2.

6 Matrices 183

DEFINITION 10 Let A be a square zero–one matrix and let r be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power of
A is the Boolean product of r factors of A. The rth Boolean product of A is denoted by A[r] .
Hence

A[r] = A
  A  A · · ·  A .
r times

(This is well defined because the Boolean product of matrices is associative.) We also define
A[0] to be In .

⎡ ⎤
0 0 1
EXAMPLE 9 Let A = ⎣1 0 0⎦. Find A[n] for all positive integers n.
1 1 0

Solution: We find that

⎡ ⎤
1 1 0
A[2] = A  A = ⎣0 0 1⎦ .
1 0 1

We also find that

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 1 1 1 1
A[3] = A[2]  A = ⎣1 1 0⎦ , A[4] = A[3]  A = ⎣1 0 1⎦ .
1 1 1 1 1 1

Additional computation shows that

⎡ ⎤
1 1 1
A[5] = ⎣1 1 1⎦ .
1 1 1

The reader can now see that A[n] = A[5] for all positive integers n with n ≥ 5.
▲
Exercises
⎡ ⎤  
1 1 1 3 −1 0 5 6
b) A = ,
1. Let A = ⎣2 0 4 6⎦ . −4 −3 5 −2
1 1 3 7  
−3 9 −3 4
a) What size is A? B= .
0 −2 −1 2
b) What is the third column of A?
c) What is the second row of A? 3. Find ABif   
d) What is the element of A in the (3, 2)th position? 2 1 0 4
a) A = ,B= .
e) What is At ? 3 2 1 3
⎡ ⎤
2. Find A + B, where 1 −1  
⎡ ⎤ 3 −2 −1
1 0 4 b) A = ⎣0 1⎦ , B = .
1 0 2
a) A = ⎣−1 2 2⎦ , 2 3
0 −2 −3 ⎡ ⎤
4 −3  
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ 3 −1⎥ −1 3 2 −2
−1 c) A = ⎣ ,B= .
0 −2⎦
3 5
0 −1 4 −3
B=⎣ 2 2 −3⎦ .
−1 5
2 −3 0
184 2 / Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices

4. Find the product AB, where 15. Let

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 1 0 1 −1  
a) A = ⎣ 0 −1 −1⎦ , B = ⎣ 1 −1 0⎦ . A=
1 1
.
−1 1 0 −1 0 1 0 1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −3 0 1 −1 2 3
Find a formula for An , whenever n is a positive integer.
b) A = ⎣1 2 2⎦ , B = ⎣−1 0 3 −1⎦ .
2 1 −1 −3 −2 0 2 16. Show that (At )t = A.
⎡ ⎤ 17. Let A and B be two n × n matrices. Show that
0 −1  
4 −1 2 3 0 a) (A + B)t = At + Bt .
c) A = ⎣ 7 2⎦ , B = .
−2 0 3 4 1 b) (AB)t = Bt At .
−4 −3
5. Find a matrix A such that If A and B are n × n matrices with AB = BA = In , then B
is called the inverse of A (this terminology is appropriate be-
   
2 3 3 0 cause such a matrix B is unique) and A is said to be invertible.
A= . The notation B = A−1 denotes that B is the inverse of A.
1 4 1 2
18. Show that
[Hint: Finding A requires that you solve systems of linear ⎡ ⎤
equations.] 2 3 −1
⎣ 1 2 1⎦
6. Find a matrix A such that −1 −1 3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3 2 7 1 3
⎣2 is the inverse of
1 1⎦ A = ⎣ 1 0 3⎦ .
4 0 3 −1 −3 7 ⎡ ⎤
7 −8 5
⎣−4 5 −3⎦ .
7. Let A be an m × n matrix and let 0 be the m × n matrix 1 −1 1
that has all entries equal to zero. Show that A = 0 + A =
A + 0. 19. Let A be the 2 × 2 matrix
8. Show that matrix addition is commutative; that is,  
show that if A and B are both m × n matrices, then a b
A= .
A + B = B + A. c d
9. Show that matrix addition is associative; that is, show
that if A, B, and C are all m × n matrices, then Show that if ad − bc = 0, then
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C. ⎡ d −b ⎤
10. Let A be a 3 × 4 matrix, B be a 4 × 5 matrix, and C be a ⎢ ad − bc ad − bc ⎥
4 × 4 matrix. Determine which of the following products A−1 =⎢
⎣ −c
⎥.
⎦
are defined and find the size of those that are defined. a
a) AB b) BA c) AC ad − bc ad − bc
d) CA e) BC f ) CB 20. Let
11. What do we know about the sizes of the matrices A and
 
