of Platinum or Nickel, the wire diameter range: 0.02 to 0.8 mm.
The sensor output is taken via a wheat-stone bridge circuit as shown in figure (5.5).
o
The bridge is balanced at 0 C. When the temperature changes the value of RTD
resistance increases, and causes the bridge unbalance, an output voltage appears at the
output terminals (‫ج‬M‫اف ا‬O‫) أ‬, which is proportional to the temperature change.
A three wires sensor is used to compensate (- +%) the change of the connecting
wire resistance running in different ambient temperature ( P%M /9 ‫ت ﺡارة‬#‫)درﺝ‬.
The RTD resistance element has a resistance = 100 Ω at zero degree o C.
The range is - 200 o C to 600 o C for Platinum.
The range is up to 1200 o C. for Tungsten.
The range is - 180 o C to 300 o C for Nickel.

R R
Output
+

Amplifier _
R

Insulator (Mica)

Platinum wire

Low resistance wire

Figure (5.5) Resistance Temperature Detector RTD

Example 1.5
o
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 140.5 Ω at 100 C. If its
resistance becomes 305.3 Ω when it is in contact (R1S) with hot gas. Determine the
temperature of gas ( Temp. coeff. α = 0.0039 o C-1 )
Solution
RT=R1[1+ α ∆T ]
R2 − R1 305.3 − 140.5
∴TT − T1 = TT − 100 =
αR1 0.0039 x140.5
o
TT =100 + 300.756 =400.756 C

>G
3- Thermo-Couples T / C. (Discovered by See Beck in 1821)

If two wires of copper and iron are connected together and the junction is heated, an
electro motive force emf is generated, the current flows from copper (+) to iron (-) at
the hot end, as shown in figure (5.6).

B Iron ( - ) emf
Gauge linear
C
C Copper (+)
285
Temperature difference ToC

B
Terminals
C

Insulator
Hot junction
Figure (5.6) Thermocouple

The generated emf in the thermocouple given by the relation: E =K (Thot - Tcold)
Where:
E the generated emf.
K thermocouple sensitivity.
Thot,Tcold hot and cold temperatures.

Example:
A Copper – Constantan T/ C was calibrated between 0 o C to 400 o C, the generated emf
is 20.68 mv at 400 o C (while the cold junction temperature at 0 o C).
a) Determine the correction (U9V%‫) ا‬, which must be made to the indicated emf if
the cold junction temperature is 25 o C.
b) If the indicated emf is 8.92 mv in the T / C circuit, determine the temperature of
the junction.
Solution
a) T/ C sensitivity =20.86 / (400) = 0.0517 mv / o C
Since the T/ C is calibrated at the cold junction at 0 o C and the T/ C is being used at
25 o C, then the correction which must be made between 0 o C and 25 o C is:
Ecorr. = 0.0517x25 o C =1.293 mV.
b) Indicated emf of the hot junction = 8.92 mv.
The temperature of the hot junction is 8.92 / 0.0517 = 172.53 o C.

>I
Since the cold junction at 25 o C, the hot junction temperature is: 172.53+25=197.53 o C
Range of temperature measurement of T/ C: Start from - 250 o C and with special alloys
(  WX#)‫{ )ﺱ‬90% Platinum, Rhodium and 10 %platinum), can reach 1400 o C, as shown
in the following table.

Type Materials Temperature Range

J Iron – Constantan -190 to 760 o C
T Copper – Constantan -200 to 371 o C
K Chromel – Alumel -190 to 1260 o C
E Chromel – Constantan -100 to 1260 o C
S 90% Platinum + 10% Rhedium – Platinum 0 to 1482 o C
R 87% Platinum + 13% Rhedium – Platinum 0 to 1482 o C

Platinum: Sensitive, sensitivity of order 0. 04 mv / o C and expensive.

Nickel: Less sensitive, sensitivity of order 0.005 mv / o C and less expensive.

What are the advantages & disadvantages of Thermo-Couples?

 The T /C is cheaper than RTD.

 Can be made very small.
 Stands vibration (‫ازات‬%‫ه‬Z [ \% S).
 Needs a cold junction as a reference temperature.

