26.08.

2018

EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

Level II
Huye campus
A.Y 2017-2018

Brief description of aims and content
• Introduction on the concepts and foundations 
of ET
• Understanding of the range of media for TL
• Use of learning media
• Use of community research in ET
• Use of library as a resource in TL
• Elaboration of teaching materials using local 
materials

Learning outcomes

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Knowledge and understanding

• The meaning of Education technology and 
media 
• The meaning of Improvisation in education 
• The meaning of Education technology, 
implications and relation to education in 
general and the teaching‐learning process

Cognitive/Intellectual 
skills/Application of knowledge
• Criticize, analyse, interpret and synthesize the 
technology used in education before drawing 
and defending conclusions.
• Reflect, identify, justify and discuss the 
improvisation in Education.

Communication/ICT/Numeracy/Analy
tic Techniques/Practical skills
• World process, find and use information on the 
web or elsewhere (Library) and apply in own 
context
• Communicate effectively with appropriate use of 
education media
• Make their own teaching materials using local 
inputs
• Present arguments with lucidity, coherence and 
concision.

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General transferable skills

• Improve own learning and performance 
• Develop a capacity to plan and manage 
learning
• Critically reflect on their own learning
• Work to deadlines.
• Work individually and in teams.

Indicative content
• The concepts and foundations of educational
technology.
• Theory of communication process; mediated
communication and the learning process, verbal
and non‐verbal communication.
• The range of media for teaching and learning;
Audio, visual and audio visual.
• Design, techniques of producing graphic and
three dimensional learning resources.
• Electronic media in Education: projectors,
cameras, turntables, cassette recorders, radio &
T.V and computers.

Indicative content
• School broadcast‐selection and use of learning
media, use of community research in
educational technology.
• Library as a resource in teaching and learning.
• Concept of improvisation as a tool for
improving teachers’ knowledge in education
technology and the relevance of improvisation
in classroom teaching and learning activities.
• Creation of the teaching and learning material
using the local inputs.

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Assessment

• CAT: 60%
• FINAL EXAM 40%

Referring to the learning outcomes, describe

what you expect to learn at the end of this
module.

Introduction
Many changes are happening worlwide because of:
• Knowledge explosion in all subjects
• Fast information dissemination
• Increase in scientific and technological development
• The need for advances in human resource
development
• The need to meet parental and societal demands
• The needs and interests of learners
These explain:
 The demand for high quality education
 The need of ET and communication for effective TLP.

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Assignment

A typical example of an educational system is the

set up of Protestant Institute of Arts and Social
Sciences. Identify the major components making up
PIASS and then highlight them using a
diagrammatic sketch.

The systems approach
What is a system?
It is a set of connected things that form a whole or
work together. I could also be described as an object or
an event made up of parts that are co‐operatively
working together for an earlier determined objective.
The parts of the system are mutually independent but
their functions are related for the benefit of the whole.
 The whole is more than a simple summation of its
constituents parts (See Gestalt Theory)
Eg of systems: Natural (body, ecosystems, etc) and
man‐made or artificial (computers, cars, television, etc)

Characteristics of a system
• The individual parts are arranged in such a way
that each perfoms its specific responsibilities
without obstructing the normal job of its
neighbour
• In order to perform their individual functions
effectively each part relates to one another
based on a set of principles or laws or rules
• The principles that govern or control the
different parts of a system could be natural or
artificial
• Within the functions of a system is that there is
a feedback mechanism.

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Educational system
• Education is described as a social process through
which individuals acquire ways, beliefs and standards
of the society.
• What is happening in a school the whole social
system
• In line with the dynamics of life, education can be
considered as a life‐long process spanning all of the
years from earliest infancy to the death
• An educational system is made up of parts which are
mainly human and material resources
• An education system involves planning, managing
and assessing. It equally has goals and objectives
which are themselves derivatives of national policies
and missions.

Educational system
Education is a very complex involving input and
output (see diagram below for instance)

Input:  Output:
Target students  Students 
Human  whose 
resources  Education or  performance 
Technical  learning process  has been 
resources (Black box) improved in 
Financial  specific areas
resources
Information

Consider target population 
characteristics and topic area

Estimate relevant existing skills 
and knowledge of learners
A simplified 
Formulate objectives systems 
approach to 
course or 
Select appropriate teaching 
strategies
programme 
design
Implement the programme

Learning experience (activity)

Assessment and evaluation stage

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Consider target population characteristics and 
topic area
Estimate relevant existing skills and knowledge 
of learners

Formulate objectives

Select appropriate teaching strategies

Implement the programme

Learning experience (activity)

Assessment and evaluation stage

Characteristics of the systems approach
• It could be described as a holistic manner of
looking at the TL system
• It helps an individual to consider in detail most of
the factors in a teaching or instructional
condition
• Consider the TLP like selling Vs buying in the
market. If no individual student is buying (i.e.
Understanding) your subject, obviously you could
be described as not selling. Instead you are a
poor teacher.
• The systems approach brings about a careful
integration of media materials, and process into
teaching starting from the planning session.

