Load Flow Analysis

Overview
Mother of all Studies
• Load Flow Analysis is an Engineering Art
• The Art of duplicating and understanding the steady-state
behavior of Power Systems
• First studies to be done to validate the project model
• Last studies to be done to validate other studies
• Need to consider past, present & future conditions
• Need to consider all possible operating conditions
• Compare limits & duties for the correct operation of the
power systems apparatus
 Overview
Objectives
• To Protect the System Against:
Electrical Limits
Over/Under Voltage conditions
Over Load conditions
Voltage and Current Limits
Mechanical
Tension & Stress Levels
Life Time
Thermal
Steady-State Temperature Limits
Emergency Temperature Limits
 Overview
Objectives
• Steady-State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Voltage Drops
Generator’s MVar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Generator’s MW Demand
Total Generation & Demand
MW & MVar Losses
 Overview
Capabilities
Handle any kind of Integrated Network
No limitations for the following:
Connectivity / Subsystems
DC, AC (1P-1W, 1P-2W, 2P-2W, 2P-3W, 3P-3W, 3P-4W)
Nominal Voltage
Frequency
Phase Connection
Bus Number – 1,000,000+ tested
 Basic Concept
Theory
Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
∗
∅
∅ 3 ∅
∗
3

Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage
 Basic Concept
Theory
3-Phase Per Unit System
• Three phase power equation
3
= 3
• Base calculations
=
3
• Per unit calculations
= =
!
= = !

$ &
" # !%
= % !$
 Load Flow Concept

Example
• Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:
• Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage
• Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31
• X/R = 12.14
 Load Flow Concept

Example (continued)
(.(*+( &. -) (.(*-78
' = 0
= 0.06478 6 = = 0.005336
/( &. -) &. -

• Impedance conversion to 100 MVA base

• “n” stands for new & “O” stands for old values

&
" #
$
!% .8 & ((
= % = 5.33 × 10; + 0.06478 = 0.1115 + 1.3538
!$ .+ +
% = 100 × = 11.15 + 135.38

• The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by transformer turn ratio
0
= >> ? .+ -.(*E+0
= @A = .
= 4.0695 =C D
= ((
= 0.165608
@0
 Load Flow Concept

Example (continued)
((. /F )
= = = 0.6038 + 6.0382
(. *+*
% = 100 × = 60.38 + 603.8

• Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

 Methodology
Goal
A healthy operation under different conditions
Size Equipment & Determine Parameters
• Cable
• Lines
• Capacitor
• Transformer MVA Rating
• Transformer Tap Setting & Limits
• Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
 Methodology
Goal

Verify operation conditions within limits

• Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
• Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
• Steady State Stability Limits

Validation of data in steady state condition

• Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results
 Methodology
Load Flow Problem

Given:
• Power consumption at all buses
• Branch impedances in the network
• Network Topology (Configuration)
• Generation and load Variation

Output:
• Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
• Power flows on all the branches including power factors
• Losses on all branches
 Methodology
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Newton-Raphson
• Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
• First order derivative is used to speed up calculation
 Methodology
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Adaptive Newton-Raphson
• Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
• First order derivative is used to speed up calculation
 Methodology
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Fast-Decoupled Method
• Two sets of iteration equations: real power –voltage angle, reactive power –
voltage magnitude in speed, but high requirement on initial values
• Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
• Better for radial systems and systems with long lines
 Methodology
Load Flow Calculation
Possible Convergence Issues
• Negative Impedance
• Zero or Very Small Impedance
• Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
• Long Radial System Configurations
• Improper Initial Bus Voltage Values
• Imbalance of demand/supply in the system
 Generator Operation Modes
Synchronous Generator & Control System
 Generator Operation Modes
Governor Operating Modes
Isochronous:
• This governor setting allows the generator’s power output to be adjusted
based on the system demand
• Frequency (speed) is constant per system’s nominal frequency
Droop:
• This governor setting allows the generator to be Base Loaded, meaning that
the MW output is fixed at fixed frequency
 Generator Operation Modes
Generator Excitation System
AVR: automatic voltage regulation
• Feedback voltage from generator terminal
• Comparison of feedback to reference voltage in AVR unit
Fixed: fixed excitation (no AVR)
 Generator Modes in ETAP
Generator/Power Grid operating modes used in LF calculation
Swing Mode
• Governor in Isochronous mode
• Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
• Governor in Droop Mode
• Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
• Governor in Droop Mode
• Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR action)
PF Control
• Governor in Droop Mode
• AVR Adjusts to Power Factor Setting
 Generator Limits
Generator Capability Curve
• Based on generator MVA rating
• Q>0 in lagging mode
• Q<0 in leading mode
• P>0 in generator mode
• P<0 in motoring mode
• Curve AB; Field Heating limit
• Curve BC; Stator Heating
• Curve CD; Stator Core End Heating
• Point B; Rated Power Factor
• More limitation with no AVR
 Generator Limits
Generator Capability Curve
 Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Toolbar buttons
• Run Load Flow
• Auto Run on/off
• Halt Current Calculation
• Alert View
• Report Manager
• Load Flow Result Analyzer
• Load Flow Comparator
• Display Options
• Unit Show
• Result Options
• Voltage Unit Option
• Load Terminal Voltages
 Load Flow Study Case
Study Case - Info Page
ID
Method
• Select the mathematical calculation
method
Report
• Select the display unit for reporting
Options
• Select the method for specifying initial
voltages
Update
• Select certain fields to updated as the
result of load flow
 Load Flow Study Case
Study Case - Loading Page
Loading Category
• Select specific category to be considered
for the calculation
Generation Category
• Select specific category to be considered
for the calculation
Load Diversity Factor
Charger Loading
• Apply charger loading per operating load or
selected loading category
 Load Flow Study Case
Study Case - Adjustment Page
Impedance Tolerance
• Apply positive tolerance for transformer,
reactor and/or overload heater
Length Tolerance
• Apply positive tolerance for cable and/or
transmission line lengths
Resistance temperature Correction
• Apply Max. temperature for cable and/or
transmission line
 Load Flow Study Case
Study Case - Alert Page
Loading
• Specify critical/marginal loading % for
alerting
Bus Voltage
• Specify critical/marginal over/under
voltage limits
Generator/Power Grid Excitation
• Specify critical/marginal over/under
excitation limits
Auto Display
• Display alerts automatically right after load
flow run
Load Flow Alerts
 Reports
Example (Bus Voltage Display)
Bus4 voltage in Percent
HIJK JILMN = 13.5 #OP"IJ = 13.8
HIJK JILMN
%= × 100 = 97.83%
#OP"IJ

Bus5 voltage in percent:

HIJK JILMN = 4.03 #OP"IJ = 4.16
HIJK JILMN
%= × 100 = 96.85%
#OP"IJ
 Reports
ETAP Report Types
 Reports
ETAP Report Manager
 Reports
Load Flow Analyzer
 Wizards
Scenario Wizard
Create new scenarios / copy existing scenarios
Run scenario based on selected parameters

Scenario Parameters
• System (Network, CSD, UGS)
• Presentation
• Revision
• Configuration
• Study Mode
• Study Type
• Study Case
• Output Report
 Wizards
Study Wizard
Create new study macro / copy existing study
macros
Run study macro based on the order of selected
scenarios

Study Parameters
• Add an existing scenario to end of the list
• Insert an existing scenario in between the
list
• Reorder the scenario list
• Activate/deactivate certain scenarios
• Create selective pause between the
scenario runs
Load Flow Analysis
The End