4 -Thermistors

A thermistor is an electrical device made of solid semi-conductor (‫ت‬Z‫] ﺹ‬#)‫) أﺵ‬

materials, which include metal oxides and their mixtures (‫دن‬# ‫ﺱ ا‬#‫دن وأآ‬# ‫ ا‬- 23)
such as: Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, Nickel and Tin. Oxides are pressed into a forms
( !'#5 ,2 *"; ) such as: beads, discs and rods (5 XL  5 X7..) of different

sizes the construction (9') of the thermistor is as shown in figure (5.7).

In the semi-conductor device, electrons are bounded to each molecule -' )

(70.. When temperature increased, the valence electrons will get free of molecules

(70  ), and the semi-conductor material become conductor ( H.#5 T. -

>M
+ -  - 7P - ), and its resistance decreases as temperature increases as shown in

the relation figure (5.7).

R/Ro (Ω)
Sintered powder
Embedded wires
40

30 Negative resistance coefficient

20
0.2 mm
10
Protective glass
0
o
-2 0 0 25 50 75 100 T ( C)

Figure (5.7) The thermistor

The resistance of the thermistor at a temperature T o K is:

 
 1 1 
R = R o β  − 
e 
 T To 

Where:
Ro, R the resistances at temperatures To and T in Kelvin (o K) .
β experimentally determined constant for the given material (300 ÷ 4400) o K.

o
Example 5.2: A thermistor has a constant β = 3140 K, and a resistance 1050 Ω at
o .
27 C At the measured temperature, the resistance is 2330 Ω find the measured
temperature T

Solution
Given : To = 300 o K, Ro = 1050 Ω, R = 2330 Ω
 
 1 1 
R = Ro β  − 
e 
 T To 


1 1 
∴ LnR − LnR = β  − 
T O 
o
T
LnR − LnR 1 1 7 . 754 − 6 . 957 1 −3
o
+ = = + = 3 . 587 × 10
β TO T 3140 300

∴ T = 278.77 o K or T = 278.77 – 273.15 = 5.62 O C ( o C cooling ).

BN
Advantages
- Thermistor is strong and rugged (Y), so it is suitable for:

→ Bearings temperature measurement.

→ Stern tube temperature measurement.
→ Temperature monitoring through some diesel engine applications.
- Thermistor is used as RTD, but a much large signal is produced.
- The temperature range from -100 o C to 300 o C.

Disadvantages
- It has a wide range of resistance, but the range depends on the semi-conductor
material, hence depends on:
▪ Melting temperature of the semi-conductor material, the upper limit is 300 o C.
▪ Encapsulating materials (a$%‫( )اد ا‬plastic, epoxy, Teflon), which protects the
sensor from environment ($:%‫وف ا‬b). This material constrains (!) the upper
limit temperature.
▪ The sensor sensitivity decreases with higher temperatures, as the resistance of the
material is very small.
- The power dissipated must not exceed the specified ratings of thermistor ( (E‫ ا‬A#/‫ا‬
‫دة‬9 ‫ ا‬$:%‫ ا‬A#O ‫ى‬%!S ‫ أن‬dF E(%1 ‫) ا‬.

5- Pyrometers:

The temperature is measured by using the radiations (‫ت‬#[#)‫ﻥ‬S‫ )ا‬from the hot body,
(non contact thermometer), in the range of ultra violet, visible and infrared radiations.
The speed of response is very high (few micro seconds). There are 3 types of
Pyrometers:
i – Optical Pyrometers:
A very accurate method for measuring temperature between 600 and 3000 o C.
It measures the temperature by comparing the brightness of the hot body ( ‫ن‬#  ‫رﻥ‬# 
-3#1‫ ا‬01F‫ ) ا‬with the known brightness of a lamp, (tungsten lamp).
By varying the brightness of the lamp so that it just disappears ( ‫ن‬#  * ‫ح‬#)V ‫ ا‬%* P%M!
-3#1‫ ا‬01F‫ ) ا‬into the hot body viewed through the lens. The temperature can be
measured from the meter reading. As shown in figure (5.8).
The main disadvantage is that it is limited to temperature > 700 o C only.