Characteristics of the systems approach

Note:
In traditional lesson planning system, most teachers
haphazardly introduce audio‐visual teaching aids
into instruction when in most cases they need relief
or a break from solely monotonous content
delivery.

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System environment

Content  Media 
subsystem subsystem
Input: Teacher 
Concepts, subsystem
Principles, Learner 
Methods  Output:
Skills,  subsystem
subsystem Performance 
Etc. of learners 
already 
improved.

System – Environment
Supra ‐ System

The above diagramme shows that:

• There are inputs, outputs and interactions which
functions are interrelated. Any deviations in one
will automatically affect the others
• Every decision taken by each part is determined
by an earleir agreed objective (i.e. Pre‐planned
objective)
• Systems approach to instructional models shows
how each phase (e.g. Teacher, learner, method,
etc) fits with the next phase and feedback loops
thereby facilitates revision and review.

Remember
 A system by way of description is a wholistic way 
of viewing things.
 It generates from the idea that a “whole” is made
up of separate parts but each part works
cooperatively to make for efficient performance.
 In other words, the philosophical saying – “A
whole is greater than the sum total of its parts”
actually describes what a “system” is.
 According to Kaufman (1968), a system is defined
as “the sum total of separate parts working
independently and in interaction to achieve
previously specified objectives”.

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Remember
 This “system” view can be applied to educational 
and instructional processes. 
 This is so when “education” and “instruction” are
viewed as concepts with separate and yet
interlocking parts which function together to
achieve predetermined objectives.
 When “systems” is used in an applied form as is
the case above, we then talk of “systems
approach”.
 Systems Approach (SA) can thus be defined as a
systematic process of solving problems,
particularly educational or instructional
problems.

Then:
• Systems Approach is a problem‐solving process in
which the problem solver engages in series of
steps – taking at solving a particular identified
educational problem. Broadly speaking, systems
approach comprises of two major parts, namely:
(i) system analysis, and (ii) system synthesis.
• By system analysis we are speaking of a process
whereby a given problem is broken down into
bits. It is at this stage that the actual problem is
identified and analyzed with a view of setting
goals or objectives. Technically speaking, system
analysis consists of “Mission analysis, functional
analysis, task analysis and consideration for
methods and means” (Kaufman, 1968).

• Mission analysis, on the other hand refers to the

determination of the end product of the system
analysis. It includes the various steps of
identifying an overall “mission objective”.
• Functional Analysis: As is expected, it is closely
related to mission analysis. It consists of breaking
down of functions earlier identified under
mission analysis with a view of grouping them
into various components that would make for a
functional mission profile.

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• Functional analysis is the attempt used to leave

out impossibilities and concentrate on “possible”
options. Since functional analysis centres on
“specifics” rather than “general”, it naturally
leads to “task analysis”.
• Task analysis is concerned with the
determination of the sub‐skills that are required
to learn an identified task. The “task” has to be
analysed to make it easy to identify the best
strategy that could be adopted to accomplish the
objective.

• The remaining system analysis step is called

“method‐means analysis”. This step is important
in the sense that at every stage of system
analysis, there is need to consider “alternatives”
that are considered best in terms of speed and
accuracy in the attainment of set objectives.
• In system synthesis, available data from system
analysis stage are utilized to select solution
strategies, implementing solution strategies and
the evaluation of the total system in the
environment for which they were designed.

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Assignment:
Referring to the above diagram, sketch the
digramme illustrating the Rwandan educational
system

The concept of technology

Meaning and history of technology
• Technology: systematic study of techniques for making
and doing things.
 The history of technology corresponds to the history of
man.
 It can be traced pre‐history periods
 Or to the time man started carving and shaping wood,
stones, bones, clay etc into suitable shapes for various
uses such as the building of shelters, tools and other
goods.
 Other technological periods include:
 European technology: British industrial revolution,
new age of electrical technology, electronic
technology, space technology and computer.
 Information technology: you may equaly think of
textile technology, printing technology, educational
technology

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Meaning and history of technology
• The term technology can be xplained as a systematic
integrated process of delimiting and anlysing
problems, devising, implementing, managing,
controlling and evaluating solutions to problems.
• It means that in solving a problem, all resources need
to be organized in an integrated process.
Note: In TLP, human and material resources must be
involved for learning to take place.
The entire system could be described as systematic
application of scientific or organized knowledge to
practical tasks.