B if both of the products AB and BA are defined? −1 2
A= .
12. In this exercise we show that matrix multiplication is dis- 1 3
tributive over matrix addition.
a) Suppose that A and B are m × k matrices and that C a) Find A−1 . [Hint: Use Exercise 19.]
is a k × n matrix. Show that (A + B)C = AC + BC. b) Find A3 .
b) Suppose that C is an m × k matrix and that A and B are c) Find (A−1 )3 .
k × n matrices. Show that C(A + B) = CA + CB. d) Use your answers to (b) and (c) to show that (A−1 )3
13. In this exercise we show that matrix multiplication is is the inverse of A3 .
associative. Suppose that A is an m × p matrix, B is 21. Let A be an invertible matrix. Show that (An )−1 =
a p × k matrix, and C is a k × n matrix. Show that (A−1 )n whenever n is a positive integer.
A(BC) = (AB)C. 22. Let A be a matrix. Show that the matrix AAt is symmet-
14. The n × n matrix A = [aij ] is called a diagonal matrix if ric. [Hint: Show that this matrix equals its transpose with
aij = 0 when i  = j . Show that the product of two n × n the help of Exercise 17b.]
diagonal matrices is again a diagonal matrix. Give a sim- 23. Suppose that A is an n × n matrix where n is a positive
ple rule for determining this product. integer. Show that A + At is symmetric.
 Key Terms and Results 185

24. a) Show that the system of simultaneous linear equations 28. Find the Boolean product of A and B, where

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 1 0 0 1
1 0
⎢0 1⎥
A = ⎣0 1⎦ B=⎣ .
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 1 1⎦
1 0 and
.. 1 1 1 1
1 0
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn = bn .
29. Let
in the variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn can be expressed as ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0
AX = B, where A = [aij ], X is an n × 1 matrix with
A = ⎣1 0 1⎦ .
xi the entry in its ith row, and B is an n × 1 matrix 0 1 0
with bi the entry in its ith row.
b) Show that if the matrix A = [aij ] is invertible (as Find
defined in the preamble to Exercise 18), then the so-
a) A[2] . b) A[3] .
lution of the system in part (a) can be found using the [2] [3]
c) A ∨ A ∨ A .
equation X = A−1 B.
30. Let A be a zero–one matrix. Show that
25. Use Exercises 18 and 24 to solve the system
a) A ∨ A = A. b) A ∧ A = A.
31. In this exercise we show that the meet and join opera-
7x1 − 8x2 + 5x3 = 5
tions are commutative. Let A and B be m × n zero–one
−4x1 + 5x2 − 3x3 = −3 matrices. Show that
a) A ∨ B = B ∨ A. b) B ∧ A = A ∧ B.
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
32. In this exercise we show that the meet and join opera-
tions are associative. Let A, B, and C be m × n zero–one
26. Let
matrices. Show that
    a) (A ∨ B) ∨ C = A ∨ (B ∨ C).
1 1 0 1
A= and B= . b) (A ∧ B) ∧ C = A ∧ (B ∧ C).
0 1 1 0
33. We will establish distributive laws of the meet over the
join operation in this exercise. Let A, B, and C be m × n
Find
zero–one matrices. Show that
a) A ∨ B. b) A ∧ B. c) A  B.
a) A ∨ (B ∧ C) = (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C).
27. Let b) A ∧ (B ∨ C) = (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C).
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 34. Let A be an n × n zero–one matrix. Let I be the n × n
1 0 1 0 1 1 identity matrix. Show that A  I = I  A = A.
A = ⎣1 1 0⎦ and B = ⎣1 0 1⎦ .
0 0 1 1 0 1 35. In this exercise we will show that the Boolean prod-
uct of zero–one matrices is associative. Assume that A
is an m × p zero–one matrix, B is a p × k zero–one
Find matrix, and C is a k × n zero–one matrix. Show that
a) A ∨ B. b) A ∧ B. c) A  B. A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C.

Key Terms and Results

TERMS S ⊆ T (S is a subset of T ): every element of S is also an
set: a collection of distinct objects element of T
axiom: a basic assumption of a theory S ⊂ T (S is a proper subset of T ): S is a subset of T and
paradox: a logical inconsistency S = T
element, member of a set: an object in a set finite set: a set with n elements, where n is a nonnegative
roster method: a method that describes a set by listing its integer
elements
infinite set: a set that is not finite
set builder notation: the notation that describes a set by stating
a property an element must have to be a member |S| (the cardinality of S): the number of elements in S
∅ (empty set, null set): the set with no members P(S) (the power set of S): the set of all subsets of S
universal set: the set containing all objects under considera- A ∪ B (the union of A and B): the set containing those ele-
tion ments that are in at least one of A and B
Venn diagram: a graphical representation of a set or sets A ∩ B (the intersection of A and B): the set containing those
S = T (set equality): S and T have the same elements elements that are in both A and B.