B

 Eye piece Red glass Lamp Screen Objective lens Hot body
(Filter)

Source filament

Pyrometer filament

Current brightness calibration is required before measurement

Figure (5.8) Optical Pyrometer

ii -Total Radiation (visible + invisible light)

The the main parts of the pyrometer are as shown in figure (5.9).
The emitted radiation is focused (  #‫ !آه‬0% e) ‫ت ا‬##‫ﺵ‬S‫ )ا‬on a RTD or T / C,
the temperature change is measured in the usual way as in the case of RTD and T / C..
This type of pyrometer can be used for automatic temperature control.

Thermo couple Shield Hot radiation

Mirror

Hot
Body

Detector disc Blackened tube

Meter

Figure (5.9) Total Radiation pyrometer

B
 iii - Photo Electrical Pyrometer

The intensity of radiation is measured as an increase in conductivity of photo–

sensitive layer. (‫ء‬h ‫ﺱ‬#1‫) ﺡ‬/ (E‫ﺹ ا‬%‫دة * ا‬#‫ت آ‬#[#)‫ﻥ‬S‫س ﺵة ا‬#!)

This detector has a very high-speed response (‫ ﺱ ﺝا‬#F%‫ )اﺱ‬and can give a high
output volt / watt of radiation, it is also very useful in automatic control purposes.

Note:
Thermistor, RTD and TC. make direct contact with the source of heat. Pyrometers
does not make direct contact with the source of heat.

B/
6 FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Flow measurement is important in industrial and laboratory

applications (+) -   7.* ) . The choice of the flow meter type

depends on the plant and the fluid used. For air-craft, the fuel meter must
be compact (
') and not affected by the craft orientation ( ?;-. $6 -

0* ), and handle only (*2

&) clean-non corrosive fluids( 1 !0 -

!'K O+ -). On the other hand in marine applications, the heavy fuel

flow meter is used, where the heavy fuel may be corrosive and contains
foreign matters (90 -#). Also factors such as (!$ ! -) range, accuracy,

linearity, dynamic response, output type (digital – analogue), governs the

choice (& ,2
') of a flow meter type. There are two types of flow

meters:

Quantity flow meters.

Rate flow meters.

6.1 Units

Unit
Parameter SI
English
Volume flow rate m3/hr ft3/ hr
Flow velocity m / min. ft
/min.

B>
 The flow velocity is given by V = Q / A
Where:
V flow velocity ( m / min ).
Q volume flow rate ( m3/min).
A cross– sectional area of the pipe (m2).
The Mass flow rate is given by M = ρ Q
Where:
M mass flow rate (Kg/ hr).
ρ mass density (Kgm3).

 Factors Affecting the Flow Rate:

- Liquid viscosity (!0 -).

- Pipe size.
- Pipe friction (- ,2 Y' ).

- Turbulence of the flowing liquid (!0+  - ' ).

6.2 Methods of Flow Measurements:

The flow meters are classified as following:
a) Obstruction flow sensor: Rota-meter - moving vane -Turbine type.
b) Restriction flow sensors: Venture – Nozzle ( @-2 ) – Orifice plate

(9-$ T*).

c) Magnetic flow sensor:

a) Obstruction Flow sensor:

BB
This type is used in flow applications of both liquids and gases. Many
devices are classified as Obstruction flow sensor such as: Rota-meter,
mechanical turbine and electrical turbine flow meters.
1- Rota-meter:
A commonly used variable area flow meter (to maintain steady pressure
difference (7.$ *"; :2 ,+ 2 ). The fluid enters the vertically placed

tapered tube (.- .-.5), causes the float to move upwards.

The position of the float on a scale indicates ( .) the flow rate, as shown

in figure (6.1).
Float stop

Scale Float

Float stop

Flow inlet

Figure (6.1) Rota-meter

Advantages:
- Direct visual display of the flow on a linear scale.
- Range from 0.1 liter / min. to several hundred liter / min.
- Accuracy ± 1 % of the maximum flow rate.
- Wide variety of fluids (!0 -  1+& % -5) including corrosive fluids can

be used.