What is Educational Technology?

Educational technology
• Many people have misconceptions about ET. They
confuse it with: printing, medical illustration,
photograph, creative arts, audio‐visual aids, editing,
curriculum development, science material
development, teaching aids, etc.
• Each of these is part of the ET components
• ET Simply means technology applied in educational
situations.
• But to remove these misconceptions about ET, we
should look at ET as an emerging concept that can be
classified into two broad manners.

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Educational technology
(i) ET should be seen as a media born of the
communication revolution.
It is in this case a tool‐technology with emphasis on
audio‐visual aids
The emphasis is on the hardware and tools made
outside education with no direct or deliberate design
mechanism for contributions to the quality or quantity
of learning taking place.
(ii) ET is a systematic way of designing, carrying out,
assessing and evaluating the total process of learning in
terms of specific objectives, based on research in
human learning and communication, and employing a
combination of human and non‐human resources.

Educational technology
• ET indicates an analytic procedure for
devising and managing a set of experiences
(activities) for a finite and describable
student population with the intent of
facilitating the attainment of a specified set
of learning outcomes.
• In this regard, ET is considered as a process
of solving instructional problems rather than
a means.

Hardware, Software and the systems approach
• The hardware approach takes ET as a direct
application of the physical sciences to education
 This is usually called the traditional approach with
emphasis on equipment (projectors, tape recorders,
cameras, video recorders/players, etc) UB1
• With regard to software approach, ET is closely
related to progammed learning
• The system approach is also called problem solving.
 It is the application of knowledge in a systematic and
scientific method to solve educational problem.

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Slide 39

UB1 These were initially intended to facilitate mass-communication rather than communication.
University of Bamberg, 4/24/2018
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Hardware, Software and the systems approach
 The systems approach to instruction is described as
an attempt to bring together or synthesize all
theories, principles and practices in education for
application to help ensuring effectiveness in the TLP.
UB2
 The systems approach includes various components
that combine together to ensure effective classroom
instruction.

Application of the systems approach
The systems approach requires the teacher to answer
the following questions:
 What goals do I intend to achieve?
 Under which conditions will students seek to achieve
the goals?
 What resources are required for necessary learning
experiences?
 How well were goals achieved and what needs to be
changed? (to take remedial action)
Even though there are many definitions of ET, the push
is towards the systems approach.

According to AECT (Association of Educational 
Communications Technology, 1996)
• ET is a complex, integrated process involving
people, procedures, ideas, devices, and
organization, for analyzing problems and
devising, implementing, evaluating, and
managing solutions to those problems,
involved in all aspects of human learning.
• The solutions to problems take the form of all
the learning resources which are identified as:
messages, people, materials, devices,
techniques, and settings.

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Slide 40

UB2 These were initially intended to facilitate mass-communication rather than communication.
University of Bamberg, 4/24/2018
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Learning resources
• Message: information to be transmitted by the 
other components; takes the form of ideas, facts, 
meanings, data (e.g. any subject matter).
• People: e.g. teacher, student, speaker.
• Material: traditionally called media/software (e.g. 
pictures, books)
• Device: traditionally called hardware (e.g. radio). 
• Technique: routine procedures for using 
materials, devices, settings, and people to 
transmit message (e.g. field trip).
• Setting: the environment in which the messages 
are received (e.g. physical and environmental). 

Implications of Educational technology
• Shift from the use of media (audio‐visual) to
systems approach in TLP
• ET an open strategy for solving educational
problems
• The concept of ET is totally integrative
• ET allows a rational development and
integration of both human and non‐human
resources in TL environment.

The role of educational technology
ET is identified as a possible solution to some problems in
education:
• Lack of lecture halls, school classrooms, funds
• Lack of sufficient purchasing power (students, parents &
schools)
• Lack of sufficient equipment, materials and laboratories
• Shortage of qualified teachers
• Bookish and examination oriented curriculum
• Memorisation of lecture notes (Known as rote learning)
• Large class size
• Hunger (due to lack of feeding) while in a classroom
• Poverty related problems

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The role of educational technology
ET is identified as a possible solution to some problems in
education:
• Unconducive / bad learning environment
• Lack of references
• Use of Ict
• Insuficiency of TL materials
• Teachings methods / Unqualified teachers
• Absence of girls during menstruation periods
• Time management
• Special education needs
• Lack of ICT use
• Bad condition of materials
• Lack of relationship between teachers and parents
• Low critical thinking

The role of educational technology
ET is identified as a possible solution to some problems in
education:
• Big class size
• Lack of training
• Lack of lecturers
• Communication barriers (low English communication)
• Lack of creativity and innovation among learners
• Students‘ignorance
• Time of research
• Lack of confidence
• Expensive materials

The role of educational technology
Note that:
• ET is not just a collection and systematic operation of
educational material and equipment
• It is rather a systematic approach involving
identification of educational problems, needs,
resources, procedures as well as continous
assessment
 ET is a systematic route of designing, executing and
evaluating the total process of TL in relation to
specific objectives
 Media should be considered as part of educational
technology and not the whole of it

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The main functions of ET
(i) As Audion‐visual aids (record players, disc sets,
televisions, telephones ...)
• Assist in the presentation of facts, principles, laws
and concepts
• Increase interest and arouse the enthusiasm of
learners
• Pictures and images can impress very clearly in the
minds and memory of learners
• Understanding of structures of learning (eg:
observing the historical development of an area
using a documentary movie)

The main functions of ET
(ii) As technological media
ET acting as media to solve educational problems
presents itself through instruments or machines (films,
radio, television, telecommunication information
gadgets and computers)
These instruments are now being used in education
(eg: distance learning programmes, videotaped
recordings of experienced teachers)

The main functions of ET
(iii) As an instrument that improves approaches to
instruction
Through systematic approach, teachers and learners
would:
• learn how to formulate their objectives in specific
and measurable terms
• acquire several methods of solving educational
poblems
• more than ever before produce effective assessment
of themselves as well as their teaching strategies and
skills

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It should be noted that due to ET:

TL is now more purposeful, scientific and more easily
quantifiable than before
TL is no longer a gamble
 Learner becomes the centre of learning process
through which all other things rotate
 Teacher who used to be the encyclopedia of
knowledge is regarded as facilitator of knowledge, an
adviser and a guardian.

Assignment
1. Use the views of Behaviorists, Cognitivists and
Constructivists on learning to explain why you
should study Educational Technology.
2. Identify particular educational problems in Rwanda
that you think should be minimized by the
introduction of Educational Technology.

Good morning test
From yesterday session,
• If someone asks you the meaning of technology and
educational technology, what would you tell the
person?
• Explain three TL related problems of your choice that
would be solved by educational technology.

08:50 – 09:20

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Theories and practices

• Three main theoretical schools or

philosophical frameworks have been present
in the educational technology literature:
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and
Constructivism.
• Each of these schools of thought are still
present in today's literature but have
evolved as the Psychology literature has
evolved.

Behaviourism
• This theoretical framework was developed in the
early 20th century with the animal learning
experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike,
Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and
many others.
• Many psychologists used these theories to describe
and experiment with human learning.
• While still very useful this philosophy of learning has
lost favor with many educators.

Behaviourists
• Believe that learning is a passive process
• Students learn based on responses to their 
environment
• Learning is not a mental activity

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Cognitivism
• Cognitive science has changed how educators view
learning. Since the very early beginning of the
Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s,
learning theory has undergone a great deal of
change.
• Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism
was retained even though a new paradigm had
begun.
• Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain
brain‐based learning.
• Cognitivists consider how human memory works to
promote learning.

Cognitivism
• It is important to note that Computer Science and
Information Technology have had a major influence
on Cognitive Science theory.
• The Cognitive concepts of working memory
(formerly known as short term memory) and long
term memory have been facilitated by research and
technology from the field of Computer Science.

Cognitivists
• Focus on learning as a mental operation
• Behavior is viewed as an indicator of cognitive 
processes rather than just an outcome
• Explain learning in terms of how one thinks. 

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Constructivism
• Started in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of
this philosophy is that learners construct their own
meaning from new information, as they interact with
reality or others with different perspectives.
• Constructivist learning environments require
students to utilize their prior knowledge and
experiences to formulate new, related, and/or
adaptive concepts in learning.
• Under these frameworks, the role of the teacher
becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so
that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Constructivism
• Constructivist educators must make sure that the 
prior learning experiences are appropriate and 
related to the concepts being taught. 
• Jonassen (1997) suggests "well‐structured" learning 
environments are useful for novice learners and that 
"ill‐structured" environments are only useful for 
more advanced learners. 
• Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a 
constructivist perspective should choose 
technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in 
a problem‐solving environment.