BE
Disdvantages:
- The Rota-meter must be placed vertically.
- It is sensitive to pulsating (7.$ 8 –D.) flow.

2- Mechanical turbine flow meter (propeller type).

A cast iron body with brass inner chamber (1  J  +&  28),

a rotor with vans, spindle rotating in frictionless bearings ( -. - -

Y' ), the gearing mechanism ( - ) indicates the flow rate as

shown in figure (6.2).

Figure (6.2) Mechanical turbine flow meter.

3- Electrical turbine flow meter

A low friction rotor, such that the rotation rate proportional to the flow
rate, the rotor is equipped with (9  - -;) ) a magnet. The rotor

speed is sensed by an electrical pick-up coil, the generated AC voltage ( 

BG
- ) is proportional to the fluid flow rate as shown in figure (6.3). The

figure shows a floating rotor type, to reduce friction (Y' !+), the AC

electrical output or (pulses) is amplified and the flow is measured using a

digital flow counter (,  ).

Figure (6.3) Electrical turbine flow meter

b) Restriction flow sensors:

These sensors are classified as pneumatic sensors. A flow sensor is
used to produce a signal, proportional to the flow rate; this signal is used to
control the flow.
We shall introduce three constructions, An Orifice plate, Nozzel and
Venturi tube type flow meters.
An Orifice plate and Venturi tube type flow meters are shown in figure
(6.4).

BI
 Orifice plate

Flow

h
P
P
Pressure

Flow

A 1 & V1 A 2 & V2

Figure (6.4) Orifice plate and Venturi tube type flow

At section 1 V1 , P1 the cross section area is A1

At section 2 V1 , P2 the cross section area is A2

Applying the Bernoulli theorem to deduce ([) the relation between

pressure difference and flow rate. This pressure difference is used to

indicate the flow rate.
From the law of conservation of energy:
Kinetic energy + pressure energy + potential energy = constant

1
1
2
ρV1 + P1 =
2
ρV 22 + P2 potential energy = gh = cons .
2

(V 2
2
− V12 = ) 1
ρ
(P1 − P2 ) (1)

2 BM
 A1 
 V 1  − V 1 2 = ρ (P1 − P2 )
 A2 
 V 1 A1 = V 2 A 2 (2) continuity equation .
A1
∴V2 = V 1
A2

 A 2 
V1 2   1  − 1  = 2 (P − P )
  A 2 2 (P − P ρ) 1 2

V1 =  1  2

 A 12 
ρ  2 − 1 
 A2 

Note: The sensor is in horizontal position, hence the potential energy g h =

constant.

The volume flow rate is Q= V1 A1

2 (P1 − P 2 )
Q = A1 A 2
(
ρ A 12 − A 22 )
Practically, the flow rate is much less than this value because of friction
and losses. Hence a discharge coefficient (cd) must be used. This
coefficient can be determined by calibration.
The mass flow rate is dm / dt
2 (P1 − P2 )
m& = ρ V = ρ A 1 A 2
(
ρ A 12 − A 22 )
The above equation can be written as:

m& = K ∆P

Where:
2
K = Cd ρ A1 A2 constan t
ρ ( A12 − A22 )

EN
 This equation means that the flow rate is proportional to the square root

∆ P = P1 − P2
of the pressure difference.
Practically, the sensor is classified as a restriction meter and can be
implemented (H(1) using different constructions as shown in figure

(6.4).
Venturi tube flow meter is not commonly used, as it is more expensive.
Orifice tube flow meter (1 F-#- !'K+ D)), is simple and commonly

used (
& ?0#). Nozzle tube flow meter, needs shorter length

of a straight pipe, less susceptible to corrosion (!'K+ ; ! 5), unlike the

orifice type.

C- Electro – magnetic flow meter

If a charged particles (-# 70) (electric conductor), moves across a

magnetic field, a potential is established across the flow perpendicular to

the magnetic field. We obtain the same result if a liquid is flowing through
a magnetic filed. A potential difference is generated at the electrodes (
9* ), which is directly proportional to the velocity of flow, as shown in

figure (6.5 )

such that: e = β .d .
Where:
e Potential difference.