Constructivists
• Knowledge is a constructed element resulting 
from the learning process 
• Knowledge is based on one’s experiences

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Where technology fits in 
• Teachers should try to find avenues that
would allow them to help all students master
the intended curriculum
• Technology is the bridge between the teacher
and the students. Its utilization in class is an
indicator of what education will be like for
future generations.

Instructional technology Vs educational 
technology
• ET is wider in scope than instructional technology
• ET is applied to education in general whereas
instructional technology is closely related to instruction
• In relation to components:
• ET broadly consists of curriculum and instruction, general
administration, supportive and maintenance
departments, finance / account, etc of the
institution/school
• IT is made up of teacher, content of the subject matter,
types of media machines to be used in the classroom,
methods of instruction (eg: lecture, discover,
individualised, etc.)

The concept of improvisation
In science of teaching or IT, improvisation means the
act of using alternative material and resources to
improve or facilitate instruction whenever there is
shortage of some specific first hand teaching aids.
It attempts to solve the problem of economy
It deals with education
Even though equipment must be procured for effective
learning to take place, there is limit to which teachers
can improvise
A teacher should be able to improvise pieces of
materials contrived from locally sourced material.
It involves role simulation or role substitution

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The concept of improvisation
In science of teaching or IT, improvisation means the
act of using alternative material and resources to
improve or facilitate instruction whenever there is
shortage of some specific first hand teaching aids.
It attempts to solve the problem of economy
It deals with education
Even though equipment must be procured for effective
learning to take place, there is limit to which teachers
can improvise
A teacher should be able to improvise pieces of
materials contrived from locally sourced material.
It involves role simulation or role substitution

Objectives of improvisation
To provide the learner with new and exciting
experiences in learning not possible until with the
existing equipment in the school
To reduce the cost of apparatus needed to carry out an
experiment without sacrificing either accuracy or
precision
To design such apparatus so that a number of
experiments could be performed
To give a better and more direct illustration of the
pinciple involved
To design experiments which are simpler, more
accurate and easier to perform

Skills of improvisation
A teacher needs basic skills in simple wood and metal work,
soldering, bending, cutting and drawing glass
Unfortunately, most of teachers especially in developing
countries do not have these skills
They can acquire them from handcraft colleagues, local
tradesmen such as radio repairers, blacksmiths, motor
mechanics, vulcanologists, etc.
Or acquire these skills through in‐service training/courses
Or refer to textbooks, laboratory or teachers‘guides or
manuals
Materials for improvisation can be obtained from crops,
local industries, carpenters sheds, local markets, etc.

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The role of improvisation
It aims at reducing cost of equipment and materials
It is an expensive method of widening the scope of
inquiry
It promotes curiosity, creativity, alertness, endurance,
perseverance and productive application of intellect
It is a means of local replication of the universality of
science and technology
Apparatus made from locally sourced materials help
the principle clearer and does not give the learner the
impression that learning through IT can only take place
with specialized media or instruments

Requirements of improvisation
• Cost: Quality material takes time to produce and
adequate staff time as well as resources need to be
allocated
• Quality: Teacher‐made materials will not normally
have the same standard of design and production as
commercial materials and hence may not present the
same image as commercial material
• Training: To prepare teachers for materials writing
projects, adequate training is necessary. Materials
writing is a specialized skill and not all teachers are
capable of writing good materials.

Improvisation and TL process
It makes lessons interesting to both learners and
teachers
Learners realize that IT has to do with oridinary
materials and are motivated to carry out experiments
themselves using such improvised materials
 They perform their own ingenuity through self‐
performed and repeated experiments
 In this case, they assume the role of devisers and
constructors of scientific equipment

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Assignment
(1) Find examples of where improvisation can be used
in teaching and learning process i.e. You are to
teach a certain subject, what do you think could be
improvised and how.
(2) Take any interested lesson to you and then create a
teaching aid you would use to make it more
effective using local materials.

Educational media
• Materials that came into existence as a result of the
communication revolution
• To be used for the purposes of instructions alongside
the teacher, textbook and chalk/white board
• Self‐suporting instruments or devices which can be
used by educators to present a complete body of
information in the teaching‐learning system.
• It is a complete system that can carry whole
instructional messages
• They are used in order to achieve efficiency and
effectiveness in the educational cycle.

Assignment
• What does educational media mean?
• Identify the categories with examples of educational
media used by teachers in our context (in Rwanda).
• Describe the criteria for the selection of educational
media and factors hindering the use of educational
media.
• Share your personal experiences in this regards i.e.
Where the use of educational media helped to
understand what you were being taught.
To be submitted on Friday, 24th August 2018 at 18.00

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Assignment
• Elaborate a mind map illustrating the meaning
of educational media, categories of
educational media as well as one example for
each categories
Or
• Elaborate a mind map illustrating the meaning
of educational media, criteria of selection and
factors hindering the use of educational
media.

Categories of educational media
• Display materials: cloth boards, bulletin boards, flat
pictures, chalk / white board, etc.
• Printed or reference materials: textbooks,
encyclopedia, dictionaries, magazine, etc.
• Graphic materials: graphs, charts, diagrams, posters,
maps, globes, cartons, etc.
• Audio‐visual materials: radio, telephone, television,
record‐tape‐recording, computer, etc.
• Projected aids (as still or motions pictures):
filmstrip/slide projector, micro‐projector, opaque
projector and over held projectors produces still
pictures

The chalk board
The following negative characteristics should be
considered for TLP effectiveness:
• Bad surface
• Teachers‘ bad writing
• Teachers‘ bad arrangement
• Lack of illustration by teachers

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Radio and television use
• They offer experiences difficult for teacher to provide
in the classroom
• They could be recorded by the class teacher during
transmission and then played back at a convenient
time
• They have to be planned in advance
• To achieve the goals, the teacher should discuss the
purpose of the broadcast with his/her learners i.e.
Tell them what he/she wants them to see/do during
the broadcast.
• The teacher should check the work ability of the
radio/television set earlier in the day.

Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
• “Computer‐assisted instruction” (CAI) refers to 
instruction or remediation presented on a 
computer. 
• Many educational computer programs are available 
online and from computer stores and textbook 
companies. 
• They enhance teacher instruction in several ways:
• Information that helps teach or encourages 
interaction can be presented on computers in the 
form of text or in multimedia formats like 
photographs, videos, animation, speech, colors, 
sounds, and music. 

• Computers also can help students visualize

objects that are difficult or impossible to view.
• For example, computers can be used to display
human anatomy, molecular structures, or
complex geometrical objects.
• Exploration and manipulation of simulated
environments can be accomplished with CAI ‐
ranging from virtual laboratory experiments
that may be too difficult, expensive, or
dangerous to perform in a school environment
to complex virtual worlds like those used in
airplane flight simulators.

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• CAI tools, such as word processors,

spreadsheets, and databases, collect,
organize, analyze, and transmit information.
• They also facilitate communication among
students, between students and instructors,
and beyond the classroom to distant students,
instructors, and experts.

• CAL enhances interactive learning: the student is

the one to select a particular lesson from a range
of choices, acting on the material presented by
computer, forming judgments, theories, or
attitudes based on Cal lesson. This type of dialog
is unachievable from reading a textbook.
• Individualized teaching: as educators, if we value
the uniqueness of each student as an individual,
and we believe in the goal of tailing the needs of
each individual, we find ourselves struggling to
individualize instruction

• One of the first attempts of the publishers to

individualize instruction came in the form of
programmed learning texts.
• The materials were designed so that students
move through the instructional sequence
according to some what of fixed patterns.
• In CAI, the students choose how they want to
proceed through a lesson.

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• Students control over rate of presentation: In

the conventional textbook presentation,
material is printed on the page in the same
way.
• This interferes with learning because students
have little choice regarding the amount of the
material presented at one time. However, on
the computer students exercise control over
how long it stays.

• Special education: CAL has proven effective with

deaf students because of the computer’s ability to
interact with the students through dialog.
• They are able to carry out the conversation with
the computer without the barrier of the hearing
loss.
• Physically handicapped students with little hand
mobility have shown they can benefit from CAL
lessons on computers when using specially
designed paddles as input devices.
• Many students with learning disabilities benefit
from the computer’s ability to combine sound,
graphics, pictorial information, and motions to
teach particular concept.

Advantage and disadvantages
• CAI can dramatically increase a student's access to
information. The program can adapt to the
abilities and preferences of the individual student
and increase the amount of personalized
instruction a student receives.
• Many students benefit from the immediate
responsiveness of computer interactions and
appreciate the self‐paced and private learning
environment.
• Moreover, computer‐learning experiences often
engage the interest of students, motivating them
to learn and increasing independence and
personal responsibility for education.