E

 β Magnetic flux density. (field strength)
d Pipe diameter.
V Velocity of flow.

Supply

Flux
Flow Magnetic flux
Stainless s.
(Platinum)
Electrodes
e

Flow V

This flow meter is used for:

 Hazardous fluids
 Corrosive fluids
 High solid contents fluids
The flow velocity V up to 0.75 m /sec. (45m/ min)
The tube is made of non conducting–non magnetic material such as
austenitic stainless steel, so that the magnetic flux does not by pass the
fluid.

Example 6.1 (P.225 Johnson).

E
Flow is to be to controlled from 20 gal/min to 150 gal/min. The flow is
measured using an orifice plate system. The orifice constant K = 119.5 gal
/min / (psi)1/2. A bellows measures the pressure with an LDVT, so that the
output is 1.8 volt/psi. Find the range of voltages that results from the given
flow range.

Solution.
20 gal/min ∆p = (20/119.5)2 = 0.028 psi
150 gal/min ∆p = (150/119.5)2 =1.5756 psi
The voltage range is:
0.028 × 1.8 = 0.0504 volt
1.5756 × 1.8 = 2.836 volt

E/
7 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

7.1 Introduction

Viscosity is defined as internal friction (‫ك‬#E%‫ )اﺡ‬between the fluid layers or the
resistance of flow within the fluid. It is one of the major factors of energy dissipation in
fluid (gas) transportation in pipelines (d#‫ﻥ‬i‫ * ا‬IX‫ ا ا‬P! ‫ء‬#[‫ أ‬A#/‫ ا‬P 1X‫)أﺡ اا ا‬.
Also the study of viscosity is very important in the study of lubrication and wear’s
characteristics ( ‫آ‬j%‫ وا‬R%‫اص ا‬3 ‫)دراﺱ اوﺝ (  دراﺱ‬.
In the discussion of flow measurement, we assume an ideal fluid, i. e. we
neglect the viscosity. We proved that the flow = K √ ∆P . In general
laminar flow, viscosity must be considered ( 9 ,.* :2  ,2 -

. ,2 -+ (&5) .

dV
Newton’s law of viscosity F = µ A
dx
Where:
dV
F Shear force F = µ A also called viscous drag
dx
force.
µ Coefficient of dynamic Viscosity N.sec/m2( Stoke)
dV
dx Velocity gradient (  ) (V meter / sec).

τ τ = A
Shear stress force between the fluid layer
F
N /m
2

A
V
Shear force F x
Vo

µ
ρ

E>
 • Kinematic Viscosity: It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the fluid
density
• The viscosity increases as temperature decreases.
The following table shows the viscosity of some fluids at 20 o C.

Fluid Water Oil Glycerin Air

Viscosity µ 1 220 1.4 0.18

• Turbulence flow ( , - :2 ) & Reynolds number.

When the flow velocity becomes sufficiently great, turbulence motion

2 ρ RV
occurs. N =
µ
R

Reynolds’s number
Experiments show that NR < 2000 Laminar flow motion.
NR >3000 Turbulence flow motion.
7.2 Methods of Viscosity Measurements.
Viscosity sensor
The viscosity is measured by forcing a small quantity of oil at a constant
rate (via a gear pump), through a capillary tube ()# .-.5 ) as

shown in figure (7.1). The pressure difference ∆P is proportional to the

shear force and hence it is directly proportional to the viscosity.
P1 High pressure connection

P2 Low pressure connection

Outlet

Gear pump

EB (7.1) Visco-detector
Figure
Example 7.1.
In a capillary tube visco -meter, the tube diameter is 0.05 m, a shearing
force of 100 N is applied to the flow tube, if the velocity gradient is 5 sec-1,
the diameter of the capillary tube is 0.02 m , head of the tank is 0.8 m and
specific density ρ is 0.7 Kg / m3 . Determine the fluid
viscosity.
dv
Solution The shearing force F = µ A
dx

Π d 2
Π (0 . 05 )2
A = =
4 4
F 100 × 4
µ = = = 10185 . 91 kg / m . sec
A (dv / dx ) 25 Π × 10 − 4 × 5

EE