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• Although it is difficult to assess the

effectiveness of any educational system,
numerous studies have reported that CAI is
successful in raising examination scores,
improving student attitudes, and lowering the
amount of time required to master certain
material.
• While study results vary greatly, there is
substantial evidence that CAI can enhance
learning at all educational levels.

• In some applications, especially those

involving abstract reasoning and problem‐
solving processes, CAI has not been very
effective.
• Critics claim that poorly designed CAI systems
can dehumanize or regiment the educational
experience and thereby diminish student
interest and motivation.
• Other disadvantages of CAI stem from the
difficulty and expense of implementing and
maintaining the necessary computer systems.

• Some student failures can be traced to

inadequate teacher training in CAI systems.
• Student training in the computer technology
may be required as well, and this process can
distract from the core educational process.
• Although much effort has been directed at
developing CAI systems that are easy to use
and incorporate expert knowledge of teaching
and learning, such systems are still far from
achieving their full potential.

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Functions of educational media in instruction
They can be used for the following purposes:
• Introduction of a topic on a specific objective
• Illustration of an idea, fact, principle or points
• Summarising a lesson
• Motivating students
• Encouraging more active participating students in
their learning
• Providing concrete experiences that serves as basis
for thinking, reasoning and problem solving.
• Presenting a large amount of information within a
short period
• Increasing the amount of initial learning and
permanency of learning

Educational media services
In order to achieve an effective and efficient system,
the management of the system must be well
organised and co‐ordinated. Media services including
the folowing not left behind:
• Production service
• Group presentation services
• Self instructional presentation services
• Instructional development services
• Educational planning services

Criteria for the selection of educational media
One way of judging the competency of a teacher is to
look at his or her creative ability in the use of
classroom media.
• Objectives and learners characteristics
• Learners readiness for effective participation
• Learning style
• Teachers should guide learners in their response to
experiences with media
• Subject both media and their utilisation techniques
to continual evaluation
• Availability of media parts
• Teachers capability

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Assignment

Choose one educational media centre (like university

library, computer information centre) discuss its major
problems and then mitigation measures.

Criteria for the selection of educational media
One way of judging the competency of a teacher is to
look at his or her creative ability in the use of
classroom media.
• Objectives and learners characteristics
• Learners readiness for effective particiaption
• Learning style
• Teachers should guide learners in their response to
experiences with media
• Subject both media and their utilisation techniques
to continual evaluation
• Availability of media parts
• Teachers capability

Learning strategies and use of media
Learning styles
• Factual knowledge: textbooks, programme texts,
audiotapes, etc.
• Visual identification: pictures, television, maps, etc.
• Concept learning: use radio, internet, films, etc.
• Learning principles
• Learning psychomotor skills
• Learning problem solving: recalling the steps
already learnt
• Developing attitudes and value: practical
demonstration that could easily bring about change
of habits in people. Use textbooks, television, etc.

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Discuss factors that could reduce the

successful use of media in the teaching and
learning process.

Factors hindering effective use of media
• Attributes and media characteristics
• Physical and material factors
 Availability of audio‐visual materials
 Environment and infrastructure
 Audience
 Cost of operation
 Personnel
 Teachers / lecturers attitude
 Political support

Communication process and media use

• Suppose that once meeting your teacher / leader

outside, he tells you:

„Follow me in my office!“

• How would you understand this message?

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Communication process and media use
Receiver 
Message
decodes

Sender 
Channel
encodes

• Communication is a circular process not linear.

• Feedback makes communication self‐correcting or
self‐regulating.

Teachers‘ responsiblity

Four sides communication model by 
Friedemann Schulz von Thun

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Read and discuss the given text in relation to the

above mentioned figure.

Communication model
• The model says that every message has four facets, 
though not the same emphasis might be put on 
each.
• A message (communication) can therefore be sent 
as well as received as one of the four sides of 
information.
• The model has two personas and a couple of 
elements:

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Communication model
Metaphorically:
• When you’re the sender your main intent is 
spoken through one of 4 beaks. 
• As the receiver you’re listening through one of four 
ears. 

Example 1: „Could you come to my office, please?“
I would like to speak with him about a student who 
should leave the school.

I want to show him that I have power to put on him 
my agenda.

He is a friend of my neighbor so I want to be polite.

I really want to stop the parents to make such a noise 
on my school.

Example 2
Two people are eating a home‐cooked meal together. The 
one who didn’t cook says:
• Sender: “There is something green in the soup.”
Factual Information: There is something green.
Appeal layer: Tell me what it is!
Relationship layer: You should know what it is.
Self‐revealing layer: I don’t like greens in my soup.
• Receiver‘s perception/ preceived intenet through
analysis
Factual Information: There is something green.
Appeal layer: I should only cook what you know in the 
future!
Relationship layer: You think my cooking is questionable.
Self‐revealing layer: You do not know what the green item 
is, and that makes you feel uncomfortable.

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Example 2
• Because of the perceived intention of the message, 
the receiver might answer:
• Receiver: “If you don’t like the taste, you can cook 
it yourself!”

Misunderstood!

This soup example shows how amazingly the sender

and receiver have championed the art of
misunderstanding! It also shows the HUGE potential
in misunderstanding each other.

Note on the communication model

• Each layer of the model can be misunderstood
individually.
• The sender might want to deliver an appeal.
• The receiver will understand the message
depending on the ear he listens with.
• He might rightly hear the appeal, but he might also
just hear it as factual information.
• This leads to misunderstanding, frustration and
potential conflict (e.g. the appeal isn’t being
fulfilled).

The two truths
• The sender has an intention, that is usually
hidden/implicit in the message. The intention is
the sender’s truth.
• The receiver analyses the information heard, by
matching it against his beliefs, values as well as his
experiences. His perception of what he heard
becomes the receiver’s truth.
• Sender: Intention => truth
Receiver: Perception => truth
Sender’s truth != Receiver’s truth
(the receiver’s truth might not be the sender’s 
truth)

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The two truths
• The sender has an intention, that is usually
hidden/implicit in the message. The intention is
the sender’s truth.
• The receiver analyses the information heard, by
matching it against his beliefs, values as well as his
experiences. His perception of what he heard
becomes the receiver’s truth.
• Sender: Intention => truth
Receiver: Perception => truth
Sender’s truth != Receiver’s truth
(the receiver’s truth might not be the sender’s 
truth)
 Use check‐in and Check‐back !!

Check‐in: Think
 Sender:
• What is my intention?
• Which information DO I want to send?
 Receiver:
• Which ear am I listening on?
• What information might my partner be sending?
• How else could I understand this message?

Check‐back: Validate
 Sender:
• Make intention of message explicit!
(e.g. “I’d like you to do something for me…”)
• Ask what your partner heard and what they make 
of the conversation.
(e.g. after the brief chat, or within a meeting check 
what people will do)
 Receiver — Ask if you understood correctly:
• “So do you mean…?”
• “So do you want me to…?”
• “I want to make sure we’re on the same page, …”

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Communication: teacher‘s responsibility
• It is difficult to become an effective teacher today
than before
• Learners‘ demands are more complex and more
varied than before
• Proficiency in subject knowledge was enough for
former teachers. Today, they should have
pedagogical as well as subject‐pedagogical
konwledge
• The teacher should be able to manage both the
learner and information for effective
communication.

Dimensions of communication
(i) Vertical communication
Upward communication
Downward communication
(ii) Horizontal communication
• Channels of communication
Formal systems of communication: through the
structure of an organisation. It may be rigid, slow
and create fear in staff to approach the superiors.
Information systems of communication:
information flows outside the normal channel of
communication.

Informal communication
Merits
• Brings certain information not possible through
formal channel or somoene does not wish to
transmit
• Allows to express emotions or views orally without
fears of consequence
Demerits
• Sometimes spread rumours, wrong facts and
distorted information on alarming speed
 Within an institution, both channels always exist
 There should be a committee to assess the informal
cases

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Objectives of communication
• It enables work to be carried out

• It increases participate in decision making and

critical thinking

• It increases morale

• It allows personal development

• It is an instrument of control

Means of communication in the classroom
• Speech

• Through writing

• Through signs and symbols, pictures, expressions,

gestures, silence

• Combination of speech and telephone

• Through internet

Basic principles of effective classroom communication

• Ideas should be clarified before communicating

• Liaise with others if possible in planning
communication
• Be careful of overtones in addition to the basic
content of your message
• Use the principles of human psychology to win the
heart of students
• Be sure that every communication has feedback

• Be a good listener as you communicate

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Design, techniques of producing graphic and 
three dimensional learning resources. 

One point perspective

• Start with a horizontal line called a horizon

• Draw a single point on the horizon called the

vanishing point

• Draw your front view

• Draw construction lines back to your point

• Add right and top views

One point perspective

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One point perspective

Two points perspective

• Start with the horizon

• Draw two vanishing points

• Draw your vertical line to represent your tallest

height

• Draw construction lines back to the vanishing

points

• Add front, right and top views

Two points perspective

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Two points perspective

Two points perspective

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